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Team Effects of Bicultural Individuals: Insights from Football Team Performance

by

Michal Szymanski

B.Sc., Warsaw School of Economics, 2009 B.Sc., University of Warsaw, 2010 M.A., Warsaw School of Economics, 2011

M.A., University of Warsaw, 2012

Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

PhD Program in International Management & Organizations In the Peter B. Gustavson School of Business

ÓMichal Szymanski, 2017 University of Victoria

All rights reserved. This dissertation may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author.

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Team Effects of Bicultural Individuals: Insights from Football Team Performance

by

Michal Szymanski

B.Sc., Warsaw School of Economics, 2009 B.Sc., University of Warsaw, 2010 M.A., Warsaw School of Economics, 2011

M.A., University of Warsaw, 2012

SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE: Dr. Richard A. Wolfe, Co-Supervisor

Peter B. Gustavson School of Business, University of Victoria Dr. Roy Suddaby, Co-Supervisor

Peter B. Gustavson School of Business, University of Victoria Dr. Joshua K. Ault, Additional Member

Thunderbird School of Global Management, Arizona State University Dr. Paul H. Schure, Outside Member

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ABSTRACT

The recent wave of globalization triggered by the end of the Cold War and stimulated by progressing liberalization of trade and international migration policies has led to a significant surge in numbers of bicultural individuals, i.e. people with more than one ethnic identity (Nguyen & Benet-Martinez, 2007), and thus, a surge in bicultural employees. An emerging stream of research from psychology and organizational studies indicates that bicultural individuals have a particular set of skills and competencies that can contribute to the performance of international teams and, in turn, organizations. However, to date there has not been a large sample empirical study investigating the oft-stated

relationship between biculturals and performance. This dissertation seeks to fill this gap in the literature by examining said relationship by relating the composition of national association football teams to results in six consecutive FIFA World Cup and six UEFA European Championship

tournaments (i.e. the results of 272 teams in 12 competitions). The results indicate that biculturalism improves team performance when moderated by the cultural diversity of the competitive environment of the team.

Keywords:

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TABLE OF CONTENTS SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE: --- ii ABSTRACT --- iii TABLE OF CONTENTS --- iv LIST OF TABLES --- vi LIST OF FIGURES --- vii DEDICATION --- viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT --- ix INTRODUCTION --- 1

CHAPTER 1 – LITERATURE ANALYSIS --- 4

1.1. Diversity literature --- 4

1.1.1. The concept of faultlines --- 7

1.2. Biculturalism --- 8

1.2.2. Bicultural Identity Integration (BII) --- 9

1.2.3. Biculturals in an Organizational Setting --- 11

1.3. Metacognition --- 17

1.4. Sport as a research context --- 21

1.4.1. Football and team sports --- 22

1.5. Summary --- 23

CHAPTER 2 – THEORY TESTING AND DEVELOPMENT --- 25

2.1. Construct definitions --- 25

2.1.1. Biculturalism --- 25

2.1.2. Team and Organization --- 27

2.1.3. Team performance --- 29

2.1.4. Team potential --- 32

2.1.5. Team members, leaders and managers --- 33

2.1.6. Cultural diversity of competition as an element of task environment --- 34

2.2. Biculturalism and team performance --- 36

2.2.1. Biculturalism as an additional skillset increasing individual contribution --- 41

2.2.2. Moderating effect of leader’s biculturalism --- 44

2.2.3. Effect of biculturalism in a culturally diverse competitive environment --- 48

CHAPTER 3 – RESEARCH DESIGN --- 52

3.1. Rationale for the hypothetico-deductive approach --- 52

3.2. Multilevel models and random coefficient modelling --- 53

3.3. Model specifications --- 54

3.4. International football tournaments as a research setting --- 56

3.5. Operationalization of variables --- 57

3.5.1. Independent Variables --- 57

3.5.2. Dependent Variable --- 61

3.5.3. Control variables --- 62

3.5.3. Other potential control variables --- 72

CHAPTER 4 – DATA AND RESULTS --- 73

4.1. Sample --- 73

4.2. Data analysis and results --- 76

4.3. Robustness tests --- 80

4.4. Endogeneity analysis --- 81

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CHAPTER 5 - DISCUSSION --- 85

5.1. Hypotheses tested – results and commentary --- 85

5.1.1. A test of the positive effect of biculturalism on team performance. --- 85

5.1.2. Bicultural manager and bicultural team members interaction --- 90

5.1.3. The moderating role of the external environment --- 91

5.2. Implications for theory --- 93

5.2.1. Implications for the biculturalism literature --- 93

5.2.2. Implications for the strategic management literature --- 95

5.3. Implications for practice --- 101

5.4. Summary --- 102

CHAPTER 6 – LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH AVENUES --- 103

6.1. Limitations --- 103

6.2. Future research avenues --- 106

6.3. Summary --- 109

CONCLUSION --- 111

REFERENCES --- 114

APPENDICES --- 136

Appendix A. Ordinary Least Squares regression model specification --- 136

Appendix B. Supplemental tables --- 137

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Overview of conceptual studies on biculturals in an organizational setting --- 12

Table 2: Overview of empirical studies on biculturals in an organizational setting ---15

Table 3: Summary of the variables used in this study --- 59

Table 4: Descriptive statistics --- 74

Table 5: Correlation matrix --- 75

Table 6: The results of RCM estimation --- 78

Table 7: The results of OLS estimation --- 79

Table 8: The results of GLS estimation --- 80

Table 9: Summary of the variables and their sources used in this study --- 137

Table 10: GLS regression results on the additional sample --- 138

Table 11: Probit model estimation --- 138

Table 12: OLS regression results, including the Mill’s Ratio --- 139

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: A simplified model of the direct effect of biculturalism on team performance --- 44 Figure 2: A simplified model demonstrating the moderating effect of a bicultural leader on the relationship between biculturalism and team performance --- 47 Figure 3: Illustration of the interaction effect between biculturalism of the team and the leader --- 47 Figure 4: A simplified model of the moderating effect of the Cultural Diversity of the

Competitive Environment on the effect of biculturalism on team performance --- 50 Figure 5: The effect of bicultural managers on team performance with increasing cultural diversity of the competitive environment (model estimates) --- 77 Figure 6: The effect of bicultural managers on team performance with increasing cultural diversity of the competitive environment (historical data) --- 77

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DEDICATION

I dedicate this dissertation to my mom, Urszula, for her unconditional love and support.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

They say research and writing are lonely tasks, but one could not be more wrong. This dissertation deals with the issue of team performance and it was in itself a true team performance. I would like to thank my team for all their time and effort devoted to this project.

First, I need to thank Dr. Richard A. Wolfe, my committee chairman and mentor, for his patience throughout the entire process. Richard spent countless hours on reading,

reflecting, commenting, and encouraging me to strive for excellence in research and writing. Richard, I will be forever indebted for your help.

Next, I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Mary Yoko Brannen, who inspired me to work in the area of biculturalism. While I have always been surrounded by biculturals, I did not realize how fascinating individuals they are. It was Mary Yoko who triggered the thought of pursuing this research path.

