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The disappearance of Lake Alaotra - The anthropogenic and climatic pressure on Lake Alaotra and its effects on rice productivity and biodiversity in the surrounding marshes

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The disappearance of Lake Alaotra

The anthropogenic and climatic pressure on Lake Alaotra and its effects on rice

productivity and biodiversity in the surrounding marshes

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Authors: Eline Rentier (10766995), Ruben Dijkema (10666745) & Anne-Lotte Boudeling (10799044) Disciplines (respectively): Earth sciences, Biology & Earth sciences Course: Interdisciplinary Project Junior teacher: Anneke ter Schure Senior teacher: Andres Verzijl Date: 02-06-2017 Word count: 6052

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Front cover image: (Lammers, Richter, Waeber, & Mantilla-Contreras, 2017)

Abstract

Anthropogenic pressures, including deforestation activities and climate change have had the largest impact on the disappearance of Lake Alaotra so far. Deforestation has increased soil erosion, resulting in clogged up streams and rivers, filling up the basin with sediment and destroying the ecosystem. The input of rainwater has also decreased due to a warmer and drier climate. The combination of anthropogenic and climatic factors has complicated rice cultivation for many small-scale farmers in the surrounding marshes of Lake Alaotra and it has had large consequences for endemic species living in the Lake Alaotra area. Introduction of non-endemic species has previously shown to, when micro-managed, restore ecosystem health by taking away pressure of other species present in the ecosystem. ‘One-size fits all’ projects have tried to improve rice yields and secure livelihoods of small-scale farmers, but failed. The main problem that existed with projects such as ABACO, DMC and SRI was low adoption by farmers. The use of efficient agricultural practices has been investigated by the ABACO initiative; it is a bottom-up approach that uses agro ecological measures to rehabilitate soil quality and water productivity in semi-arid regions. It is to be expected that the ABACO initiative paired with more plant physiological based projects will result in even higher yields with higher water productivity. Nonetheless, ABACO is not able to prevent certain socio-economic constraints and it is therefore necessary to find a suitable combination of mitigation and adaptation techniques to prevent irreversible changes in the state of the ecosystem and its biodiversity. Therefore, this research proposes a management policy that requires both enactments and enforcements and will only be rewarding when maintained over longer periods of time.

Keywords: Lake Alaotra Conservation Agriculture Agroecology Endemic species Deforestation

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Table of contents

1. Introduction 5

1.1 Problem definition and societal relevance 5

1.2 Research question 5

1.3 Research objectives 5

2. Theoretical framework 7

2.1 Geophysical state 7

2.2 Invasion biology 7

2.3 Physiological effects of flooding and plant water deficiencies on rice plants 7

2.4 The establishment of conservation agriculture in Madagascar 8

2.4.1 Conventional agricultural practices 8

2.4.2 Agricultural intensification 8

2.4.3 The concept of development strategies 9

2.4.4 Conservation agriculture 9

2.5 Adaptation and mitigation 9

3. Selected methods and data 10

3.1 Data collection and literature research 10

3.2 Interdisciplinary approach 10

3.3 Individual interview 11

4. Results 12

4.1 Geophysical state 12

4.2 Invasion biology to combat deforestation and erodibility 13

4.3 Prospects for agricultural practices 14

4.3.1 One size does not fit all - The ABACO initiative 14

4.3.2 The abandonment of Direct-Seeding Mulch-based Cropping 15

4.3.3 The System of Rice Intensification 15

4.4 Socio-economic and agricultural constraints towards conservation agriculture 16

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6. Discussion and recommendation 18

