- MASTER THESIS -
INTEGRATING EXTERNALLY AND INDIVIDUALLY CREATED TASK-RELATED KNOWLEDGE IN THE ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING PROCESS - A CASE STUDY
Written by: Stijn F.D. Zandstra Supervisor: dr. W. van der Aa
Student number: 6185428
MSc. in Business Administration Universiteit van Amsterdam
Faculteit Economie en Bedrijfskunde Date: august 19 2016. Final Version
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
This document is written by student Stijn Frederik Daniel Zandstra, who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.
I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it.
The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.
ABSTRACT
The ability to learn is critical to the performance and long-term success of the organization. Moreover, the adaption to change of its environment can be supported by the transfer of external knowledge to the organization. To contribute to the field of knowledge management, the objective of this thesis is to enhance understanding of how to integrate individually and externally created task-related knowledge in the organization. Therefore, in this thesis, an organization is selected in which this topic has manifested in a management issue. By designing a case study that focusses on the effect of the domain in which task-related knowledge is generated, on the knowledge conversion modes that are used to transfer that knowledge, this thesis responds to the research trend that concerns the relationship between organizational parts and its implications for knowledge management. In this research, the process of knowledge transfer is specified by conducting 24 semi-structured interviews with managers and specialists in the organization. Furthermore, based on resulting descriptive data, the organization’s education system is specified. Hereby, a deductive approach is used by which the descriptive data is categorized according to constructs that are derived from literature. Although no support was found for the propositions formulated in this research, several managerial implications could be derived from its findings, as well as suggestions for further research on this topic.
TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 - Introduction 1.1 Introduction 6 1.2 Problem Analyses 7 1.3 Research Objective 8 1.4 Research Methodology 8 1.5 Research Design 9
Chapter 2 - Literature Review
2.1 Organizational Learning Processes 10
2.1.1 Knowledge Creation 11
2.1.2 Knowledge Transfer 12
2.1.3 Knowledge Retention 13
2.2 The Task-Domain 14
2.2.1 The Effect of Task-domain on knowledge transfer 15
2.2.2 The Effect of Task-domain on knowledge retention 15
2.3 Towards a Conceptual Model 16
Chapter 3 - Conceptual Model
3.1 Individual Knowledge Creation 17
3.2 Transferring Individually Created Knowledge 18
3.3 Transferring Externally and Individually Created Knowledge 19
Chapter 4 - Methodology 4.1 Method 20 4.2 Data 20 4.2.1 Preliminary Research 21 4.2.2 Descriptive Research 22 4.3 Analysis 23
Chapter 5 - Results
5.1 Preliminary Results 26
5.2 Descriptive Results 29
5.2.1 Task-related Knowlede 33
5.2.2 Organizational Learning Processes 35
5.2.3 The Effect of Task-Domain 36
5.2.3.1 Internal Task-Domain 36 5.2.3.1.1 Academy 37 5.2.3.1.2 Salon 39 5.2.3.1.2.1 Training 39 5.2.3.1.2.1.1 Junior Stylists 40 5.2.3.1.2.1.2 Senior Stylists 41 5.2.3.1.2.2. Work 43 5.2.2.2.1.2.2.1. Junior Stylists 44 5.2.2.2.1.2.2.2. Senior Stylists 45 5.2.3.2 External Task-Domain 45 5.2.3.2.1 External Training 46 5.2.4 Additional Findings 49 5.3 Summary of Findings 51 Chapter 6 - Conclusion 6.1 Knowledge Transfer 52
6.2 The Effect of Task-Domain 53
Chapter 7 - Discussion 7.1 Limitations 56 7.2 Future Research 57 7.3 Managerial Implications 59 References 62 Appendices 65
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
For every organization, adaption to change of its environment is of vital importance in terms of achieving sustained competitive advantage. According to the resource-based view, knowledge is an important resource that can help the organization in the process of adapting to change (Argote et al, 2003). Therefore, the ability to learn is critical to the performance and long-term success of the organization (Teece et al. 2007, Argote & Miron Spektor 2011). In the past decades, the concept of organizational learning received considerable attention from multiple disciplines, resulting in several fundamental assumptions. In general, consensus is reached on the premise that developing the ability to learn requires knowledge sharing among individuals (Nonaka,1996). Furthermore, knowledge can take many forms which determines its transferability and the consequential mechanisms for transfer across individuals, space and time. Therefore, to effectively create value and gain competitive advantage through organizational learning, strategic management requires the design of coordination mechanisms to integrate the created knowledge of its members (Grant, 1996). In line with these implications, literature on organizational learning describes several contextual factors that influence the process of organizational knowledge creation, including the characteristics of the organizational formal networks. A theme that emerges from this research concerns the mechanisms through which organizational boundaries affect the transfer of knowledge (Argote et al, 2003). Extensive literature aimed at defining the characteristics of knowledge management context has illustrated that where boundaries are drawn between organizational members has substantial consequences for the opportunities of knowledge transfer and subsequent organizational learning (Argote et al, 2003). Learning begins with experience. Experience is what occurs in the organization as an organizational member performs a task. More specific, task-performance experience is converted into knowledge that in turn changes the organization and affects future experience (Argote & Mirron-Spektor, 2011). To create knowledge on an organizational level, knowledge must be transferred from its individual origin to the organizational level, this requires the transfer of knowledge from one organizational member to another (Nonaka, 1996). Transferring relevant knowledge to an organizational member enables the particular member to use that knowledge when performing a task. Hereby, the object of transfer is the knowledge necessary to perform jobs, like expertise, knowledge of customers, skills and best practices and intellectual capital (Szulanski 1996). Hence, bridging knowledge boundaries determines what task-related knowledge is available to an organizational member and thereby creates the opportunity to apply this knowledge in his or her activities and enhance potential individual and organizational performance (Argote et al, 2003, 2011). Now, research is needed on the effects of the nature of experience on organizational learning. More specific, the underlying mechanisms that explain how types of individual experience affects knowledge creation in organizations (Argote & Mirron-Spektor, 2003, 2011). To contribute to the field of knowledge management, this research has selected an organization is which this topic has manifested in a management issue. By designing a case study that focusses on the placement of boundaries in-and between organizational parts, this thesis responds to the research trend that concerns the
relationship between organizational parts and its implications for knowledge management (Argote & Mirron-Spektor, 2003, 2011). In the remainder of this chapter, the selected organization is introduced and an analysis of the management issue is provided whereafter the objective of this research is stated.