I need to thank two other members of the dissertation committee: Dr. Roy Suddaby and Dr. Paul Schure, I will always appreciate your insights!

I must also thank Dr. Josh Ault (also a member of the dissertation committee) and Dr. Stacey Fitzsimmons for all their advice and encouragement. You are both true role models for me and I hope to become as good of a scholar as you are!

In every team performance, there are people hidden behind the scene, who make things happen. Wendy Mah, I was probably the most troubling and annoying Ph.D. student in Gustavson’s history – thank you for all your patience!

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I am also grateful to the Gustavson faculty for their encouragement and inspiration

throughout my Ph.D. journey: Dr. Wade Danis, Dr. Ana Maria Peredo, Dr. Monika Winn, Dr. A.R. Elangovan, Dr. Carmen Galang, Dr. Yan Shen, and Dr. Sudhir Nair – thank you!

To my fellow Ph.D. students, it has been a great journey and it would not be the same without you. Special thanks go to Komal, Anir, Helena and Carlo – I will never forget your support!

Yours truly, Mike

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INTRODUCTION

The recent wave of globalization triggered by the end of the Cold War and stimulated by progressive liberalization of trade and international migration policies has led to a significant surge in the numbers of bicultural individuals, i.e. people with more than one ethnic identity (Nguyen & Benet-Martinez, 2007). It is estimated that by 2017, biculturals will be the largest ethnic group in Canada and by 2020 the largest ethnic group in the United States will be culturally mixed (Brannen & Thomas, 2010). This trend is also noticeable in Australia (21% of population is foreign born) and in Europe (EU Census Bureau, 2008). The growing

number of people of mixed cultural background provides companies operating internationally with “an unacknowledged opportunity to better bridge across cultural contexts and integrate and meld knowledge from around the world” (Brannen, Garcia, & Thomas, 2009: 207). Research evidence from psychology and sociology indicates that biculturals exhibit personal skills that could be of great importance to international organizations and may contribute positively to organizational performance (Brannen & Thomas, 2010). Hence it should come as no surprise that the phenomenon is gaining significant traction in the international business and cross-cultural management literatures. However, to date there has not been an empirical study examining the oft stated, proposed, positive relationship between biculturals and performance, and more directly related to this study, the relationship of bicultural team members and team performance. Extant research has tended to be at the individual level of analysis, or case studies at the organizational level of analysis. Importantly, a large sample quantitative study, as conducted here, moves beyond individual level analysis, and case studies in assessing the relationship of bicultural team members and team performance, and allows for the examination of potential systematic differences in the magnitude of the effect of biculturalism on performance of teams operating within various environments.

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This dissertation examines the effect of bicultural team members and leaders on team performance. In doing so, it seeks to answer two questions:

(1) What is the effect of the biculturalism of team members and leaders on team performance?

And subsequently:

(2) How does the diversity of the competitive environment of the organization moderate the effect(s) of biculturalism?

In doing so, the dissertation involves both theory testing (the relationship proposed in the literature) and theory building through an extension of the biculturalism literature to the external environment of the organization.

This dissertation develops as follows. In Chapter 1 relevant literature streams are reviewed and analyzed. The existing bodies of literature on team diversity, biculturalism and metacognition are synthesized, pointing out potential literature gaps that should be addressed. In Chapter 2 all relevant constructs are described and three hypotheses are developed.

Chapter 3 outlines the research design, including methods and measurement of constructs. In Chapter 4 data analysis and results are presented. Chapter 5 covers a discussion of the results and potential implications for theory and practice. In Chapter 6 limitations and future

research avenues are outlined. The dissertation ends with a brief Conclusion section. Because this research draws on two broad literature streams, namely organizational studies and sport management, there is a risk of confusion concerning the terminology used. Therefore, definitions of important terms are provided throughout. What follows is a brief overview of terminology; detailed definitions grounded in the literature are provided in Chapter 1 and Chapter 2, while measurement methods are described in Chapter 3. Bicultural individuals (biculturals) and multicultural individuals (multiculturals) are

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individuals with, respectively, two and more national/ethnic identities. Despite not being perfect synonyms, these two terms are used interchangeably as every multicultural individual is at least bicultural. While there are different types, levels, and measurements of culture (Caprar, Devinney, Kirkman, & Caligiuri, 2015), in this research it is only the national culture that is taken into consideration when assessing biculturalism (please refer to section 2.2. for a more detailed discussion).

This study uses association football as the research context. Both terms: football and soccer refer to association football and are used interchangeably in this dissertation. In cases where North American football research is cited, the sport is referred to as American football or National Football League (NFL) football. The Fédération Internationale de Football

Association (FIFA; English: International Federation of Association Football) and The Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) are two international governing bodies of

association football and are the organizers of two international tournaments: the World Cup and the European Championship, respectively. In these tournaments, only national teams are allowed to participate. Every team consists of 23 players, called in this research team

members, who must be citizens of the country they are representing, and a coach (referred to

as a manager or team leader), who can be of any nationality. A national team represents a given country in international competitions and tournaments, and is controlled by a national football association, which in this study is considered an organization.

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CHAPTER 1 – LITERATURE ANALYSIS

The number of multicultural individuals is rapidly growing worldwide and therefore it should come as no surprise that bicultural research is gaining momentum in numerous fields,

including psychology, sociology and international management. Despite being a relatively young sub stream in social science, the body of literature on biculturalism is significant. In order to ground this study in the existing literature, this chapter describes three relevant areas of scholarly work. First, because bicultural individuals draw from two, often diverse, sets of cultural schema, the vast body of literature on team diversity is summarized. Second, the existing literature on biculturals, with a focus on bicultural identity integration and biculturals in organizations, is discussed. Because improved cultural metacognition is often seen as an advantage of biculturals over their monocultural peers, metacognition research is presented next. Subsequently, advantages of sport as a research context are outlined. Finally, the chapter ends with a brief summary, pointing out to potential gaps in the literature. 1.1. Diversity literature

Heterogeneity of team member characteristics can have an effect on team processes and outcomes (Chen et al., 2004). Diversity is a complex and multifaceted construct and is seen as a key determinant of team performance (Mathieu, Maynard, Rapp, & Gilson, 2008; Webber & Donahue, 2001). There is a substantial body of literature on the influence of diversity on team performance; however, empirical studies have provided inconclusive findings (Webber & Donahue, 2001; Mathieu et al., 2008).