7. References 19

8. Appendix 22

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1. Introduction

1.1 Problem definition and societal relevance

Lake Alaotra is the largest lake of Madagascar and it is a hotspot for biodiversity. Its flora and fauna have high rates of endemism and most of the ancient groups of plants and animals are not found elsewhere in the world (Copsey, Rajaonarison, Randriamihamina & Rakotoniaina, 2009; Pollini, 2010). The lake and its wetland do not only provide an important habitat for these species, but it has also been recognized to be a centre of freshwater biodiversity within Madagascar. Approximately half of the 550.000 people living along the lake its shores practice fishing as their primary livelihood, the other half practices rice cultivation. Due to this extensive and high quality rice cultivation, the Alaotra area was, until recently, known as the ‘rice bowl’ of the island (Copsey et al., 2009). Unfortunately, anthropogenic and climatic processes including rainforest disappearance and its inevitable effects have caused a 40% decline in rice yields and have halved fish catches over the past 50 years (Bakoariniaina et al., 2006). At the same time, the demand for food increased in inland areas in Madagascar, such as the areas surrounding Lake Alaotra. Over the last two years development in tourism and mining have increased the demand in quantity and quality for fish products and fish species (FAO, 2017). The process of deforestation has been established as the main cause disabling farmers to reach this increased food demand. Deforestation increases erosion, which causes siltation and sedimentation of lowland areas (Bakoariniaina et al., 2006; Copsey et al., 2009). Primary deforestation in the form of logging, burning and clear-cutting started in the last century and was carried out to create new space for farming and dwelling. As a result, the lake reduced in size and it is now only 20-30% of its primary size, which has been estimated to be less than 200 km2 (Bakoariniaina et al., 2006). Faults and

fractures became exposed that have guided incoming rainwater either into the deep subsurface or into small streams for agriculture. Either way, Lake Alaotra lost its recharge potential, resulting in lowering of lake levels (Bakoariniaina et al., 2006).

1.2 Research question

The combination of decreasing lake levels, population growth, economic marginalization and recent climate changes have placed smallholder farmers in a vulnerable position (Tittonell et al., 2012). Therefore, priority should be given to development of small-scale development and improvement of traditional rice cultivation systems in order to increase rice yield and secure the livelihoods of Malagasy farmers (Alam, 1991), while also implementing a development strategy that strives for environmental protection and sustainability (Keck, Sharma & Feder, 1994). Clearly, this requires well-planned adaptation action for natural ecosystems management and agriculture (Meinke et al., 2009). Therefore, the following research question has been composed;

‘’What measures need to be taken in order to create a sustainable future for the Malagasy rice

farmers and Madagascar’s endemic species?’’

1.3 Research objectives

By using an interdisciplinary approach it will be possible to analyse knowledge gaps between implementation of certain development strategies while also analysing possible biodiversity improvement concepts in the area of Lake Alaotra. Providing smallholder farmers with economical and educational support while attempting to combat social disbelief and low adoption rate in intervention projects are two main aims of this interdisciplinary report. This proposal, therefore, introduces the short- and long-term effects of decreasing water levels on rice cultivation in the Lake

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Alaotra area in its theoretical framework. Underlying theories of the causes and consequences of decreasing lake levels will first be investigated; this will then be used to examine possible innovative practices that smallholder farmers can implement to increase rice yields and reduce water use. Potential use of non-endemic plants will be regarded as a potential solution to deforestation, expectedly decreasing erosion in the Lake Alaotra area. The final section will draw a multifaceted preliminary conclusion, focusing on the main challenges and prospects for rice-producing Malagasy farmers and Madagascar’s flora and fauna.

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2. Theoretical Framework

2.1 Geophysical state

The surroundings of Lake Alaotra used to be densely forested, as well as the rest of the island. Since the French colonization in 1896 the Malagasy people fled into the forest and started slash-and-burn farming practises (Bakoariniaina et al., 2006). In order to find out how the current state of Lake Alaotra came into being the following formula of potential soil erosion (A) can be used:

A=R*K*LS*C*P [potential soil erosion]

Including erosivity of the rains (R), erodibility of the soil (K), slope length and steepness (LS), cover-management (C) , and supporting practices (P). By using this formula as a guideline to find out which factors are important for the soil erosion, we can both examine the changes over time and come up with concrete solutions for each factor. Since all the components are multiplied to get A, you can reduce the outcome by reducing any (or all) the components.

2.2 Invasion biology

Invasion biology was fully conceptualized for the first time in the 1990’s (Courchamp et al., 2017). Invasion biology studies the connection between conservation biology and ecology, and focuses mostly on the ecological impacts that come with the invasion of non-endemic species in exotic ecosystems. An emphasis is put on the management aspect that comes with a field that is both rooted in research and reactionary policies (Courchamp et al., 2017). Many governments in the world, bar some, do not consider the massive impact that invasive species can have on ecosystem qualities and ecosystem services. This, coupled with global environmental change, is why invasion biology is becoming an increasingly important topic.

In recent years, studies are appearing that have shown benefits of introduction of alien species by increasing biodiversity and ecosystem health (Derhé et al., 2016; Stoeckli et al., 2017).