1.2 PROBLEM ANALYSIS
The organization selected for this research is a company in the dutch hairdressing industry which has received a significant amount of national and international attention for developing a successful academy in which the craft of hairstyling is trained. Under the financial and educational support of a headquarters, the company functions as a chain of, separately led, departments or salons, distributed over 10 middle-large and large Dutch cities in the western region of the Netherlands. Within the salons, hair and beauty treatments are offered. The salons also serve as a channel for sales of hair and beauty products of particular brands with which the organization cooperates. To guarantee the quality of service and facilitate creative development, the organization established an academy where 80% of all employees have received an education in the craft of hairstyling. The education activities are twofold. First, within the academy a general training is offered to new stylists from all salons in which knowledge is introduced and skills are first practiced on training models. This training is taught by specialized trainers who specifically work for the academy. Next, employees learn to master the techniques over time by performing daily tasks under supervision of senior-stylists within the separate salons. Newly learned skills are hereby performed in a step-by-step procedure and with consultation of the senior-stylists to ensure desired results with customers. The educational activities at the salons can be characterized as a typical apprenticeship. After achieving the level of 'senior stylist’, an employee’s tasks can be extended by engaging in creative activities such as fashion shows and television productions in which experience is gained by collaborating with fashion designers, stylists and visagists. The resulting expertise, consisting of new knowledge about trends, styles, products and techniques is considered to be a potential source of competitive advantage because it includes state-of-the art knowledge by which the organization can distinguish itself on the hairstyling market. Nevertheless, the knowledge and skills attained by the senior stylists on location is currently not shared with other stylists. Moreover, despite the fact that stylists are informed of who has performed which activity, they do not apply its content in their work. Hence, the sharing of knowledge between senior and junior stylists in the educational activities is evident, but the latter group do not seem to obtain the knowledge resulting from the external activities of others. Moreover, according to management, the content of the knowledge generated by the senior stylists in performing external activities, is currently not integrated in the the educational activities in the salons. Therefore, a possible explanation for the lack of sharing the special knowledge could reside in the way the educational system is structured.
From a managerial perspective the lack of sharing the special knowledge is a missed opportunity since it can contribute to the development of craftsmanship of each stylist and if shared, enhances the quality of the services of all organizational members. Furthermore, there are two negative effects due to the fact that the special knowledge is only held by one individual. Firstly, the organization sacrifices quality because only that individual can apply the special knowledge in his or her activities. Secondly, when that individual
leaves the organization, the special knowledge leaves with him or her. Also, this problem exists in all of the fourteen salons and is therefore considered structural. Hence, according to the management, the implications of the lack of sharing the externally created knowledge are substantial and should therefore receive attention. Consequently, in order to improve the development of craftsmanship throughout the entire organization as well as the retention of valuable knowledge, the management of the organization requested recommendations to help elevate the barrier in the flow of knowledge related to the tasks stylists perform.
1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
To provide these recommendations, the objective of this research is to enhance understanding of how to integrate the individually and externally created task-related knowledge into the organizational education system by gaining insight in the characteristics of the knowledge used to perform tasks by stylists at the salons of the organization and the knowledge management processes by which this knowledge is transferred throughout the education system of the organization. Moreover, by constructing a conceptual model based on an evaluation of literature regarding the transfer of knowledge of its mediators, several proposition will be formulated concerning the knowledge conversion modes that can be used to transfer the internally and externally created knowledge.
Therefore, the following research question is formulated:
“Which knowledge transferring processes in the organization’s education system are suitable to distribute the individually and externally created task-related knowledge?“
In order to achieve the stated objective, the research is divided into three connected parts.
First of all, because of its implication for transfer, the characteristics of the knowledge used in performing the stylists overall tasks will be specified. Next, the associated knowledge-transferring processes in the education system of the organization will be described to review the structure through which a stylist receives the knowledge he or she needs to perform its tasks. Then, the task-related knowledge created by the senior stylists in external activities will be described along the same characteristics as the internally applied task-related knowledge, which determines the effectiveness of transfer of the latter. Finally, to contribute to the link between the individually and externally created task-related knowledge, and the education system of the organization, possible suitable knowledge transferring processes can be defined.
1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
By providing an descriptive analysis of the underlying mechanisms that specify how the knowledge management context affects the organizational learning process, this research will use a qualitative method. The method used in this case study will include the following parts.
First, based on interviews with the educational manager of the organization and four salonmanagers, the relevant knowledge sharing activities in the education system of the organization will be identified. Next, using the overview of the associated knowledge sharing activities as a basis for questioning, a total of 20 semi-structured face-to-face interviews will be conducted. These interviews are divided over two groups. The first group consists of 10 senior stylist who engaged in knowledge creating activities on location. The second group consists of the junior stylists who receive training from the senior stylists. The interviews will be structured according different domains in which task-related knowledge in the organization is generated. Moreover, the resulting data will be categorized according the constructs derived from evaluating the literature. Furthermore, the interviews will be performed at 5 different salons of the organization. Finally, because some types of knowledge also resides in the brains and bodily skill of individuals, and is only revealed through application between individuals in a shared context, studying this type of knowledge requires a commitment in this context (Nonaka, 1996). Therefore, this research will use the stylists reflection on his or her behavior as a basis. The reflected behavior will also be described by the observation of the knowledge sharing activities that concern the transfer of this type of knowledge.
1.5 RESEARCH DESIGN
This research is structured as follows. Chapter 2 contains an evaluation of the relevant existing literature that will be used to design the conceptual framework, which will be presented in chapter 3. Subsequently, the methods used in this research will be explained in chapter 4, whereafter the collected data and will be presented in chapter 5. Then, conclusions will be drawn regarding the findings in relation to the research question. in chapter 6. Finally, chapter 7 will discusses the findings and its limitations, suggest future research and will provide managerial recommendations for the organization.
CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW
To contribute to the field of knowledge management by responding to the research trend that concerns the effect of formal relationships between organizational parts on organizational learning, the focus of this thesis is on the integration of individually and externally created task-related knowledge.
Before turning to the evaluation of existing literature, several remarks will be made regarding the theoretical foundation that grounds this research. Furthermore, the structure of this literature review is provided. Firstly, although henceforth also referred to as knowledge, the focus of this thesis is on task-related knowledge. Secondly, this research is based on the premise that successful knowledge management in organizations depends on influencing the knowledge management context that affects the processes that constitute organizational learning (Argote et al. 2003, Argote & Mirron-Spektor, 2011). More specifically, the effect of the contextual properties that determine whether knowledge is external or internal to an organizational unit on the outcome of organizational learning is approached by including the impact of the domain in which tasks are performed on the transfer of knowledge (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2001).