Empirical studies have found that demographic diversity may have beneficial, detrimental or no effect on team processes, states, and performance (Webber & Donahue, 2001). Kilduff and colleagues (2000) found that diversity in age of team members has a positive effect on performance. However, previous findings had yielded contradictory results. A positive relationship between age diversity and performance was reported by Maznevski

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and DiStefano (1996), and Pelled and colleagues (1999), while research done by Wiersema and Bantel (1992) and Simons and colleagues (1999) found a negative relationship. When it comes to the effect on states such as cohesion, the results are also mixed. O’Reilly and colleagues (1989) found a positive relationship between age diversity and team cohesion, while Harrison and colleagues (1998) reported a negative relationship. Ethnic diversity research has also yielded mixed results: Mayo and colleagues (1996), Maznevski and

DiStefano (1996); and McLoed and colleagues (1996) found a positive relationship between ethnic diversity and performance; and Harrison and colleagues (1998) found a positive relationship between ethnic diversity and team cohesion. However, Watson and colleagues (1993), and Pelled and colleagues (1999) found a negative relationship between ethnic diversity and performance. Additionally, research on other dimensions of diversity, such as race, gender, tenure and education have also found negative relationships (e.g., Watson et al., 1998; Simons, Pelled, & Smith, 1999; Timmerman 2000; Kirkman, Tesluk, & Rosen, 2001; Jackson, Joshi, & Erhardt, 2003). On the other hand, Jehn and Bezrukova (2004) found a positive relationship between tenure diversity and performance.

Upper-echelon diversity and its impact on organizational performance constitute an important sub stream of diversity research. Sicilianno (1996) found that wider diversity in board member characteristics (such as occupational diversity, gender and age) resulted in higher levels of social and organizational performance. Carter, Simkins and Simpson (2003) found a significant positive relationship between the fraction of women and minorities on the board and firm value. Erhardt, Werbel and Shrader (2003) reported that board diversity is also positively associated with financial indicators of firm performance (such as return on asset and investment). Allen and colleagues (2008) found strong correlation between employee perceptions of diversity at the senior management levels and perceptions of organizational performance. Miller and Triana (2009) examined potential mechanisms

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through which top management team (TMT) racial and gender diversity increase firm performance. They found that reputation and innovation partially mediate the relationship between racial diversity and performance. A particularly relevant study conducted by Glick, Miller and Huber (1995) revealed that diversity stimulates comprehensive decision-making (which in turn influences organizational performance) in turbulent environments, but the correlation is negative in extremely stable environments. These findings were consistent with previous research on the effects of turbulent environments (e.g., Eisenhardt, 1989), in which it is suggested that the state of the environment of the organization might be an important moderator of diversity effects.

Time is another important factor in determining the effects of diversity. Harrison and colleagues (1998) found that negative effects of surface-level diversity (e.g., age) were neutralized over an extended period of collaboration. Team members working together for a long time may get accustomed to differences caused by surface-level diversity such that team processes are not affected. These findings were echoed with a follow-up study (Harrison et al., 2002), where extended collaboration was found to weaken the effects of demographic diversity on team outcomes. However, as time passes psychological diversity (differences in values and attitudes) increases and may affect team performance (Harrison et al., 2002). In sum, diversity in teams, including TMTs, has been described as a “double-edged” sword (Miliken & Martins, 1996). Early research on diversity in work groups suggested that

increased diversity leads to an increase in innovation and performance and less team cohesion (Jackson et al., 1995; Miliken & Martins, 1996). Pelled and colleagues (Pelled, 1996, Pelled et al., 1999) suggested a theoretical distinction of two different types of diversity – highly job-related and less job-related, however a meta-analysis conducted by Webber and Donahue (2001) found no differential impacts on work group cohesion or on performance. While

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contemporary research continues to yield mixed result, diversity remains an important research stream in organizational research.

1.1.1. The concept of faultlines

Faultlines is a concept closely related to composition and diversity issues in organizational research. The concept introduced by Lau and Murnighan (1998), refers to hypothetical dividing lines, splitting a group into subgroups based on an attribute, such as age, demographic characteristic, geography, etc. Intuitively, faultline strength affects team processes and emergent states such as cohesion and integration. While a significant body of literature reported a negative relationship (e.g., Thatcher, Jehn, & Zanutto, 2003; Li & Hambrick, 2005; Polzer, Crisp, Jarvenpaa, & Kim, 2006; Rico, Molleman,

Sanchez-Manzanares, & Van der Vegt, 2007), Lau and Murnighan (2005) found that faultline strength was associated with less conflict and more group learning, team satisfaction and

psychological safety. These findings echoed the study by Thatcher and colleagues (2003), who reported a curvilinear relationship between the strength of faultilines and levels of conflict and satisfaction. Groups with no or strong faultlines exhibit higher levels of conflict and lower levels of satisfaction than teams with moderate faultlines. These mixed findings suggest that the construct of faultlines and its effect on team processes and states are not yet fully understood. Research of more complex relationships has found that the effect of

faultlines depends on autonomy (Molleman, 2005) and that faultlines affects communication effectiveness (Lau & Murnighan, 2005). In sum, the literature on faultlines is still growing and can be expanded (Matthieu et al., 2008). Recent studies have indicated that bicultural individuals may be more capable of mitigating the negative effects of cultural faultlines than their monocultural peers (Fitzsimmons, 2013; Hong & Doz, 2013).

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1.2. Biculturalism

An individual’s behaviours, attitudes and values are closely tied to social identity, i.e. are based on the feeling of membership in an important social group (Tajfel & Turner, 1979; Devine & Monteith, 1999). Social identification leads to activities and behaviours that are consistent with the values of the social group (Ashforth & Meal, 1989). National, ethnic and cultural affiliations are important factors shaping the social self and may become a critical element for shared identity (Roccas & Brewer, 2002). Individuals may have many social identities and thus may exhibit different sets of values and schemas of behaviours (Higgins, 1996; Fiske, 1998). Research on multiculturals has shown that multicultural individuals identify not only with countries as a source of cultural values, but also with nations (Lehman, Chiu, & Schaller, 2004), regions (Lu & Yang, 2006), and religious groups (Verkuyten, 2007). This potential conflict (or synergistic effect) of two or more cultures within one individual has received significant attention in the psychology, sociology and organizational studies literatures.

1.2.1. Early research on cultural identity integration

Research on bi- or multicultural individuals, i.e. individuals who have internalized two (biculturals) or more (multiculturals) cultures (Hong, Morris, Chiu, & Benet-Martinez, 2000) can be traced back to the late 1920s, when Park (1928) proposed an early conceptualization of biculturalism as an individually detrimental state, yet beneficial for the society as

bicultural individuals did not seem to be bound by cultural limitations. Park (1928) and Stonequist (1937) both believed that biculturalism had negative consequences for individuals as they could be marginalized in both cultures, hence experiencing stress and anxiety. This belief of marginalization has changed in the literature. Erikson (1956) and Prelinger and Zimet (1964) proposed that that individual identity lies at a point between firm (singular) identity and a diffused (diffuse-conflicted) identity. Baumeister, Shapiro and Tice (1985)

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proposed a new, integrated, continuum and identified two types of identity crises: (1) the individual cannot make consistent choices due to the lack of adequate self-definition; (2) the individual is torn apart between multiple (sometimes incompatible) self-definitions.

Noteworthy is that the early models and conceptualizations of biculturalism focused on negative individual consequences, mostly overlooking the potential benefits.

