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The impact of solar parks on ecosystems

Can management strategies contribute to a positive impact?

Opleiding: Universiteit van Amsterdam, Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies (IIS) Bacheloropleiding Future Planet Studies

Degree program: Bachelor program Future Planet Studies

Student: Lucas Jonk

Identification number: 11641444

Date: 2-6-2021

Thesis supervisor dhr. dr. A.C. Seijmonsbergen Second reader dr. W.M. De Boer

Version number: 1.0

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Abstract

Solar parks can have a positive effect on the pollination ecosystem service in agricultural areas. Large solar parks are often constructed in areas that are used for agriculture. The intensity of agriculture over the last decades has decreased bee and insect population and can result in negative effects on the biodiversity in the areas. Literature studies were conducted to gain an awareness about the location of the solar parks and their surroundings, as well as the crops that require insect pollination by especially bees. These were then visualized in ArcGIS to quantify the potential need for bee pollination. The SPIES (Solar Park Impacts on Ecosystem Services) tool was used and literature studies to produce solar park management strategies that are favorable for pollinators. Four parks met the set criteria regarding the location and the amount of agriculture that required pollination. These parks are advised to adopt the pollinator enhancing management strategies to increase their positive contribution to ecosystems.

Key terms

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Contents

Abstract ... ii Key terms ... ii Contents...iii 1. Introduction ... 1 2. Theoretical framework... 3 2.1. Solar parks... 3 2.2. Ecosystems ... 5 2.2.1. Ecosystem services ... 5

2.2.2. Ecosystem services in solar parks ... 6

2.3. Pollination ... 7

2.4. Management strategies ... 8

3. Methodology ... 10

3.1. Data ... 10

3.2. GIS ... 11

3.3. The Solar Park Impacts on Ecosystem Services (SPIES) tool ... 12

3.4. Output and analysis ... 13

4. Results... 14

4.1. Agricultural area and pollination plots ... 14

4.2. Management strategies ... 15

5. Conclusions ... 16

6. Discussion and recommendations ... 16

6.1. Discussion of results ... 16

6.1.1. Solar parks ... 16

6.1.2. Pollination ... 17

6.1.3. Strategies ... 17

6.1.4. Discussion of methods ... 17

6.2. Recommendations for practice ... 17

6.3. Recommendations for further research ... 17

7. Acknowledgements... 19

8. References ... 19

9. Appendix 1 ... 21

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1. Introduction

Solar power is a fast growing industrial section within the sustainable energy branch. Solar energy, compared to other ways of generating green energy (for example wind and biomass), is making progress and is increasing the amount of energy generated (van der Zee et al., 2019). Traditionally solar panels were installed on the rooftops of houses and buildings. It is an effective way of incorporating the generation of green energy into society. However, this is a slow and often expensive process for home owning individuals. Solar panels have great financial scale advantages, that are much better exploited in solar parks instead of on rooftops (van der Zee et al., 2019). Solar parks can generate more energy than rooftop panels, and have gained popularity amongst investors due to increased subsidy budgets and technological improvements. It seems to be inevitable that solar parks are going to be present in future society.

In 2017, the city of Delfzijl harbored the largest solar park of the Netherlands, with a capacity of 30.000 MegaWatt (MW). In 2021, the largest solar park generates up to 109.000 MW power per year (Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland, 2021). This illustrates the growth and potential of solar parks. Solar energy is a sustainable solution to mitigate climate change, by generating energy without emitting greenhouse gasses (GHG). In 2018, the use of solar panels in the Netherlands increased by 46%. This shows that the transition to a more non-emitting form of energy is

progressing in the Netherlands (van der Zee et al., 2019). Commercial enterprises acknowledge the potential and have made plans for an additional 36 solar parks. These will generate at least 30.000 MW each, with the largest park covering 85 hectares and generating almost 148.000 MW

(Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland, 2021).

However, not everyone is convinced of the potential of solar parks. There is an active social and scientific debate on whether solar parks are a good way of producing green energy. Points of discussion are, amongst others, the amount of space they require (van der Zee et al., 2019) and the potential harm to the local environment.