2.3 Physiological effects of flooding and plant water deficiencies on rice plants

The abovementioned environmental circumstances affect rice yield to a great extent, however plant physical effects can suppress rice yield significantly as well. The main physical alterations take place in rice root systems; these include the creation of aerenchyma and deformation of the plant its cortex (Barison & Uphoff, 2011). Aerenchymas are also known as air pockets and are developed for internal aeration when the plant is either submerged or waterlogged. The difference between these water levels is that under drained conditions aerenchymas are formed at the basal part of the root (Fig. 1a) and not at the apical part of the root (Fig. 1b) while in waterlogged soil conditions aerenchymas are formed both in the basal and apical part (Fig. 2c,d). The thicknesses of the arrows in Fig. 1 reflect the amount of oxygen available at that part of the plant root (Nishiuchi, Yamauchi, Takahashi, Kotula, & Nakazono, 2012).

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Figure 1a Different water levels under submergence and waterlogging (Nishiuchi et al., 2012)

Figure 1b Differences in aerenchyma under drained soil conditions and waterlogged soil conditions (Nishiuchi et al., 2012)

2.4 The establishment of conservation agriculture in Madagascar

2.4.1 Conventional agricultural practices

Traditional farming methods vary according to a difference in ethnicity, population density, climate, geomorphology or water supply. There are two intensive forms of traditional agriculture practiced in Madagascar; the first one is practiced in the central highlands and the second one is practiced in the Southeastern part of Madagascar. As Lake Alaotra is located in the Southeastern part, it will be this form of agricultural practice on which this section focuses. This type of agricultural technique practiced by farmers or individuals surrounding Lake Alaotra is known as shifting cultivation by using the slash-and-burn technique, locally known as tavy. An area of small trees and bushes are cut down and left to dry, just before the rainy season starts, this area of cut down vegetation is burned. The cleared area is then cultivated with corn or mountain rice for approximately two or three years. Thereafter, the fields are left fallow, which promotes growth of secondary vegetation, known as savoka. Tavy induces erosional processes and strips away natural forest and vegetation cover, it has therefore been declared illegal to practice this technique. Despite the penalties that are given, tavy continues to be practiced because of its short crop cycle. According to local cultivators, this short crop cycle is the only form of insurance against the extreme droughts that are part of Madagascar’s climate. Furthermore, affordable and controllable rice irrigation systems, given as solution by Madagascar’s government, are difficult to maintain due to irregular heavy rainfall and steep slopes (Wild Madagascar, 2014).

2.4.2 Agricultural intensification

Three decades ago it was shown that evolution of agricultural practices was associated with population growth. The concept of agricultural intensification focuses on how entire farming systems can adapt to increasing demands in specific crop types and how individuals, or smallholder farmers, can reassess their land use and adapt their practice (by adopting new strategies, tools and investments) to meet increased demands. It is especially important to keep in mind that smallholder farmers, or individuals modify their agricultural practices because of economic self-interest and livelihood insurance (Keck et al., 1994). In these regions where food self-sufficiency has been recognized, such as sub-Saharan Africa and parts of East-Africa, legislation has been introduced to prevent consequences of

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agricultural intensification. Especially biological and environmental consequences of agricultural intensification became apparent. The concept of agricultural intensification is therefore, currently, promoted as meeting current production goals without compromising natural resource availability and ecosystem health. The development of more ecologically designed agricultural systems will contribute largely to this objective (Giller, Beare, Lavelle, Izac & Swift, 1997).

2.4.3 The concept of development strategies

A development strategy is a practice that promotes a normative approach to the management of such a strategy. The concept of a strategy can be summarized in standards, tools and techniques, each based primarily on previous experiences in developed Western economies. These experiences have attracted developing and emerging economies concerned with international development and aiming at a more effective use of their national resources (Muriithi & Crawford, 2003).

Approval and establishment of large-scale agricultural projects is largely dependent on the extent and depth of engagement with local stakeholders. In many countries there are large concerns about the strength of provisions within the national law, concerning land rights and the ability of local people to defend these land rights and steer development movements. For local people to be able to do this, a basic principle has been established in countries of the continent of Africa. This is the principle of free, prior informed consent (FPIC), which makes it possible for indigenous people to say ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to proposed development projects on their lands. Furthermore, the consent needs to accept local people’s cultures and their customary systems and practices (Cotula, 2009).