1.2.2. Bicultural Identity Integration (BII)

A prevalent model in the cultural or ethnicity identity management domain is the four-way acculturation process proposed by Berry (1980). He conceptualized the process of acquiring a new (second) culture as: (1) assimilation (acquisition of host culture); (2) integration

(keeping both home and host cultures); (3) separation (keeping only home culture); and (4) marginalization (keeping neither culture). Research shows that multiculturals can use all four approaches (Berry, 2001).

Individuals’ perception of the difference between social (and cultural) identities may shape the way they integrate them (Roccas & Brewer, 2002). Benet-Martinez and Haritatos (2005) found that bicultural individuals vary on cultural identity integration. There are several ways that multicultural individuals deal with multiple cultural identity integration. Based on social identity theory, Roccas and Brewer (2002) proposed four strategies: (1) intersection – the individual identifies only with individuals belonging to both social groups; (2) dominance – identification with one of the social groups is stronger than with the other; (3) compartmentalization – the individual identifies with a particular social group depending on circumstances; and (4) merger – the individual identifies with both social groups.

Similarly, Brannen, Garcia and Thomas (2009) identified four types of biculturals based on their cultural identity integration patterns: (1) One-home – biculturals who identify

predominantly with one of their cultures; (2) Neither/Nor – individuals, who do not feel a part of either of their cultures; (3) Either/Or – biculturals who identify with both of their

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cultures, but “change their orientation and behaviour based on context (Brannen, Garcia, & Thomas, 2009: 209); and (4) Both/And – biculturals who identify with both of their cultures and often create their own idiosyncratic cultural blend. Multicultural individuals with high levels of identity integration may perceive their two (or more) cultural identities as

compatible and complementary and thus exhibit consistent and homogenous attitudes and behaviour patterns. On the other hand, multicultural individuals with low levels of identity integration, who prefer to keep their cultural identities separate, may exhibit two distinct attitudes and behaviours patterns, depending on the cultural context and particular circumstances. Benet-Martinez (2010) found that multiculturals are able to report their identity patterns. Fitzsimmons (2013) proposed an extended framework for understanding how identity integration and identity plurality interact in an organizational setting and what the outcomes at the individual and organizational levels are. Based on identity integration and identity plurality, she proposed four patterns: (1) prioritizing (single identity); (2) hybridizing (plural identities that are integrated); (3) compartmentalizing (plural identities that are

separated); and (4) aggregating (individual prioritizes a number of cultural identities over others). While Mok and Morris (2010; Mok, Cheng, & Morris, 2010) found that bicultural identity integration affects biculturals’ behaviour in groups, Fitzsimmons, Lee and Brannen (2013) proposed that even biculturals who do not identify strongly with either or any culture possess cross-cultural skills, helping them excel as global leaders.

In conclusion, biculturals do not constitute a homogenous group, but represent people who have extensively experienced a number of cultures. While biculturals differ on the way they negotiate and reconcile their two or more culture, some skills and abilities such as cross cultural skills and global leadership skills are common for the entire group.

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1.2.3. Biculturals in an Organizational Setting

Biculturalism is a nascent area in management and organizational behaviour research. Numerous scholars have proposed the potential positive effect of biculturals on

organizational performance, presenting a number of mechanisms through which bicultural individuals can contribute. Table 1 (pp. 12-13) presents an overview of previously published conceptual and theoretical studies on biculturals in an organizational setting published in management and organizational behaviour literature.

Brannen, Garcia and Thomas (2009) proposed that intercultural skills and cultural metacognition of bicultural individuals might be instrumental for organizations operating across cultural barriers. Brannen and Thomas (2010) proposed that biculturals could be useful for their multinational organizations because of their ability to integrate cultures and to

mediate between them. Biculturals in multinational organizations may 1) excel as boundary spanners; 2) bridge culturally different contexts; 3) be catalysts for creativity and innovation. Hong (2010) proposed a complex conceptual model of bicultural competence and its impact on multicultural team effectiveness. Hong proposes that bicultural competence (stemming from appropriate cultural frame switching and increased cultural metacognition) leads to biculturals playing two important roles in multinational teams: 1) boundary spanning; and 2) conflict mediating. Fitzsimmons, Miska and Stahl (2011) proposed three ways multicultural individuals might contribute to team performance: 1) act as bridges across cultural faultlines; 2) reduce the process time required to tap multiple perspectives; and 3) safeguard groups against groupthink. Fitzsimmons (2013) outlined a framework for analysis of how multicultural employees contribute to organizations. At the group level outcomes, she proposed that higher identity plurality would be related to higher levels of relational social capital and higher levels of structural social capital. At the task level of analysis, she proposed that identity plurality would be positively related to actions skills and analytical

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Author(s) Outlet Year Type Unit of Analysis Findings/Conclusion Richard & Grimes The Midatlantic Journal of Business 1996 Lit Review and Conceptual

Organization The authors argue that "a move from the commonly expected assimilation strategy through an alternation strategy to multiculturalism will improve organizational success and individual satisfaction" Bell & Harrison Human Resource Management Review

1996 Conceptual Individual Biculturals exhibit similar knowledge, skills, and abilities as those required for successful expatriates

White Public

Administration & Management

1999 Conceptual Organization A need for a new multicultural paradigm: a shift from assimilating minorities to acknowledging racial, cultural and gender differences

Krishna Human Resource Development International

2009 Conceptual Individual Development of organizational commitment of bicultural employees Brannen,

Thomas, & Garcia

Conference Proceedings

2009 Conceptual Organization Biculturals can contribute positively to organizational performance through: (1) intercultural skills; and (2) cultural metacognition.

Friedman & Liu

Book chapter 2009 Conceptual Individual and

Organization

Bicultural managers can excel in global business thanks to: (1) improved decision making; (2) boundary spanning; and (3) conflict resolution skills.

Brannen & Thomas International Journal of Cross Cultural Management

2010 Conceptual Organization Biculturals can contribute to organizational performance through: (1) access to multiple cultural knowledge systems; (2) ability of cultural frame shifting; (3) may possess more complex cognitive representations.

Hong International Journal of Cross Cultural

Management

2010 Conceptual Organization A concept of bicultural competence is outlined. Biculturals can contribute to team effectiveness through two team mechanisms: (1) boundary spanning; (2) conflict mediating.

Fitzsimmons, Miska, & Stahl Organizational Dynamics 2011 Conceptual Individual and Organization

Biculturals can contribute positively in global business through: (1) acting as bridges across cultural faultlines; (2) reducing the process time required to tap multiple perspectives; (3) safeguarding groups against groupthink.

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Author(s) Outlet Year Type Unit of Analysis Findings/Conclusion Zander, Mockaitis, & Butler Journal of World Business

2012 Conceptual Individual Biculturals exhibit some traits necessary for successful global team leaders. Blazejewski Critical

Perspectives on International Business

2012 Conceptual Organization Situated bicultural identity processes in an organizational context.

Fitzsimmons Academy of Management Review

2013 Conceptual Organization At the group level outcomes, higher identity plurality would be related to higher levels of relational social capital and higher levels of structural social capital. At the task level of analysis, identity plurality would be positively related to actions skills and analytical skills.