In order to maintain a clear structure in the construction of a theoretical framework that builds on the stated perspective on organizational learning, the reviewed literature is arranged accordingly. Therefore, in the following sections, the processes through which organizational learning occurs will first be explained. Then, by elaborating on how the domain in which tasks are performed impacts organizational learning, the literature review accumulates into an explanation of how management can influence the effect of the task-domain on organizational learning to facilitate the integration of individual and externally created knowledge. Finally, several resulting conclusions are presented that support the construction of a conceptual model for analysis.
2.1 ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING PROCESSES
Within the knowledge-based view, the process of organizational learning can best be explained by the theory of organizational knowledge creation. This theory is widely recognized to explain change, learning, creativity and innovation as the effects of the conversion of knowledge (Lee & Choi 2003). The conversion of knowledge includes the interaction between knowledge held by different organizational units at multiple organizational levels; individuals, groups and the organizational level. Managing knowledge is hereby defined by making available and amplifying knowledge created by individuals as well as crystallizing and connecting it to an organizations knowledge system (Nonaka 1996). Literature on knowledge management distinguishes three related subprocesses of organizational learning which are the creation, transfer and
retention of knowledge. Knowledge creation occurs when new knowledge is generated in organizations.
More specifically, developing new content or replacing existing content within the organizational knowledge base. Knowledge transfer involves sharing knowledge between organizational units and organizational
levels. This includes individuals, groups and the organization. Knowledge retention focuses on the flow and stock of knowledge in organizational memory. It encompasses processes of storage and retrieval in knowledge repositories like IT-systems and organizational routines (Argote & Miron-Spektor 2011, Argote et al, 2003, Alavi & Leidner 2001). In the remainder of this section, each subprocess will be explained, which will result in a consistent and complete definition of organizational learning.
2.1.1 KNOWLEDGE CREATION
Knowledge is created when an organization generates knowledge that is new to it (Argote & Miron Spektor, 2011). More specifically, gaining new knowledge is achieved through individual application of existing knowledge (Grant, 1996). By applying knowledge in performing tasks, the knowledge is converted which results in a modification of the initial knowledge (Nonaka, 1996). Furthermore, the concept of knowledge is conceptualized along a continuum. This continuum distinguishes explicit knowledge at one end and tacit knowledge at the other. Explicit knowledge is rational and objective and can be revealed through its communication. Explicit knowledge can be abstracted and transferred across time and space, independently of the knowing subjects. Examples of explicit knowledge are manuals and spreadsheets. Tacit knowledge on the other hand, is characterized by being is deeply rooted in action and is revealed through its application, for example in mental-models and technical skills (Nonaka, 1996). From a strategic point of view, the latter type of knowledge is most interesting because it requires personal experience and involvement in a specific context to learn. Consequently, tacit knowledge is less mobile and difficult to imitate and therefore more likely to be a source of sustainable competitive advantage (Kogut and Zander, 1992). Although explicit and tacit knowledge can be perceived as separate types, explicit and tacit knowledge are in fact complementary. Tacit knowledge is is embodied and context-specific because it consists of personalized and subjective knowledge. In contrast, explicit knowledge has a universal character which allows is to flow across contexts. In organizational knowledge creation theory, the proces of knowledge creation is explained by the alternation between the tacit and explicit knowledge types. More specifically, by sharing personal and subjective knowledge, this knowledge is brought together with other’s knowledge and therefore keeps expanding. Through this interchange, tacit and explicit knowledge dynamically interact with each other in creative activities by individuals and groups and expand in both quality and quantity. (Nonaka, 1991, Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995, Nonaka & von Krogh 2003, Nonaka & Rechsteiner 2012). (Fig 1). Hence, knowledge is created through interactions between tacit and explicit knowledge, rather than from tacit or explicit knowledge alone. The interchange between tacit and explicit knowledge is referred to as knowledge conversion, which will be elaborated on in the next section.
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FIGURE 2.1.1. KNOWLEDGE WITHIN THE INDIVIDUAL (Nonaka & Rechsteiner 2012).
2.1.2 KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER
The process of knowledge-conversion enables the transfer of knowledge from-and between multiple organizational units. It can be viewed as a 'continuous self-transcending process' in which knowledge is created through the interactions amongst individuals or between individuals and their environment (Nonaka et al, 2000, Nonaka & Krogh, 2009). To explore the process of knowledge conversion, the SECI-model can be used. The model consists of four activity modes which work as different mechanisms for transfer of the two knowledge-types from their individual origin to the collective level (Lee & Choi, 2003)(Fig. 2.1.2a). First, the socialization process converts tacit knowledge into new tacit knowledge through social interactions among members in shared experiences. This process is facilitated by a field of interaction, for example a traditional apprenticeship. Second, the codification from tacit knowledge into explicit concepts occurs in the
externalization process. This process is characterized by articulating tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge
such as concepts, diagrams, metaphors, analogies, sketches. This process needs dialogue. Third, through
combination of sets of explicit knowledge, new and existing knowledge is assembled into more systematic
knowledge. This mode starts with linking different bodies of explicit knowledge. Finally, the internalization process embodies explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge. This process is often triggered by ‘learning by doing’ and can be facilitated by manuals and reflection (Nonaka et al, 1994).
FIGURE 2.1.2a. THE FOUR MODES OF KNOWLEDGE CONVERSION (Nonaka et al, 1994). EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE TACIT KNOWLEDGE TACIT KNOWLEDGE EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE TACIT KNOWLEDGE Tacit Explicit
Tacit Socialization Externalization
As the two types of knowledge are not separated but are complementary instead, the four modes of knowledge conversion are highly interdependent and intertwined (Alavi & Leidner, 2001). Hence, as individual knowledge is created by the interaction between the explicit and tacit type of knowledge, the conversion of knowledge between one individual and another includes the interaction between the two types of knowledge held by these organizational units (Figure 2.1.2b).
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FIGURE 2.1.2b: THE KNOWLEDGE CONVERSION PROCESS (Nonaka et al, 1994).
2.1.3 KNOWLEDGE RETENTION
Although knowledge transfer facilitates the influences of knowledge from experience acquired in one unit to another, for organizational learning to occur, knowledge sharing between individuals is not sufficient (Argote et al. 2003). In addition, the knowledge would have to be embedded in a supra-individual repository with acces to other organizational members (Argote & Mirron-Spektor, 2011). Such a repository serves as an organizational memory and can be defined as “the means by which knowledge from the past, experience and events influence present organizational activities” (Stein & Zwass, 1995). It includes knowledge residing in various forms as documents, databases and procedures. Similar to the knowledge creation process, a distinction can be made based on the components of tacit-and explicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge is saved in the semantic memory, which refers to general and articulated knowledge kept in physical and digital storage systems. Opposed to the semantic memory, the episodic memory encompasses context-specific and situated tacit knowledge (Alavi & Leidner, 2001). Whereas information technology provided substantial improvements in developing the semantic memory, retaining tacit knowledge is even more important because of its immobility. By being embedded in a specific organizational context, imitating or removing tacit knowledge is difficult (Kogut and Zander, 1992).