2.4.4 Conservation agriculture

Conservation agriculture (CA) is increasingly promoted as the alternative to address negative impacts of intensive agricultural practices with an increase in crop productivity without additional costs as its main aim (Tittonell et al., 2012). CA integrates ecological management with modern, scientific, agricultural production through a holistic approach. This approach includes the application of traditional knowledge of soil husbandry gained from generation of successful farmers to new innovative systems by using a step-like implementation. CA aims at developing a balanced coexistence between urban and rural societies, through which urban awareness of environmental benefits provided by the rural sector, is promoted. Financial mechanisms are put into place to ensure recognition of the environmental benefits of CA by the society and to ensure sufficient benefits accrued to CA practitioners (Dumanski, Peiretti, Benites, McGarry & Pierci, 2006).

2.5 Adaptation and mitigation

Generally speaking there are two concepts: adaptation and mitigation. Adaption focuses on finding a way to cope with the effects and mitigation focuses on reducing the effects by tackling the problem (Lethoko, 2016). For example, conservation agriculture reduces the deforestation and is therefore a mitigation measure. However, Mitigation measures tend to take more time to be implemented than adaptation measures. Hence, adaptation measures can be very important for the period between the implementation of a mitigation measure and the actual positive effect the measure should have. Examples of adaptation measures for this case study are: terracing (to reduce the LS factor f the formula for potential erosion) and planting fast growing vegetation (factor C, cover management).

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3. Selected methods and data

In order to answer the question ‘’What measures need to be taken in order to create a sustainable

future for the Malagasy rice farmers and Madagascar’s endemic species?’’ a qualitative research has

been conducted by implementing multiple types of data collection. Firstly, secondary data was collected by conducting an extensive literature research. For this research, a specific literature search strategy was performed, which will be discussed in the next sub-heading. The second step in this research was an attempt to fully integrate the different theories and concepts discussed in the theoretical framework, by using complexity theories and by utilizing information gained out of a personal interview with an interim manager to be able to develop a management policy without being able to do extensive research into gamma disciplines.

3.1 Data collection and literature research

In order to correctly conduct the research, an expanded theoretical framework containing the most important concepts and theories underlying Lake Alaotra’s current geophysical state is established and agricultural prospects. Literary research was done on the current geophysical state, conservation agriculture and invasion biology as potential solutions. The collected data is used to create a comparison between beneficial and adverse effects that switching to different agricultural processes and is used as a qualitative underlining of how introduced species alter ecosystems and can be used for ecosystem restoration.

3.2 Interdisciplinary approach

First off, the geophysical state of the Lake Alaotra area has been researched, in order to gain a better understanding of where the causes lie in the decreasing size of the lake and the drop in rice productivity. After the results of the geophysical state of the area are clear, a biological approach has been taken by researching what the possibilities are regarding the introduction of non-endemic species in order to combat deforestation, and as such, erosion. Furthermore, research has been done into how different projects and ways of agriculture could be used in order to increase rice yield productivity for the Malagasy farmers.

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Figure 2 Integrated framework of the causes and effects of the decreased lake size.

An integrated framework (figure 2) was set up to illustrate the interactions between the different variables. Also, possible intervention points for mitigation and adaption measures have been given. These measures are focussed on the parameters we can influence, thus climate variability is excluded, and can be linked to the formula of potential soil erosion: A=R*K*LS*C*P. As you can see, an interdisciplinary approach of this problem is mandatory. The geophysical state, biodiversity, lake size and agricultural practices all react to changes in each other’s state.

3.3 Individual interview

Combining these findings has been done with the help of an interview that has been conducted with someone who is currently an interim manager at the municipalities of Amsterdam and Woerden. Those insights are coupled with earlier findings, after which a management policy has been offered as a way to provide a potential solution to create a more sustainable future for Malagasy rice farmers.

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4. Results

4.1 Geophysical state.

Lake Alaotra has had a massive decrease in size and is still decreasing as we speak. There are many factors contributing to this decrease, but human activities have had the largest impact by far. Currently, over 90% of the original forest is gone (figure 3) and this comes with severe environmental issues (Bakoariniaina et al., 2006).

Figure 3 (A) Approximate size of Lake Alaotra in the Late Cenozoic. (B) Size of Lake Alaotra in 2000 (blue color) surrounded by the primary lake (brown color) filled by silt. The pink color is the area where forest has been clear-cut relative to its distribution in Late Cenozoic (Bakoariniaina et al., 2006).

By using the formula of the theoretical framework (see below), we can look at the effects of these practices on the potential soil erosion.

A=R*K*LS*C*P [potential soil erosion]

R= erosivity of the rains, K= erodibility of the soil, LS= slope length and steepness, C= cover management and P= supporting practices.