Lakshman Journal of International Business Studies

2013 Conceptual Individual Higher levels of attributional complexity and attributional knowledge contribute to cross-cultural competence, thus influencing biculturals' leadership effectiveness.

Heo & Kim Journal of Intercultural Communication

2013 Literature Review

Individual Three frameworks dominant in the literature: (1) Outcome Oriented; (2) Process Oriented; and (3) Transitional Framework. Fitzsimmons, Lee, & Brannen European Journal of International Management

2013 Conceptual Individual Marginals, i.e. bicultural individuals who have internalized more than one culture, but do not

identify strongly with either or any of them, may possess certain advantages helping them excel as global leaders.

Brannen & Lee

Book chapter 2014 Conceptual Individual (1) Biculturals have skills that are useful for global organizations; (2) There are differences between various types of biculturals; (3) Training and development of bicultural skills and capabilities is an important avenue for future research.

Barner-Rasmussen

Book chapter 2015 Literature Review

Organization Reviews streams of literatures where biculturals play a role in the organizational context (1) Transfer of knowledge and competencies in multinational organizations, (2) cross-cultural skills, (3) faultlines Dau Journal of International Management 2016 Conceptual Team/ Organization

(1) Bicultural team members have a latent potential to enhance the transactive memory systems and performance of their teams. (2) Characteristics of the individual and the team must be synchronized to realize this potential.

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skills. Lakshman (2013) linked biculturals and their higher levels of attributional complexity and attributional knowledge to their cross-cultural competence. He proposed that managerial decisions resulting from these attributions might lead to cross-cultural leadership

effectiveness. Fitzsimmons, Lee and Brannen (2013) argued that even biculturals who do not identify with all their culture might possess cross-cultural skills that help them excel as global leaders.

In conclusion, potential effects of biculturals on organizations have been widely discussed in the management literature. Most scholars seem to agree that biculturals contribute positively to organizational performance.

A stream of empirical research soon followed theoretical foundations laid by the aforementioned scholars. Empirical studies in organizational settings seem to be dominated by qualitative organizational studies and small sample quantitative studies focused on the individual. Table 2 (pp.15-16) presents an overview of empirical studies on biculturals in the management and organizational behaviour literature.

Gillespie, McBride and Riddle (2010) surveyed 124 managers (of whom only 17% were bicultural) in Mexico City. Mok, Cheng and Morris (2010) conducted an experiment on 80 East Asian-Americans to investigate how bicultural employees adjust to differing cultural settings in performance appraisal. In her dissertation research on bicultural competence and multicultural team effectiveness, Hong (2012) conducted an ethnographic study in a

multinational corporation based in France. In the second part of her study, Hong used the ethnographic approach to investigate cultural brokerage roles of bicultural employees in an auditing multinational company based in Paris. Friedman and colleagues (2012) examined cultural switching abilities of 50 managers working for companies in Taiwan. Kiesel and Haghirian (2012) interviewed “five half-Japanese half-Western origin managers” working at a Japanese headquarters of a large multinational corporation. Okamoto and Teo (2012)

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Author(s) Outlet Year Type Unit of Analysis Sample Findings/Conclusion Mok & Morris Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

2010 Experiment Individual 50 Biculturals with low BII play an important role in resisting groupthink that results from cultural homogeneity

Mok, Cheng, & Morris International Journal of Cross Cultural Management

2010 Experiment Individual 80 Bicultural Identity Integration influences bicultural managers will orientation toward cultural norms in employee evaluations.

Gillespie, McBride, & Riddle International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 2010 Survey Individual 124 (17% bicultural)

Bicultural (or culturally independent) managers are more likely to be in upper management positions in Mexico.

Yagi & Kleinberg Journal of International Business Studies 2011 Qualitative Individual 1 organization; 54 members

(1) Biculturals can be effective boundary spanners; (2) Organizations do not recognize full potential of bicultural employees;

Friedman et al.

International Journal of Intercultural Relations

2012 Experiment Individual 50 Managers who have experienced living overseas switch their cultural orientation as a result of being shown cultural primes. The effect occurs for those managers with high bicultural identity integration.

Hong PhD Dissertation 2012 Qualitative Organization 2

organizations

Biculturals can contribute to team effectiveness and organizational performance serving as cultural brokers.

Kiesel & Haghirian

Book chapter 2012 Qualitative Individual/ Team

5 Biculturals can positively influence team performance through: (1) cross-cultural expertise; and (2) conflict mediation.

Table 2. Overview of empirical studies on biculturals in an organizational setting.

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Author(s) Outlet Year Type Unit of Analysis Sample Findings/Conclusion Okamoto & Teo The International Journal of Human Resource Management 2012 Qualitative Organization 25 organizations

Cultural mediators are perceived to be effective in reducing role stress; however potential negative consequences exist. Reliance on cultural mediators must be cautiously managed.

Tadmor, Galinsky, & Maddux Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2012 Survey & Experiment Individual S1: 78 S2: 54 S3: 100

Biculturals exhibited more fluency, flexibility, and novelty on a creative uses task (Study 1) and produced more innovations at work (Study 2)

Brannen, Moore, & Mughan Ethnographic Praxis in Industry Conference Proceedings 2013 Based on an ethnography project

Individual 9 managers Skill sets, which help individuals to act as “bicultural bridges”: (1) Cognitive complexity; (2) Perceptual acuity; (3) Reflexivity.

Hanek, Lee, & Brannen International Studies of Management & Organization

2014 Experiment Individual 99 Globals, i.e. individuals who have had exposure to multiple foreign cultures

starting at an early age, show lower levels of cultural adaptation compared to other multiculturals Furusawa & Brewster Journal of World Business 2015 Survey Individual and Org’n 180 organizations and 157 individuals

(1) Biculturals are a recognized pool of talent in Japanese MNCs, but (2) HRM practices are not appropriate to attract and use them in their global talent management programmes. Barner-Rasmussen et al. Journal of International Business Studies 2014 Mixed Methods

Individual 145 (1) Extend to which individuals function as boundary spanners is related to their cultural background; (2) the key boundary spanners are hard to imitate . Chand &

Tung

Asia Pacific Journal of Management 2014 Mixed Methods Individual 148 (quantitative) 25 (qualitative)

(1) Links bicultural identity to economic engagement behaviour; (2) cultural boundary spanners are most likely to engage in economic engagement behaviour.

Liu et al. Journal of World Business

2015 Qualitative Individual 25 Individuals with bicultural competence play a vital role in the knowledge transfer between organizations from country of origin and country where they are employed

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interviewed 68 informants (although not all of them could be defined as bicultural) to examine the role of biculturals in stress reduction and as cultural mediators. In sum, qualitative studies by international management researchers interested in the potential

organizational effects of biculturals have been limited small sample sizes. While a number of studies (e.g., Friedman & Liu, 2009; Kiesel & Haghirian, 2012; Okamoto & Teo, 2012) reported positive effects of biculturals on team effectiveness and organizational performance, there is a risk that some of the organizations were positive outliers – companies that excel at using biculturals in their operations. A large sample study would be welcome to test these findings and confirm their external validity. Only Furusawa and Brewster (2015) conducted a survey of 180 Japanese MNCs and found that biculturals are an important resource

recognized by human resource departments, yet the actual policies and procedures fail to take full advantage of it. While this was a large sample study, it did not examine the actual impact of biculturals on organizational performance.