INTERNALIZATION COMBINATION EXTERNALIZATION SOCIALIZATION EXPLICIT TACIT TACIT EXPLICIT
To store and retrieve knowledge in- and from the episodic memory includes embedding knowledge in routines. These recurring patterns of activities connect the tasks organizational members perform and thereby form a network through which tacit task-related knowledge can flow (Argote & Mirron-Spektor, 2011). Therefore, in order to attain strategic goals, respond to environmental change and achieve sustained competitive advantage, management is needed to foster and steer the interactions between types of knowledge held by the organizational units at multiple levels (Nonaka et al, 1994, 2011).
2.2 THE TASK-DOMAIN
Before turning to a determination of what affects creating, retaining and transferring knowledge, an overview of the process of organizational learning can provide understanding of its accumulating nature. Organizational learning starts with the conversion of knowledge in individual task-performance by the interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge. When these interactions occur between one individual and another, knowledge is transferred. Through this process, individually created knowledge can flow to the organizational level. Embedded in the organizational memory the knowledge has the potential of being retained and subsequently accessed by organizational members to affect future task performance. Consequently, the organization is defined as an 'entity that continuously creates knowledge’ (Nonaka, 2013).
Nevertheless, the process of organizational learning is not a self-containing phenomenon. Instead, its outcome is subject to the conditions in which it occurs. Therefore, managing knowledge requires recognition of the factors that affect the organizational learning processes. More specifically, the continuous creation of knowledge by the organization includes the presence of a context in which this knowledge is generated. It is in this context that new knowledge is created through the conversion of the experience, gained by the application of existing knowledge in performing a task. Hence, 'context' and 'experience' interact dynamically to create knowledge (Feldman 2004, Argote et al. 2003). Moreover, this dynamic is defined by the characteristics of the context. Consequently, the context in which knowledge is created enables the process of knowledge-conversion towards effective knowledge management and organizational performance ( Lee & Choi 2003). Therefore, managing interactions between organizational units includes influencing the contextual factors that surround these interactions.
An important contextual factor that affects organizational learning processes concerns the properties of knowledge (Argote & Mirron-spektor, 2003). More specifically, the domain in which tasks are performed, and subsequent task-related knowledge is generated, determines the nature of the resulting knowledge. The task-domain can be considered a dimensional factor, in which the amount of common knowledge between the source of knowledge and its recipient influences the transferability of the knowledge that is subject to transfer (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2001). In the next two sections, the effect of the domain in which tasks are performed on respectively knowledge transfer and knowledge retention will be explained.
2.2.1 THE EFFECT OF TASK-DOMAIN ON KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER
The nature of knowledge functions as a causal aspect that can facilitate an organization's ability to learn (Argote & Mirron-spektor, 2003). The domain in which task-related knowledge is generated has a moderating effect on the effectiveness of transferring that knowledge by impacting the mode through which task-related knowledge is conversed (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2001). A task-domain that is focused means a relatively large shared context through which more personalized and subjective kinds of knowledge can be transferred. Because externalization and internalization prosper more in shared context these processes are beter suited for a focused domain. Opposed to the focused domain, a broad-task-domain requires a higher amount of integration between individual units to enable knowledge transfer. Therefore, knowledge generated in a broad task-domain is better transferred through socialization and combination (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2001). Hence, the effectiveness of the knowledge conversion process depends on the domain from which the initial knowledge is transferred. (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2001), Therefore, to effectively influence the transfer of knowledge from one organizational unit to another, includes considering the effect of the domain in which this knowledge is generated in the knowledge conversion process. Because, together with the two knowledge components, the task-domain determines through which knowledge conversion mode knowledge transfer occurs, this dimension can be added to SECI-model. (Fig.2.2.1.)
FIGURE 2.2.1. THE FOUR MODES OF KNOWLEDGE CONVERSION AND TASK-DOMAIN (Nonaka et al. 1994, Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal 2001).
2.2.2 THE EFFECT OF TASK-DOMAIN ON KNOWLEDGE RETENTION
The influence of the domain in which tasks are performed has its implications for knowledge retention. Because it determines the suitability of the knowledge conversion modes, it can limit the accessibility of the organizational memory. To make knowledge from an alternative task-domain available for future performance, requires a notion of how a contextual feature affects organizational learning. After organizational members are provided with the ability and motivation to transfer knowledge, an opportunity is needed to achieve the conversion of knowledge, gained by individual experience, to another organizational level. This causal mechanism explains how a contextual property influences organizational processes by the opportunity to create, transfer and retain knowledge (Argote et al, 2003). Since knowledge retention includes embedding knowledge in routines by connecting the tasks organizational members perform in recurring patterns of activities, and the domain in which these tasks are performed determines the suitability of the
Knowledge Components
Tacit Explicit
Task Domain
Internal Externalization Internalization
knowledge conversion processes within these patterns of activities, connecting domains is necessary to retain knowledge. Hence, to retain task-related knowledge in an organization, knowledge acquired from experience in one task-domain needs to affect another (Argote et al, 2003).
2.3 TOWARDS A CONCEPTUAL MODEL
To close the evaluation of relevant literature on the organizational learning process and set up a framework for the development of a conceptual model to approach the issue of integrating externally and individually created task-related knowledge, this section presents an overview of the key constructs that constitute and affect the organizational learning process and its implications.
Successful knowledge management, in terms of increased long-term organizational task-performance, depends on influencing the knowledge management context that affects the organizational learning process. The organizational learning process starts by the individual application of existing knowledge. Hereby, the tacit- and explicit parts of knowledge interact, by which knowledge is conversed. When these interactions occur between one individual and another, knowledge can be transferred. To retain knowledge, management is needed to foster and steer the interactions between types of knowledge, held by the organizational members. This includes the design of routines that provide individuals with the opportunity to learn from each other’s task-performance. The patterns of interaction that constitute these routines are influenced by the task-domain that surround the interactions. More specifically, the effectiveness of the knowledge conversion process depends on the domain from which the initial knowledge is transferred. Therefore, to provide individuals with the opportunity to benefit from the experience gained in other task-domains, the design of routines must include suitable knowledge conversion modes. One way to establish a mechanism to transfer knowledge from one task-domain to another is to design patterns of interaction between organizational units that can connect the knowledge held by organizational members in different domains. The suitability of the knowledge conversion modes hereby provides the opportunity to integrate and retain knowledge (Argote et al., 2003, Nonaka 1996, Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal 2001).