First of all, a direct influence of the slash-and-burn practices is the loss of soil cover (C) and the soil depletion of nearly all its nutrients. On top of this, the soils surrounding Lake Alaotra are loamy, yellow and red ferralsols. These soils have the intrinsic characteristic of being susceptible to soil erosion (K) (Van Hulst, 2011). If we look at the climate of Madagascar it is known for its rain season with characteristic tropical storms (R) (The World Bank Group, 2017). These events accelerate the soil erosion and make it even harder for vegetation to grow on the (steep) slopes surrounding the lake (LS). If vegetation manages to grow back, it usually consists of shrubs and grasses (Klein, 2002).

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soil horizon by soil erosion has clogged rivers and streams and filled up a large part of the Alaotra Basin (Bakoariniaina et al., 2006). Bakoariniaina et al. (2006) have used Landsat TM imagery to visualise the depletion of Lake Alaotra and concluded that in 2000 the lake had shrunk to 20% of its original size and was still rapidly depleting. In dry periods, lake water levels now reach a mean level of three centimeter in the littoral zone (Lammers, Richter, Waeber and Manti la-Contreras, 2015) Besides deforestation and the presence of easily erodible soils, there are two other drivers contributing to the depletion of Lake Alaotra. The first is climate change. A warmer and drier climate is responsible for a decreasing input of rain water. The second is caused by low water levels and is a reinforcing loop. Lake Alaotra is formed in a tectonic depression. Rainwater reacts to the crystalline rocks in the basin. Due to lower levels, these rocks became exposed and attacked by massive erosion. This caused faults and fractures to form and these guided incoming water from streams and rivers into the deep subsurface or into agricultural fields (Bakoariniaina et al., 2006). To conclude, Lake Alaotra receives pressure from both a reduced recharge and an increased sediment fill-up.

4.1.1 Future prospects

In the future, the climate of Madagascar will become warmer, drier and have more severe storms (IPCC, 2014). This is will have negative consequences for Lake Alaotra. Not only will the drier and warmer climate further reduce the input of rainwater, the increased storm intensity will increase the soil erosion. Increased soil erosion will then further clog streams and rivers and fill up the Alaotra basement, until there will be no lake left at all (Bakoariniaina et al., 2006).

4.2 Invasion biology to combat deforestation and erodibility

Global changes or changes to smaller scale ecosystems occur due to anthropogenic influences on the quality of ecosystem. These influences are called drivers or driving forces (Tylianakis et al., 2008; Frehse et al., 2016; Pace & Gephart, 2017). Perhaps the biggest, and most talked about, anthropogenic driver, is increased atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide (Tylianakis et al., 2008). This driver’s results are globally harming and changing climate, with direct effects being increased temperature, acidification of oceans (Tylianakis et al., 2008), but indirect effects such as habitat destruction and habitat fragmentation (Tylianakis et al., 2008). Other drivers, such as species introductions or deforestation, might also lead to environmental degradation (Tylianakis et al., 2008; Baohanta et al., 2012), while at the same time resulting in biodiversity loss.

Environmental degradation is described as the deterioration of quality of ecosystems, through habitat destruction, deforestation, erosion, (waste) pollution, land and soil use, and many other ways (Baohanta et al., 2012; Casazza et al., 2016). Agricultural practices, for example, can lead to deterioration of soil quality (Baohanta et al., 2012), but also a decline in biodiversity (Casazza et al., 2016), be it through destruction of habitats, or the introduction of invasive, non-endemic species. Massive deforestation has led to erosion (Bakoariniaina, Kusky & Raharimahefa, 2006; Baohanta et

al., 2012), which caused landslides of eroded land to fill up Lake Alaotra, destroying arable land

around Lake Alaotra (Bakoariniaina, Kusky & Raharimahefa, 2006).

Ecosystems provide benefits to organisms living within said ecosystem, ecosystem services. Identification of ecosystem services is required to determine the full cost of environmental degradation (Casazza et al., 2016), and to determine resource management to restore ecosystems back to their natural state (Casazza et al., 2016; Derhé et al., 2016).

Recently more and more research is being done not only towards stopping environmental degradation – mitigation – in ecosystems around the world, but also towards combating environmental degradation

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in new potential ways – adaptation (Courchamp et al., 2017). One of these new methods with potential is invasion biology, which is largely dependent on the concepts (non-)endemic species and

invasiveness.