In conclusion, empirical research on biculturals in organizational settings is gaining momentum in the management and organizational behaviour literatures, but the scope and scale of hitherto published studies have been limited. Since theoretical groundwork has already been laid out by a number of scholars (e.g., Brannen, Thomas, & Garcia, 2009; Friedman & Liu, 2009; Fitzsimmons; 2013), a large sample study of the effect of biculturals on organizational performance seems to be a next logical step in research on biculturals impact on organizations.

1.3. Metacognition

Metacognition is another concept closely related to research on biculturalism. Metacognition is commonly defined as “thinking about thinking“ or “knowing about knowing“ (Samuelson, 1982). It has been argued that metacognition contributes to benefit of biculturalism. In what follows, I briefly describe the metacognition literature. The term “metacognition” was

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originally coined by John Flavell (1979), who described it as “cognition about cognitive phenomena.“ Hennessey (1999) stressed the “awareness of one’s own thinking, awareness of the content of one’s conceptions, an active monitoring of one’s cognitive processes, [and] an attempt to regulate one’s cognitive processes in relationship to further learning,“ as important elements of metacognition. Most simply, metacognition is defined as “awareness and

management of one’s own thought” (Kuhn & Dean, 2004: 270) or “monitoring and control of thought” (Martinez, 2006: 696). In cognitive psychology metacognition is often described as a form of self-control, involving monitoring and regulation of one’s learning and thinking processes (McLeod, 1997; Schneider & Lockl, 2002). It is often conceptualized as a

multidimensional set of general, rather than context-specific, skills (Schraw, 1998; Lai, 2011). Metacognitive skills are distinct from general intelligence and are thought to compensate for a deficit of expertise in a subject domain during problem solving (Lai, 2011).

Kuhn and Dean (2004) and Martinez (2006) stress two constituent elements of

metacognition: (1) awareness of one’s thought (monitoring); and (2) management (control) of thought. These two components, cognitive knowledge and cognitive (self-)regulation, have been widely recognized as two constituent parts of metacognition (Cross & Paris, 1988; Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Schraw et al., 2006). Cognitive knowledge encompasses knowledge about one’s cognitive process (Flavell, 1979), including: (1) knowledge about oneself as a learner and factors affecting cognition; (2) awareness and understanding of

cognition (including knowledge about cognitive strategies); and (3) knowledge about why and when to use a given strategy (Flavell, 1979; Schraw et al., 2006; Lai, 2011). The second component of metacognition, cognitive regulation, entails (1) identification and selection of appropriate cognitive strategies (planning); (2) attending to and awareness of comprehension and task performance (monitoring); and (3) assessment of processes and products of one’s learning (Cross & Paris, 1988; Schraw et al., 2006; Whitebread et al., 2009; Lai, 2011). It

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should be noted that cognitive knowledge and cognitive regulation are intertwined. Flavell (1979) argues that cognitive experiences that allow one to control and regulate one’s cognition contribute to the development and refinement of cognitive knowledge. Schraw (1998) argues that cognitive knowledge may facilitate cognitive regulation as the two are often correlated in empirical studies. Undoubtedly, both cognitive knowledge and cognitive regulation are critical elements shaping and contributing to one’s metacognitive skills.

In cognitive psychology research, metacognition has been linked to a number of other constructs, including motivation and critical thinking. Although there are numerous

definitions of critical thinking, Ennis (1985) provides a list of component skills that are closely related to metacognitive skills, namely: (1) analyzing arguments; (2) making

inferences; (3) judging or evaluating; and (4) making decisions. Flavell (1979) and Martinez (2006) argue that critical thinking is a type of metacognition, whereas Kuhn (1999) maintains that critical thinking is the same as metacognition. Hennessey (1999) provides a list of

metacognitive skills that are similar to critical thinking skills: (1) considering the basis of one’s beliefs; (2) withholding one’s conceptions to assess competing explanations; (3) evaluating evidence and the link to one’s conceptions; (4) considering explicitly the status of one’s own conceptions; (5) evaluating the consistency and generalizability inherent in one’s conceptions. In other words, there is a significant overlap between metacognitive and critical thinking skills, leading to a conclusion that metacognition plays an important role in

assessment and sense making of different, often contrary, conceptions and assumptions. Hence, it comes as no surprise that the concept has been applied to cross-cultural research.

There is a growing body of literature in organizational studies and cross-cultural research on individual differences and traits affecting intercultural interactions and

effectiveness of communication in multinational teams (e.g., Earley & Ang, 2003; Johnson, Lenartowicz, & Apud, 2006; Ang & Van Dyne, 2008). Johnson and colleagues (1996) and

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LaBahn & Harich (1997) claim that mindfulness of one’s own and others’ cultural

characteristics (values, beliefs and assumptions) play a pivotal role in effective cross-cultural communication. Thomas and colleagues (2006; 2008) define this skill in reflecting on various cultural assumptions in order to engage in successful intercultural interactions as cultural metacognition. Ang and colleagues (2007) defined cultural metacognition as mental processes directed at acquiring, comprehending, and calibrating of cultural knowledge. In other words, cultural metacognition is the ability to monitor and regulate one’s cognitive processes and affective states related to or stemming from different experiences, and to abstract knowledge from specific culture-related experiences to broader knowledge of principles of cross-cultural interactions (Thomas et al., 2008; Hong, 2010). Scholars have examined a number of

individual factors affecting intercultural interactions, including personality traits (Caligiuri, 2000), values (Kagan & Cohen, 1990), self-efficacy (Palthe, 2004), and interpersonal skills (Hechanova, Beehr, & Christiansen, 2003). Earley and Ang (2003) proposed some of these, such as knowledge, motivation, behavioural flexibility, and cognitive awareness, as multiple dimensions of cultural intelligence. However, it has been unclear how these dimensions interact with one another, but some scholars (Thomas et al., 2008) suggest that cultural metacognition may be the central linking mechanism. Early research on intercultural collaboration emphasized the importance of self-awareness and awareness of others’

responses (Johnson et al., 1996), and cultural sensitivity (LaBahn & Harich, 1997). Ang et al. (2007) stress the effect of cultural metacognition on contextualized thinking and cognitive flexibility.