CHAPTER 3 - CONCEPTUAL MODEL
In the following sections, a conceptualization is elaborated on, including the organizational learning processes explained in the previous chapter, as well as the effect of the domain in which task-related knowledge is generated. Before the conceptual model is presented, several remarks are made. To approach the research questions as formulated in the introduction of this thesis, the model presents an accumulation of elements which will follow the sequential order of the organizational learning processes as presented in the literature review. Moreover, these processes involve a continual interplay between the tacit and explicit dimensions as knowledge flows through individual, group and organizational levels. Hence, to represent the process of organizational learning completely, the elements constituting the conceptual model encompass multiple organizational levels. By starting with individual knowledge creation, then moving through the transfer of knowledge between individuals, it results at the organizational level, where the task-domains are included. Furthermore, because it is assumed that an external task-domain is characterized by less shared context than the internal task-domain, the distinction between internally-and externally created knowledge is based on the dimensional properties of the task-domain, as explained in the previous chapter. Finally, based on the literature presented in chapter 2, propositions are formulated.
3.1 INDIVIDUAL KNOWLEDGE CREATION
Because knowledge creation on an organizational level starts with individual application of knowledge, the starting point of knowledge sharing processes is the individual (Grant 1996). As elaborated on in the previous chapter, individual knowledge consists of an explicit and a tacit component. It is through the interaction of these two components that knowledge is created. At the individual level, this interplay converts knowledge by the application of existing knowledge in performing a task. As a result of learning this new knowledge now resides within the individual (Fig. 3.1.1.).
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FIGURE 3.1.1. ACQUIRING NEW TASK-RELATED KNOWLEDGE AT THE INDIVIDUAL LEVEL (Alavi & Leidner, 2001).
3.2 TRANSFERRING INDIVIDUALLY CREATED KNOWLEDGE
As individuals work together, the knowledge residing within individual A can now be transferred to individual B. This proces is illustrated by the arrows that represent the conversion modes (Fig. 3.1.2.). Because the explicit and tacit component are expected to transfer through different conversion modes, the following related propositions are formulated:
Proposition 1a: Compared to other knowledge conversion modes, explicit task-related knowledge is transferred through internalization and combination.
Proposition 1b: Compared to other knowledge conversion modes, tacit task-related knowledge is transferred through externalization and socialization.
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FIGURE 3.1.2. KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER (Alavi & Leidner, 2001).
INDIVIDUAL A TACIT KNOWLEDGE EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE A B LEGEND
1. The process of knowledge application 2. The process of learning A. Externalization B. Internalization TASK PERFORMANCE 2 1 INDIVIDUAL A TACIT KNOWLEDGE EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE INDIVIDUAL B TACIT KNOWLEDGE EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE C B A A A A B B B D LEGEND A. Externalization C. Socialization B. Internalization D. Combination 1a. 1b.
3.3 TRANSFERRING EXTERNALLY AND INDIVIDUALLY CREATED KNOWLEDGE
To illustrate the effect of task-domain on the transfer of individually created knowledge, the model in figure 3.1.2. is extended by a second frame that represents the distinction in task-domains. The knowledge conversion modes associated with the transfer of internally created knowledge are differentiated by a dotted line (Fig. 3.1.3). Because the tacit- and explicit components of the knowledge generated externally are expected to transfer through different conversion modes than tacit and explicit components of the knowledge generated internally, the following propositions are formulated:
Proposition 2a: Compared to other knowledge conversion modes, internal explicit task-related knowledge is transferred more through internalization.
Proposition 2b: Compared to other knowledge conversion modes, internal tacit task- related knowledge is transferred more through externalization.
Proposition 2c: Compared to other knowledge conversion modes, external explicit task-related knowledge is transferred more through combination.
Proposition 2d: Compared to other knowledge conversion modes, external tacit task-related knowledge is transferred more through socialization.
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FIGURE 3.1.3 THE FFECT OF TASK-DOMAIN ON KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER(Alavi & Leidner 2001, Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal 2001).
INDIVIDUAL A TACIT KNOWLEDGE EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE INDIVIDUAL B TACIT KNOWLEDGE EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE C B A A A A B B B D LEGEND A. Externalization B. Internalization C. Socialization1.2. D. Combination 1. The process of knowledge application 2. The proces of learning EXTERNAL TASK-DOMAIN INTERNAL TASK-DOMAIN TASK PERFORMANCE TASK PERFORMANCE 1.2. 1.2. 2d. 2a. 2b. 2c.
CHAPTER 4 - METHODOLOGY
This chapter will elaborate on how the conceptual framework presented in the previous chapter will be operationalized by discussing the following aspects. First, the choice of methods and the format of this research will be explained. Then, the choice of organization in this research will be discussed, as well as the participants by which the data will be collected and the procedures that will be followed in conducting the research. Finally, the constructs elaborated on in the previous chapter will be addressed, followed by explaining the processes for analyzing the collected data.
4.1 METHOD
To contribute to the understanding of the underlying mechanism through which externally created knowledge is transferred, this research builds on the existing body of literature on organizational learning. More specifically, as explained in the introduction of this thesis, this research is conceptualized according to the framework that explains how the knowledge management context affects organizational learning processes (Argote et al, 2003). Therefore, this research uses a deductive approach by which the propositions formulated in the previous chapter will be applied to a specific case (Yin, 2003). To study knowledge transferring processes in the context of reality requires a detailed description of the individual organization (Goodwin, 2005). Therefore, a qualitative method will be used to study the proces of knowledge transfer in the organization selected for this research. More specifically, because this method can provide a level of detailed analysis not found in other research strategies, a case-study analysis will be performed to understand the integration of externally and individually created task-related knowledge as the effect of the domain in which the task-related knowledge is generated (Goodwin, 2005). This research can be divided into two phases. First, data on the organization will be collected to provide insight in the context in which the proces of knowledge transfer occurs at the selected organization. Then, descriptive data will be collected regarding the task-related knowledge and the knowledge conversion modes that are used to transfer that knowledge in the organization. In the following sections, the process of data collection will be further explained.