Endemic (or native) species are species that originally belong in an ecosystem. Non-endemic (or alien) species are species that are not originally found in, but have been introduced to, a certain ecosystem (Wallace et al., 2015; Courchamp et al., 2017). However, not all alien species are equally as invasive (Courchamp et al., 2017). “Invasiveness” of a species depends on a plethora of factors, which include: the dynamic interactions between a species and its new environment, biotic factors such as nutrient (or food) availability, abiotic factors such as temperature and rainfall, and anthropogenic influences (Frehse et al., 2016; Courchamp et al., 2017; Stoeckli et al., 2017). In the past, there have been numerous researches that have shown the downsides of introduction of alien species into exotic ecosystems (Casazza et al., 2016; Frehse et al., 2016), but in recent years, studies are appearing that have shown potential beneficial introductions of alien species (Derhé et al., 2016; Stoeckli et al., 2017).

One such beneficial effect is the introduction of non-endemic plant species could be the introduction of different trees to the surrounding slopes of the Lake Alaotra area. As these trees have different roots that allow for easier burrowing in more unstable top-soil (Derhé et al., 2016) they could be planted on the deforested hills and slopes surrounding Lake Alaotra, in order to combat the intense deforestation of the surrounding area (Baohanta et al., 2012). As these trees make the top soil more compact, other trees - the endemic species that have been cut down - could be planted in order to recreate the forest on those surrounding hills (Derhé et al., 2016). The benefits of this would not only be the ecosystem restoration and bigger habitat for the endemic animals, it would also combat erosion (Baohanta et al., 2012), resulting in less of the eroded soils ending in the lake (Bakoariniaina et al., 2006; Baohanta et

al., 2012). This in turn will no longer clog up small streams adding water into the lake.

The study of invasion biology allows for management policies to prevent harm done by invasive alien species (Courchamp et al., 2017), and to educate society on the potential hazards that come with the introduction of alien species into exotic ecosystems. Prevention of this potential harm is done by

invasive species control (Casazza et al., 2016; Courchamp et al., 2017), which requires active

participation of inhabitants in those surrounding ecosystems – either by culling species that appear to grow too fast and exert too much pressure on their new ecosystem, or by researchers who track the number of organisms of a certain species (Courchamp et al., 2017). But the importance of management of these invasive species, whether they are introduced intentionally for commercial gain, or have invaded per chance, is becoming increasingly clear (Casazza et al., 2016; Courchamp et al., 2017).

4.3 Prospects for agricultural practices

Given this broad range of constraints farmers face in different fields within their farming systems, development projects need to propose varied and locally adapted technical systems, taking also into account current livelihood situations of farmers with their consequent adaptation difficulties and preservation of ecosystems (Domas, Penot & Andriamalala, 2010; Naudin et al., 2012).

4.3.1 One size does not fit all - The ABACO initiative

The Agroecology-Based Aggradation-Conservation agriculture (ABACO) project was launched in 2011 and funded by the EU as a need for action. It aims at collaborating with smallholder farmers, researchers, NGOs and extension-agents to ensure full positive implementation (Fig. 3). The ABACO

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project is based upon five main principles; increased water productivity and soil water buffering capacity, improvement of soil structure to restore aboveground and belowground biomass productivity, increased resource efficiency by enhanced natural interactions, the principles should be embedded within a context of sustainable innovation support systems and finally there should be some form of CA promotion to encourage CA use by other smallholder farmers (Tittonell et al., 2012).

Figure 4 A framework of links and activities between different platforms and other funded EU projects. Supportive basic research contributes to the prevention of knowledge gaps and increase global knowledge. The framework further evaluates material development, agroecological service functions from national to local scale and development of analysis tools to evaluate usefulness of alternative CA implementation (Tittonell et al., 2012).

4.3.2 The abandonment of Direct-Seeding Mulch-based Cropping

Direct-Seeding Mulch-based Cropping System (DMC) was introduced in 2003 in the Lake Alaotra area and it has seen promising results. Many farmers adopted this system in its initial stage, but after 4 years 31% of the farmers had abandoned DMC due to difficulties in adaptation of the techniques, overlapping work times and economic reasons (Domas et al., 2010). According to the ABACO initiative, the application of mulch can increase water infiltration and storage up to 50% and it can reduce soil evaporation losses by up to 25%, especially in the initial development stage of the crop (Tittonell et al., 2012). If adoption of DMC by smallholder farmers was one of the main problems of that system, it would be very favourable to implement the DMC system into the ABACO initiative, especially as ABACO places strong emphasis on adaptation of CA technologies and principles, precise selection of smallholder farmers that are willing to change their practice and creating local awareness of possible constraints (Tittonell et al., 2012).