Bicultural individuals tend to have higher levels of cultural metacognition than their monocultural peers (Brannen et al., 2009), because of their extensive experience in

understanding and adapting to different, often contradictory, cultural settings. LaFromboise and colleagues (1993) suggested that biculturals often demonstrate better cross-cultural

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communication skills due to their deep understanding and knowledge of cultural beliefs and values. Benet-Martinez and Haritatos (2005) found that biculturals possess more cognitively complex cultural representation than monoculturals and are more able to successfully adapt their behaviour to changing cultural environments. Recent research on the role of biculturals in organizational settings (e.g., Brannen, Garcia, & Thomas, 2009; Friedman & Liu, 2009; Brannen & Thomas, 2010; Hong, 2010) suggests that higher levels of cultural metacognition may contribute positively to organizational effectiveness and performance in

multinational/multicultural teams and organizations through better communication skills and conflict management.

1.4. Sport as a research context

Although the world of sports may seem unique, it can be seen as a microcosm of society at large (Madigan & Delaney, 2009). More specific to the world of management and

organizations, the sport context is a rich context within which to study various organizational phenomena because sport provides researchers with advantages infrequently found in non-sport domains. As examples: the frequency and regularity of athletic events, the transparency of changes in strategies and human resources, and clarity of outcomes, result in unique opportunities to observe, measure, and compare variables and relationships of interest over time; the availability of many relevant variables which are measured with great accuracy minimizes the need to test hypotheses using proxies (Goff & Tollison, 1990); and, the relatively controlled field environments within sport mimics laboratory research without the challenge of motivating subjects found in laboratory research (Wolfe et al., 2005: 184-185). Hence, it comes as no surprise that a number of organizational scholars have used sport as a research context for studying a vast array of phenomena, including effects of executive succession (Peffer & Davis-Blake, 1986); escalating commitment (Staw & Hoang, 1995), the pay distribution-performance relationship (Bloom, 1999), resource divestment and capability

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building (Moliterno & Wiersema, 2007), the importance of managerial ability for resource value creation (Holcomb, Holmes, & Connelly, 2009), the determinant of perception of rivalry (Kilduff, Elfenbein, & Staw, 2010), and interpersonal networks (Cotton, Shen, & Livne-Tarandach, 2011).

1.4.1. Football and team sports

Association football (soccer) has been deliberately selected as a sample for this study as it is a sport with a high (and growing) number of bicultural players (Overdorf, 2014). Elias and Dunning (1966) were among the first scholars to appreciate team sports in general, and association football in particular, in studying dynamics of groups and team processes. Hoffmann, Ging and Ramasamy (2002) found that culture and cultural differences have a significant effect on national team performance in FIFA World Cup tournaments; hence cross-cultural skills developed by biculturals are likely to exhibit their effect in the game. In a seminal piece on soccer skill development, Ward and Williams (2003) found that cognitive skills play an important role to the development of soccer expertise. The study confirmed the suggestions put forward by Williams and colleagues (1993) that cognitive skills and

knowledge have a positive effect on soccer performance. Maynard, Smith and Warwick-Evans (1995) found that different cognitive strategies tend to have an effect on competitive state anxiety, and thus on performance of soccer players. Williams (2000) proposed that perceptual and cognitive skills are important components in talent identification and development. Wolfson and Neave (2007) found that soccer referees use different cognitive strategies to maintain confidence and cope with stress. In sum, cognitive skills and knowledge have been shown to have a significant effect on football performance and general football skill development. Therefore, the more sophisticated metacognitive strategies demonstrated by biculturals might have an effect in this context.

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There are a number of studies examining the importance of communication, including cross-cultural communication in team sports. Grehaigne and Godbout (1995) proposed a dynamic view of team sports, stressing the cognitivist perspective of team sports teaching and coaching. Light Shields and colleagues (1997) studied the relationship between leadership behaviours and group cohesion in team sports. Sullivan and Feltz (2003) and Sullivan and Callow (2005) studied effective communication in team sports and its importance for group performance. Reimer, Park and Hinsz (2006) studied shared and coordinated cognition in competitive and dynamic task environments in team sports, arguing that direct

communication between team members is a critical factor. Communication is found to play an important role in team sports and has an effect on team effectiveness. These reasons and the research advantages of using sport samples make association football an appropriate context for this study of the effect of biculturalism on team effectiveness.

1.5. Summary

The biculturalism literature draws heavily from and contributes significantly to a number of literature streams in social sciences, including sociology, psychology, and organizational studies. The growing number of bi- and multicultural employees has triggered increased interest in the role of biculturals in international management. Despite being a nascent field, the body of literature is extensive, covering both the theoretical foundations of bicultural research, through potential explanations of mechanisms through which biculturals excel in multicultural settings, to empirical research on organizations leveraging this potential organizational resource. However, the literature falls short on examining the relationship between the biculturalism of employees and the performance of the team and the

organization. Although there are a number of studies on organizations that excel at using biculturals and on biculturals who excel at their job, there are no large sample studies that examine the relationship between bicultural employees and team effectiveness and/or

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organizational performance. While case studies contribute significantly to better

understanding of the mechanisms, a large sample quantitative study would allow not only to statistically test hypotheses linking biculturalism to positive team performance, but also to capture any systematic variance in the effect across teams operating in environment of various levels of diversity. More methodological benefits of conducting a large sample random

coefficient model analysis are described in section 3.2.

Furthermore, the existing literature tends to be focused on the individual, trying to uncover the underlying mechanisms of bicultural identity integration and foundations of cross-cultural skills. Those studies focused on the team and/or organization are primarily concerned with the bicultural individual and his/her relations with other employees. However, those studies tend to overlook the effect of the external environment. Despite the fact that progressing globalization leads most markets to become increasingly international and multicultural, the level of international competition varies. The competitive environment of a multinational organization is not homogenous, but rather consists of different heterogeneous sub-environments. The levels of cultural heterogeneity (diversity) in each of these

environments vary; hence it is likely that the usefulness of an individual with superior cross-cultural skills also varies depending on the level of cross-cultural heterogeneity of the environment.

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CHAPTER 2 – THEORY TESTING AND DEVELOPMENT

In this chapter I describe the main constructs used in this study and explain the relationships among them. Next, I outline the current state of research on the effect of biculturals on team effectiveness and organizational performance, and suggest how the theory can be further developed. Subsequently, I develop three hypotheses linking biculturalism to team effectiveness.

2.1. Construct definitions

This study focuses on team-level effects stemming from individual-level characteristics of team members. Theorizing across levels is a difficult task, requiring careful definition of all concepts and constructs (Hitt, Beamish, Jackson, & Mathieu, 2007), therefore in what follows I define the following key concepts: (1) biculturalism; (2) team and (3) team effectiveness; (4) team potential based on (5) the attributes of team members and managers; and (6) diversity of the competitive environment.