4.2 DATA
The selection of a case for this research is based on the nature of the knowledge used in its core activities. More specifically, as explained in the literature review of this thesis, the type of knowledge that is particularly interesting from a strategic point of view, is its tacit component. By being less mobile and difficult to imitate, tacit knowledge is considered to be a potential source of competitive advantage (Barney, 1991, Szulanski, 1996). Therefore, in this research an organization is selected in which this type of knowledge plays a prominent role in overall task-performance. The primary source of data used in this research is semi-structured interviews. In comparison with structured interview or a questionnaire, this method can achieve a higher level of depth because provides the opportunity to vary question order and adjust focus by ask follow-up questions on the interviewee’s field of expertise (Goodwin, 2005). Moreover,
because according to management of the selected organization, the questions are expected to be perceived as complicated and the answers respondents will give are uncertain, conducting interviews in a semi-structured design is the most suitable method for collecting data in this research (Saunders, 2009). The secondary source of data will derive from participant observation. This will provide a description of the behavior of junior and senior stylists in a specific knowledge management activity by taking the role of observer as participant (Gill & Johnson, 2002). Moreover, conducting the activity in this role minimizes observer bias by providing the opportunity to ask follow-up questions and thereby create a clear image of the situation by verification of the observed behavior with the subjects (Saunders, 2009). Because the tacit component of task-related knowledge is characterized by being embedded in a specific context, studying tacit knowledge requires a certain degree of engagement in the field in which the tasks using that knowledge are performed (Nonaka 1996, Saunders 2009). Therefore, to achieve credibility in this research further engagement in the field will be accomplished by collecting preliminary data. (Saunders, 2009).
4.2.1 PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
The goal of the preliminary phase of this research is to specify the organizational context and will involve two sources of data which will be elaborated on in the following section. First, semi-structured interviews by telephone will be conducted with several managers in the organization. (Appendix A.3.1). Hereby, the objective is to gain insight in the organizational context to provide understanding of the nature of the knowledge and knowledge management activities of the organization, which will serve as a basis for questioning in the following phase (Saunders, 2003). Therefore, the educational manager will first be asked to explain general procedures on the centralized education system, called the academy. Then, three top managers of the departments from which participants for the research on organizational learning processes are selected will be asked to explain task-related activities and processes in the different departments. Because together these managers cover all parts of the organization in which task-related knowledge is produced, the contextual information acquired in the four interviews provides a complete image of the context in which the content of the interviews in the second phase will refer to. Hence, by creating understanding of the context in which task are performed, specification of the task-related knowledge and its transfer can be achieved. Furthermore, due to technical limitations, recording these interviews will not be possible. Therefore, comprehensive notes will be taken and processed subsequently to minimize loss of information (Saunders, 2009). Next, an observation of participants performing tasks in the field adds to the data collected by interviewing managers. Because in this case, tacit knowledge is largely embodied in technical skills and transfers mainly through non-verbal communication, observing such transfer is expected to contribute to the understanding of the organizational context (Alavi & Leidner 2001, Szulanski 1996, Nonaka 1994, Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995, Nonaka & Konno 1998, Nonaka et al. 2000). Thereby, an observation will be conducted in the field in which this type of knowledge is transferred. More specifically, descriptive data will be gathered on the participants and the procedures they follow in performing their activities, which will be presented in a narrative account (Saunders, 2009).
4.2.2 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
In the second phase of this research, data will be collected on the transfer of task-related knowledge by conducting semi-structured face-to-face interviews with stylists based on the preliminary results from phase one. Therefore, interviews will be conducted with participants who perform tasks on two levels of the organization and in this research form two different groups. These two groups, consisting of junior-and senior stylists, perform tasks in three different task-domains of which one is shared. The junior stylists receive a training in the internal centralized eduction centre for several years, during which its frequency variates between one to four days a month. Second, the senior stylists are involved in external activities where knowledge is generated individually. Together, the two groups work in the departments and hereby interact on a daily basis. To study the effect of the domain in which task-related knowledge is generated, several external trainings will be selected which have been followed individually by senior-stylists from multiple departments in the first months of 2015. Considering that for potential knowledge transfer to occur sufficient time is required, a minimal length of one year is used. Moreover, to study the transfer of individually created knowledge equally throughout the organization and to minimize the effect of variation between the external trainings, similar external trainings are studied by selecting trainings which participated in by the same external party at the same location and in the same season.
Regarding the samples used in this research, several remarks will be made. First, the age of the participants varies from 18 to 37 and has an average of 24,2 years. Moreover, the duration of employment varies from 1 to 10 years and the average employment duration is 5 years. Furthermore, to minimize the effect of differences between the different departments, the samples are distributed over five geographically dispersed departments. Although the participants are active in different departments, hereafter referred to as salons, the two groups are considered homogeneous in that they are engaged in the same knowledge management activities and organizational context. Because the saturation of data for a homogeneous sample is expected to occur in ten interviews, an equal number of interviews will be conducted for each group (Saunders, 2009). Hence, in total the participants in this research are distributed over three different groups, five salons and the academy (Table 4.1). Moreover, as shown in Table 4.1, the dotted line represents the differentiation between participants used in the first and second phase of this research.Furthermore, because the salons in Utrecht are led by the same manager, as those in Rotterdam and Den-Haag, the interviews with this manager will relate to both salons.
Table 4.1 Participants in the two research-phases.
In conducting the semi-structured face-to-face interviews, the following procedure will be followed. Beforehand, all stylists who will be selected for the interviews receive an email containing general information regarding the research-objective and nature of the topics that will be discussed. (Appendix A.1). All interviews will be planned during office hours and take place in an office in the salons where participants are active. Next, at the start of each interview a consent form will be explained and signed (Appendix A.2). Next, a forty minute interview will be conducted in private, following an interview guide. Furthermore, to achieve dependability all interviews will be audio-recorded and transcribed in summaries (Saunders, 2009). Finally, regarding the structure of the interviews in this phase of the research, initial questions are designed to collect data on the knowledge conversion modes used in the knowledge management activities identified in phase one. Moreover, the initial questions will be used as a basis for follow-up questioning. Furthermore, to enhance dependability, the initial questions are based on literature and use unbiased language, test interpretation by asking and summarizing the response and ask follow-up questions to structure the interview (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009).