4.3.3 The System of Rice Intensification

Growth and functioning of rice plant roots and attributed nutrient-use efficiencies are two main objectives the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) focuses on. SRI was developed in Madagascar and it proposes that interactions between genetic potential and environmental factors can be more productive. The following practices are considered to be favourable for the growing environment of

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rice plants; transplanting of young seedlings, planting seedling widely spaced, water management, weeding and use of compost. SRI systems appear to especially beneficial when soil aeration increases resulting from non-flooded water management and from mechanical weeding (Barison & Uphoff, 2011).

4.4 Socio-economic and agricultural constraints towards conservation agriculture

The main stakeholders affected by innovation systems are small-scale rice cultivators. However, they already encountered problems before these systems were introduced; the need artificial fertilizers increased as soil degradation increased. This was especially a problem for those who were not able to buy fertilizers in bulk because rice prices were lower than prices of fertilizer. Floods also affected them during the rainy season, which is especially true for low-lying traditional managed cultivations. These concerns are based upon variability in harvests and financial returns, therefore farmers need environmental protection and economic support in the future (Copsey et al., 2009). Implementation of the ABACO initiative and the DMC system will probably result in trade-offs of biomass use within entire farmer societies. However, ABACO claims that these negative impacts can be tackled through scenario analysis using bio-economic simulation models, in this way they can predict climate, demography and soil quality for a long period of time. Farmers can then be informed on, labour intensity for example, on short notice (Tittonell et al., 2012). Moreover, other concerns are expressed in regard to the need for multiple iterations of discussion between social scientists, natural scientists and policy-makers (Bode, Watson, Iwamura & Possingham, 2008). Another expressed concern is that CA technologies are often only applicable to large farms. Small-scale farmers would encounter spatial and economic constraints when farming a larger area. Furthermore, farmers would not be able to invest in equipment, herbicides and a certain degree of mechanization to farm their land as sustainable as CA desires (Giller et al., 2014). However, ABACO expects to prevent these constraints through consultation of local leaders, researchers from different institutions and individual farmers. Furthermore, CA has three principles; zero tillage is one of these (Tittonell et al., 2012). However, by not ploughing the soil, there is an increased amount of labour required for weeding. Weeds can also be controlled by herbicides, but economic constraints often withhold small-scale farmers to invest in herbicides. Therefore, there is a need for better markets before farmers can invest in herbicides and other no-till equipment (Corbeels et al., 2011).

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5. Conclusion

Due to the slow nature of the mentioned adaptation strategies, positive outcomes are not necessarily expected in the short term. However, they will alter an otherwise inevitable fate that is currently the destination of the health of the Lake Alaotra ecosystem. The changes used to combat erosion will allow for a steady inflow of water, which results in a decreasing depletion, which means that the otherwise inevitable complete depletion of Lake Alaotra will be averted.

Different agricultural practices prove to be difficult to maintain, but when properly managed by governmental instances, will allow for an increase in soil fertility, decreasing the currently diminishing soil quality. It will also provide farmers with a higher net-gain, but labour-intensity is something that needs to be rewarded and driven. However, due to the different, more durable irrigative requirements, depletion of Lake Alaotra will be further halted.

Introduction of different non-endemic species should be considered as another adaptational strategy to combat erosion. By using different plant species on deforested slopes, that have roots that are more easily capable of rooting in unstable top soil, erosion could be halted due to the anti-erosion properties of plant-roots. Furthermore, differentiation of plant cultivation could increase soil fertility, decreasing arable surface requirements and increasing long-term productivity of these rice fields.

To conclude, management requirements will be very intense for the government, as it will require both enactment (scientists, farmers, locals, etc.) and enforcement (police, governmental subsidies/penalties) and prove to only be rewarding when maintained over longer periods of time. A council will need to be set up, consisting of scientists and politicians that are capable of creating scenario’s for t Without adaptation strategies to decrease soil erosion, such as planting of (non-endemic) plant species, Lake Alaotra will continue to keep decreasing in size, and agriculture in the area will suffer. Therefore, combined changes in land-use, agricultural practices and conservation and introduction of plant species is necessary to create a sustainable future for Malagasy rice farmers.