2.1.1. Biculturalism

Biculturalism is the pivotal construct of this study. Individuals who have internalized two cultural identities and/or cultural schemas are biculturals, while those who have internalized two or more are multicultural. This study is focused on individual team members who have internalized more than one culture. Although some of the team members to be analyzed in the study are multicultural, the vast majority are bicultural. Therefore, for consistency purposes, in this study all are referred to as biculturals. There are numerous definitions of bi- or multiculturalism coined by sociology and organizational studies scholars. The definitions range from general (i.e. based on demographic or ethnic characteristics) to psychological and sociological (i.e. based on cultural identifications or orientations). Hong, Morris, Chiu and Benet-Martinez (2000: 710) define multiculturals as “people who have internalized two

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cultures to the extent that both cultures are alive inside of them.” Luna, Ringberg and

Peracchio (2008: 279) describe biculturals as “individuals who have internalized two cultures [and have] distinct cognitive frameworks associated with each of their cultures.” Tadmor, Tetlock and Peng (2009) stress the integration acculturation strategy adapted by individuals: “simultaneously maintaining one’s cultural heritage and adopting a new cultural identity.” Brannen and Thomas (2010: 6) define multiculturals as individuals who “identify with two (or more) distinct cultures because of having internalized more than one set of cultural schemas.”

In this study Benet-Martinez, Leu, Lee & Morris’ approach is adopted, defining biculturals as individuals “who have experienced and internalized more than one culture” (2002: 493). Brannen and Thomas (2010) emphasize identification with two (or more) cultures in their definition of biculturalism, but as described in their earlier work (Brannen, Garcia, & Thomas, 2009) some types of biculturals may not identify (intentionally) with one of the cultures. Benet-Martinez’s definition emphasizes experience in a culture. In this study, consistent with much of the management literature, Hofstede’s (1980) approach of identifying culture with a country is adopted.1

It must be also noted that in this study only individuals with two or more national culture background are considered bicultural. Some researchers consider indigenous people, ethnic minorities, those in interethnic relationships, mixed-race and mixed-ethnic individuals to be bicultural (Padilla, 1994; Berry, 2003). In the psychology literature bicultural

individuals are defined as those whose self-label and/or group self-categorization reflects their cultural dualism (Nguyen & Benet-Martinez, 2007). Because of methodological (Stephan & Stephan, 2000) and ethical challenges (Blascovich, Wyer, Swart, & Kibler, 1997) and

individual (self-)categorization biases (e.g., Hogg, 2000; Bavel, & Cunningam, 2009; Rosette,

1 Feliciano (2001) and Chen, Benet-Martinez and Bond (2008) considered using language proficiency as a proxy

for culture, but this raises issues with a level of proficiency required in both languages to be qualified as bicultural.

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Leonardelli, & Phillips, 2008), this study uses eligibility for citizenship (which indicates a strong link to national culture of a country) as the proxy of culture. Since most countries do not allow dual citizenships, it is the eligibility for two or more citizenships that is used as an indicator of biculturalism.

Therefore, in this study bicultural individuals are players and managers who: (1) have dual citizenship; or (2) are eligible for citizenship of a country different than their country of origin. The second option applies to individuals who: (1) were born to migrant parents or to culturally mixed families; or (2) at the time of the tournament were eligible to apply for citizenship based on the time they had spent in their host country. The median time required by countries to be eligible for citizenship is five years. Benet-Martinez and colleagues (2002) proposed the same time period as a proxy for sufficient exposure to a new culture. Although this definition and measurement method does not cover all aspects and caveats of

biculturalism, it succinctly covers the key elements of the complex construct. Details of the coding process and classification of bicultural players and managers are described in section 3.5.1.

2.1.2. Team and Organization

The second key construct used in this study is the team. Work team research has been one of the most prolific and influential streams of the organizational studies literature (Cohen & Bailey, 1997). Hundreds of studies using primary and secondary data have been published in top management journals (Mathieu, Maynard, Rapp, & Gilson, 2008) as have been numerous meta-analyses and literature reviews (e.g., Sundstrom, McIntyre, Halfhill, & Richards, 2000; Kozlowski & Bell, 2003; Salas, Stagl, & Burke, 2004; Mathieu, Maynard, Rapp, & Gilson, 2008). This considerable body of literature results in a plethora of definitions, having many attributes in common, but also having subtle differences. This study utilizes the definition of the team proposed by Salas, Dickinson, Converse, and Tannenbaum (1992: 4):

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“a distinguishable set of two or more people who interact, dynamically, interdependently, and adaptively toward a common and valued goal/objective/mission, who have been assigned specific roles or functions to perform, and who have a limited life-span of membership.” There are two terms related to national association football teams, namely “project teams” and “work teams.” National teams can also be considered project teams as they consist of players, who normally work for other organizations and belong to other teams, but are called to participate in a particular tournament. Cohen and Bailey (1997) define project teams as teams “specifically designed to include people with different expertise and experiences in order to solve complex problems.” Further, Kozlowski and Bell (2003: 334) define work teams as “collectives who exist to perform organizationally relevant tasks, share one or more common goals, (…) and are embedded in an organizational context.” National association football teams are in fact specifically designed and established by their parent organization, i.e. a national football association, to compete in international sport events. Therefore, national teams participating in regular competitions can be perceived as work teams (or a string of project teams as the members can change before every game). This study focuses on World Cup and European Championship teams. Although the differences between regular national

teams and tournament teams are subtle, they are significant for this study. First of all,

tournament teams are selected before the tournament and no changes can be made during the tournament. Hence the selection process is more complex as it must take into account a series of games instead of just one game. Secondly, in the case of tournament teams organizational goals and team objectives are identical: to win the trophy. This may not be the case for regular national teams, as they might be created to reach different organizational goals (such as promoting the sport and the nation, selection and assessment of current and potential players, experience building and tactics honing) or team objectives (for instance not losing a particular game). Finally, tournament teams spend up to two months as a group, thus internal team

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dynamics are different than those of a regular national team that spends up to two weeks together. Moreover, tournament teams compete in a foreign country (except for the hosts), often experiencing cross-cultural challenges.

Arrow and McGrath (1995) offered another typology of work groups: (1) task forces, characterized by a short lifespan limited to the duration of a project (e.g., a hiring committee); (2) teams which include a set of people with specific skills and abilities who are then assigned projects (e.g., a human resource management team); and (3) crews, that is a group of people assigned to operate an existing set of tools (e.g., an airplane crew). International tournament football teams meet the criteria of a task force (given the short term nature of the tournament); however, they are more accurately seen as teams (which evolved from task forces: Arrow & McGrath, 1995: 380-381). Arrow and McGrath emphasize that teams are characterized by developed member-member interactions, thus biculturals’ skills of the manager and team members are expected to be an important element influencing team performance.

For construct clarity purposes, this study defines a team as a group of 23 players, a manager, and supporting staff chosen by a national football association (an organization) to compete in a tournament organized under the auspices of FIFA (fr. Fédération Internationale de Football Association; English: International Federation of Association Football) or UEFA (Union of European Football Associations).

2.1.3. Team performance

Effectiveness and performance are two related, often used interchangeably, yet not identical constructs (Hirsch & Levin, 1999). In the 1960s and 1970s the field of organizational

behaviour was dominated by research on organizational and team effectiveness. Cameron and Whetten found that “the construct of organizational effectiveness lies at the very center of all organizational models” (1983: 1). However, neither did a single theoretical definition of effectiveness emerge (Hirsch & Levin, 1999), nor were consistent methods of measurement

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