4.3 ANALYSIS
Because of the deductive approach in this research, the analysis of data will be relatively highly structured and formalized. Hereby, the following procedures will be followed (Saunders, 2009). First, after the data from the semi-structured interviews is collected, the data will be transcribed in summaries by which the content of long statements will be compressed into quotes to condense its meaning. Next, these meanings will be grouped by categorization. This will involve two activities. First, based on the literature described in the previous chapter, a set of codes will be developed to indicate emerging linkages between the data (King 2004, Strauss & Corbin, 2008). More specifically, to indicate the knowledge conversion modes used in the organization, the process of categorization will be structured by the constructs derived from the theories
Department Manager Junior Senior Total
Den-Bosch 1 1 2 4 Utrecht 1 1 3 2 6 Utrecht 2 - 3 2 5 Den-Haag 1 1 2 4 Rotterdam - 2 2 4 Academy 1 - - 1 Total 4 10 10 24
discussed in the literature review of this thesis. (Table 4.3). This approach yields the advantage of grounding this research into existing theory and thereby provides a framework in order to understand relationships between variables. (Yin, 2003). Moreover, regarding the indicative items of the knowledge conversion modes used in constructing the variables, it should be noted that the knowledge conversion modes and the corresponding items are tested by exploratory and subsequent confirmatory factor analysis and produced four factors, each with the expected set of items. The reliabilities of the measures for internalization, externalization, combination and socialization are 0.74, 0.85, 0.80, 0,66, respectively (Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal, 2001). Subsequently, the quotes in the summarized transcripts will be addressed by attachment of the developed codes. Hence, by analyzing data in it’s most authentic form, researcher bias is minimized (Saunders, 2009). Furthermore, a set of units of data will be created of which its frequencies will be categorized to structure further analysis. Finally, the resulting unitized data will then be used to identify general patterns in the apparent relationships and to review the propositions developed in the previous chapter (Yin, 2003, Saunders, 2009).
Construct Operational
Definition Indicative items Description Code Literature
Task-related Knowledge
Explicit
Knowledge Communicable knowledge necessary to perform jobs Forms of knowledge expressed in formal and systematic language.
Involving expertise, knowledge of customers, best practices and intellectual capital, processed, transmitted and stored relatively easyily
EXP Alavi & Leidner (2001), Szulanski (1996), Nonaka (1994), Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995), Nonaka & Konno (1998), Nonaka et al. (2000) Tacit
Knowledge Non-communicable knowledge necessary to perform jobs
Forms of
knowledge, rooted in action and hard to formalize
Involving expertise, knowledge of customers, best practices, intellectual capital and embodied technical skills in subjective insights and routines
TAC
Knowledge Conversion Modes
Socialization Degree of tacit knowledge accumation, extra-firm information collection, intra-firm information collection and transfer of tacit knowledge Employee rotation
across areas Rotation helps employees understand the business from a multiplicity of perspectives SOC1 Lee & Choi (2003), Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal (2001), Nonaka (1994), Nonaka & Brainstorming
retreats or camps Involves informal meetings for detailed discussions to solve difficult problems in development projects
SOC2
Cooperative projects across directorates
Team in which members from various
functional departments work together to achieve a common goal
Table 4.3 OPERATIONALIZATION OF VARIABLES (Alavi & Leidner (2001), Szulanski (1996), Nonaka (1994), Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995), Nonaka & Konno (1998), Nonaka et al. (2000).
transfer of tacit
knowledge The use of apprentices and mentors to transfer knowledge
Apprentices work with their mentors and learn
craftsmanship not through language SOC4
(1994), Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995), Nonaka & Konno (1998), Nonaka et al. (2000) Internalization Degree of personal experience, simulation and experimentation . Learning by
observation Focused training with senior mentors and colleagues consists primarily of continued exercises that stress certain patterns and working out such patterns.
INT1 Lee & Choi (2003), Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal (2001), Nonaka (1994), Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995), Nonaka & Konno (1998), Nonaka et al. (2000) Learning by doing Training and exercises that allow the individual
to access the knowledge of the group and the entire organization
INT2
On-the-job-training Learning by continuous self-refinement rather
than teaching based on analysis INT3 Face-to-face
meetings Facilitative conversations and unplanned or chance encounters in which experiences are discussed INT4 Combination Degree of acquisition and integration, synthesis and processing and dissemination. Databases, repositories of information, best-practices, and lessons learned
Reconfiguration of existing information through
sorting, adding, combining and categorizing. COM1 Lee & Choi (2003), Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal (2001), Nonaka (1994), Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995), Nonaka & Konno (1998), Web-based access
to data Access to data supported by Information Technology COM2 Web pages (Intranet
and Internet) Collaborative environment supported by Information Technology such as computerized communication networks COM3 Externalization Degree of creative dialogue, deductive and inductive thinking, use of metaphors, and exchanged ideas
Capture and transfer of experts’
knowledge
Translating expert knowledge into readily
understandable forms EXT1 Lee & Choi
(2003), Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal (2001), Nonaka (1994), Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995), Nonaka & Konno (1998), Nonaka et al. (2000) Chat groups/
Web-based discussion groups
Community-based electronic discussion EXT2
A problem-solving system based on a technology like case-based reasoning. Decision support system
Using deductive and/or inductive reasoning to
create an actual model EXT3
Groupware and other team collaboration tools
Articulation of knowledge in dialogue, listening and contributing to benefit all participants EXT4
Modeling based on
analogies usage of metaphor or analogies EXT5
Pointer to expertise The translation of the highly personal or highly professional knowledge of customers of specialists into explicit forms that are easy to understand.
CHAPTER 5 - RESULTS
This chapter will present the data collected by conducting the preliminary and descriptive research described in the methodology section. (Appendix B). Hereby, as explained in the previous chapter, the research is divided over two phases. First, the preliminary results will be presented and will contain an evaluation of the descriptive data on the organization which was used as a basis for designing research to collect descriptive data in the second phase of this research. Next, the descriptive data will be discussed according to the conceptual framework elaborated on earlier in this thesis. Moreover, based on the descriptive data, further analysis will be performed to understand the relationship between the constructs derived from the literature review and to review the propositions formulated in the next chapter of this thesis.Finally, additional findings derived from conducting interviews in the descriptive research will be discussed, whereafter an overview of the overall findings will be provided.
5.1 PRELIMINARY RESULTS
As explained in the previous chapter, the preliminary phase of this research involves two sources of data collection. Because the data collected by interviewing the managers and conducting the observation show a high degree of overlap, the discussions of the resulting findings are integrated in order to present comprehensive understanding of the organizational context in which the organizational learning processes in the case study are embedded. Therefore, to collect data on the effect of the task-domain in which task-related knowledge is generated, and the knowledge conversion modes used to transfer that knowledge, the domains in which stylists perform their tasks are specified in order to structure the next phase of this research. Moreover, the identified knowledge management activities are used to direct the topics discussed with the stylists at the organization. Therefore, based on the presented task-domains, a guide is constructed to conduct the semi-structured interviews in the descriptive phase. Furthermore, by specification of the knowledge used by stylists at the organization, the preliminary findings provide a description of the task related knowledge, which will be used to prepare follow-up questions related to the characteristics of that knowledge.