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6. Discussion and recommendations

Within this report a management policy has been offered as an adaptation technique to further prevent ecosystem degradation. Rice cultivation and therefore, livelihood insurance of smallholder farmers could potentially be improved. However, it should be recognized that management policies are operating rules that are not only used as for adaptation strategies, but are also used for order, consistency and security within a certain region or nation. Especially agricultural management should, for example, focus on foreign agricultural products, price stability, guaranteed supply level and employment. Therefore, the proposed management policy in this research should be further extended so that risk management, agricultural trade and non-tariff measures are also included.

It should also be noted that most CA principles and projects mentioned in this research are narrow and restricted to a specific research area (Giller et al., 2015), Lake Alaotra in this case. Despite certain socio-economic constraints, application of the mentioned CA projects (ABACO, DMC, SRI) would not be able across the diversity of farming systems and agro-ecologies worldwide. Furthermore, CA focuses on conservation, which, literally, means conservation of various quantities under physical laws (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2017). This type of conservation would not be possible in a world where there is a constant drive towards sustainable intensification, where the ever-growing world population demands increasing amounts of food (Giller et al., 2015).

As an alternative to the proposed management policy including CA projects, we suggest a systems

agronomy approach, which is based upon identifying well-established principles of plant production.

Agronomy includes recognition of limiting factors of plant growth and crop production (Gillet et al., 2015), some of which are already mentioned in this research, such as formation of aerenchyma in plant cortex’s. The tools of a systems analysis can help in determining economically viable and environmentally appropriate techniques that are in multiple ways easy to adapt to. Firstly, such systems take into account access to natural resources (e.g. water depletion) and help find acceptable technologies for smallholder farmers depending on this access (Giller et al., 2015). Furthermore, systems agronomy does not require a specific setting or environment, as it is easy adaptable through modelling. An example of a systems agronomy approach is the SEAMLESS integrated framework, which is a multi component-based framework for agriculture, it has seen multiple positive results (Van Ittersum, 2008).

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Appendix

A. Interview Marjolein Bekkers

After a short round of introduction and giving an explanation of who we were as students of FPS and our research, the following questions were asked in order to gain insight as to what would be needed to manage our findings in a useful manner. Afterwards, we thanked Marjolein Bekkers for allowing us to ask her these questions and for giving us some of her time.

Q. Good morning, could you please explain us about the work you do and what you have studied to do the work you do?

A. I currently work for the municipalities of Amsterdam and Woerden, and have previously worked for the municipality of Utrecht, as interim manager and head of the department of management of public space and real estate. Before I started working, I did a universitary study in ‘business administration’, after which I followed up with a HBO study on ‘change management’.

The work I do within my department is to help communicate between the people living in the public space and the governing bodies, helping them envision and work towards a future that is both sustainable and innovative.

Q. So as an interim manager you have a clear understanding of what has to be done in order to manage policies?

A. Correct. Most of the work I have to do is centered around policies - how do you create a policy, what is the vision and what is the reason you are creating said policy? After that, scenarios are created and based on what the potential outcomes are, I offer personal advice, as do other advisors.

Q. Could you elaborate on the creation of a policy?

A. The creation of a policy starts with a vision - what are the goals that need to be achieved, and why? What is the reason this has to be changed now? After this, scenario’s are created to show what happens when certain factors do not change. If these scenario’s fail to provide an outcome that is wanted, find out which are the pro’s and which are the con’s of every scenario.

After this, we usually get advisors, from both the government or outside, and they are asked for their opinions on whether or not these projects are necessary, and if so, how long are they going to take? What will the costs of these policies be, what will be gotten in return. What are necessary changes that need to be made, and what will the results be when this policy is adopted? All these questions, together with the answers are normally used to then create a policy that is implemented by the governing bodies.

Q. Alright. As our plan would require a large input and management from different directions - government, scientists, locals, etc. - what would be necessary to properly enforce this top-down management system?

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A. The first step in properly enforcing such a top-down management system, it needs to be approached from a legal perspective, in which failure to adhere to the system results in fines, and successful adjustment to the system will result in subsidies or something like that.

As such, enforcers of the system are of great importance. These can be advisors who maintain numbers on what is happening, what has changed and what is going to change, but also enforcers of the law that will intervene when laws are broken. A reward system is also needed, in order to get people to follow the rules, as enforcement based on a purely punitary system is shown to not work as well as a hybrid system in which people who follow the rules are rewarded, and those who do not are punished.

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