As the preliminary results indicate, the task-related knowledge generated at the organization can be divided over the following domains. First, the academy provides an overall education for junior stylists in all salons which involves fundamental task-related knowledge. In addition, in the separate salons, the task-related knowledge is expanded, as well as deepened by the training junior stylists frequently receive from the senior-stylists. Furthermore, knowledge transfer continues as both groups work together with clients in the salon on a daily basis. Therefore, the internal domain constitutes three subdomains. Next to the internal task-domain, the external task-domain involves a variety of trainings received externally by the senior stylists at the partnering organization called Redken. Hence, at the academy, only the junior stylist are active whereas in the salons, the group of junior stylists share a field of activities with the senior stylists. The latter group is exclusively engaged in receiving the external trainings at Redken. (Figure 5.1a).
FIGURE 5.1a . TASK-DOMAINS OF THE ORGANIZATION
As the preliminary data indicate with regard to the knowledge used by stylists in performing their tasks, the task-related knowledge can be divided into three subcategories. (Figure 5.1b) First knowledge of products consists of formal descriptions and is communicated by dialogue and written documents. Moreover, these documents describe basic guidelines regarding the functionality and appropriability of the products available at the organization. Therefore, this subcategory is expected to contain highly explicit knowledge. Second, as a result of the observation of the training of a technical skill during a salon training, the nature of the knowledge necessary to know how to perform and combine the tasks needed to achieve the desired outcome is perceived to being strongly rooted in action. (Appendix B1.2). Therefore, the knowledge used to perform technical skills is expected to contain highly tacit knowledge.Finally, as the organization performs a high-end service in the fashion-industry, the use of communication skills to approach customers and gain the personal information needed to formulate an advice prior to the execution of the tasks performed to accomplish the desired outcome, involves knowledge that is characterized by versatility and is therefore expected to contain explicit as well as tacit knowledge types.
Task-Domains of the organization
Internal Task-Domain External Task-Domain
Academy Salon-Training Salon-Work Redken Training
Junior Stylists
FIGUUR 5.2b. PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF TASK AND EXPECTED RELATED KNOWLEDGE TYPES
Furthermore, as the internal and external task-domains are specified, the conceptual model presented in this thesis can be applied to the case of the organization. (Figure 5.2c). The model represents a salon of the organization, including the knowledge transferring processes between the juniors stylists and academy, the juniors and the senior stylists in the salon, and the senior stylists receiving training in the external task-domain.
Moreover, by connecting three junior stylists to one senior stylist, the mentoring of the seniors in salon trainings is represented. Finally, since the activities concerning the external training are yet to be studied, the exact processes by which senior stylists create external knowledge individually by this training, are currently referred to as the processes of knowledge application and subsequent learning.
Overall task stylists
Product Knowledge “how to use” “when to use” “ why to use” Communication Skills “how to approach customer” “how to gain information needed” “how to give advice”
Technical Skills “how to perform and
combine the task needed to achieve desired outcome”
Explicit Tacit
!
FIGURE 5.2c CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF THE ORGANIZATION (Alavi & Leidner 2001, Becerra-Fernandez & Sabherwal 2001).
Finally, two deviating findings resulted from the data collected in the preliminary fase of this research. Firstly, as presented in the summary of the interview with the managers of the salons in Den-Haag and Rotterdam, the latter uses a different approach in sharing knowledge generated in the external training at Redken. (Appendix B1.1) Therefore, the implications of this deviation will be further explored in the interviews with stylists at this salon and will be elaborated on in the next paragraph. Secondly, as found in several organizational documents, in addition to the differences between the knowledge held by junior and senior stylists, a level of differentiation exists in the specialization of senior stylists. Therefore, in order to describe potential consequences of these specializations regarding the knowledge conversion modes used to transfer that knowledge, the conduction of interviews with senior stylists will contain follow-up questions related to the interviewees’ field of expertise.
5.2 DESCRIPTIVE RESULTS
This following section will present an analysis of the data collected by conducting semi-structured interviews with senior and junior stylists at multiple salons of the organization. To unitize the data collected in the semi-structured interviews, the codes, developed by operationalization of the variables derived from literature, are attached to the quotes from the summarized transcripts. Note, because the summarized transcripts are derived
SENIOR STYLIST TACIT KNOWLEDGE ABCD REDKEN TRAINING JUNIOR STYLIST JUNIOR STYLIST JUNIOR STYLIST JUNIOR STYLIST JUNIOR STYLIST JUNIOR STYLIST SENIOR STYLIST REDKEN TRAINING
TACIT KNOWLEDGE TACIT KNOWLEDGE TACIT KNOWLEDGE
TACIT KNOWLEDGE TACIT KNOWLEDGE
TACIT KNOWLEDGE TACIT KNOWLEDGE
ACADEMY EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE ABCD ABCD ABCD A A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B 1.2. 1.2. ABCD ABCD ABCD ABCD ABCD LEGEND A. Externalization C. Socialization B. Internalization D. Combination 1. The process of knowledge application 2. The proces of learning INTERNAL TASK DOMAIN
EXTERNAL TASK DOMAIN
from audio-recording of the interviews, all quotes and corresponding codes are in chronological order and structured according to topics discussed following the interview-guide constructed from the preliminary results. Next, to prepare the unitized data for further evaluation, a set of units of data will be created by assembling its frequencies in two formats. First, the total frequencies for each participant and each salon is presented to create an overview of the distribution of codes. (Table 5.2.2a). Second, to structure the unitized data, the codes are summed up and categorized according to the areas of knowledge management fields identified preliminarily. (Table 5.2.2b).
Finally, a remark will be made regarding the use of the set of utilized data. Because the discussion of topics varied in duration, the resulting quotes, codes and its frequencies are not divided proportionally. Nevertheless, the categories related to the knowledge conversion modes are consistent because knowledge that is transferred but not by one conversion mode, needs to be transferred by another. Therefore, to analyze the use of the knowledge conversion mode in each task-domain, the relative differences in frequency between the indicative terms will be used.
In the following sections, the resulting set of unitized data is used to identify general patterns in the apparent relationships between the variables presented in this chapter. Therefore, the unitized data relating the task-related knowledge used by stylists will first be discussed. Then, the unitized data task-related to the identification of the knowledge conversion modes will be elaborated on to indicate emerging analytical linkages between the data regarding the relationships between the task-domain and the knowledge conversion modes used to transfer task-related knowledge.