In general, changes in land use have a negative impact on habitats, and therefore on biodiversity (Diaz et al., 2019). The installation of solar parks constitutes a change in land use, and could reduce ecosystem services such as pollination, soil quality regulation and water quality regulation. A multitude of local environment factors are affected by the installation of a solar park, including microclimate, soils and vegetation. These, in turn, have an effect on the biodiversity of the area (Blaydes et al., 2021). Studies show that the construction of solar parks in sensitive or protected areas has indeed negatively impacted the local environment, causing habitat fragmentation and pollution (Lovich & Ennen, 2011). This shows that with a lack of consideration and management solar parks can be harmful and disturbing for local ecosystem services.

In the Netherlands, the largest active solar parks are mostly located in agricultural areas, where the amount of wildlife and biodiversity are lower, and management of the land is more intense (Blaydes et al., 2021). In agricultural areas, solar parks can perhaps help increase the local biodiversity and the ecosystem services. Management and design of the parks should be aligned in order to achieve

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these improvements. If adequate management strategies are adopted, solar parks could be a safe haven for animals, plants and insect species.

A variety of ecosystem services are present in every area. For practical reasons, not all ecosystem services can be researched within the scope of this thesis. One important ecosystem service is pollination. Pollination of crops is mainly done by bees. Studies show that especially in agricultural areas, pollinators are in jeopardy (Blaydes et al., 2021). This is also evident from political and media attention. The pollination ecosystem service is one of the most vital services for the stabilization and prosperity of ecosystems, and if it is not managed properly it can decline into a critical state.

Therefore the pollination ecosystem service is the scope of this research. Therefore, the main research question is:

Which large scale solar parks in the Netherlands are fit to adopt a management strategy that enhances the ecosystem service ‘pollination’?

To help answer the main research question the following sub-questions are formulated: 1: What defines large scale solar parks?

2: What type of areas require pollination, and to what extent?

3: Which solar park management strategies enhance the pollination ecosystem service?

In Chapter 2 a theoretical framework is presented, connecting solar parks, ecosystem services, in particular pollination, and management strategies. Chapter 3 describes the methods used to generate the information needed. In Chapter 4 the results are presented, that are elaborated on in the discussion in Chapter 5. To finalize, the findings will be presented in a conclusion in Chapter 6.

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2. Theoretical framework

This chapter outlines the theoretical framework and introduces and defines large solar parks in the Netherlands, ecosystem services, specifically pollination, and management strategies that impact ecosystem services.

The relation between these components is presented in Figure 1:

Figure 1: Theoretical framework

A solar park is located and operated within one or more ecosystems. Interaction between the solar park and the ecosystem occurs through ecosystem services. One of these ecosystem services is ‘Pollination’. Ecosystem services can be impacted via management strategies. The goal of this thesis is to explore the management strategies that can improve the ‘Pollination’ ecosystem service. Section 2.1 explores ‘solar parks’. Section 2.2 explains the concepts of ecosystems and ecosystem services. Section 2.3 elaborates on the ecosystem service ‘Pollination’. Finally in section 2.4 the available Management strategies are outlined.

2.1.

Solar parks

In 2018 the Dutch solar power market grew by 46%, from 2,9 Gigawatt-peak (GWp) to 4,2 GWp, which is almost double the global trend (Nationaal Solar Trendrapport, 2019). A parallel reduction in the price of solar panels made solar power attainable for a greater public. Both private and

commercial sectors saw an increase in installed solar panels, the commercial sector’s increase topping the growth of the private sector (van der Zee et al., 2019). This is mainly due to the increased government subsidy, Stimulering Duurzame Energieproductie (SDE+: Incentive for Sustainable Energy production), that boosts profit margins on the exploitation of solar panels (van der Zee et al., 2019). The expectation is that the solar energy sector in the Netherlands will continue to grow, and play an important part of the energy sector.

The process of building and implementing solar parks is often a long one, involving different stakeholders, such as local communities, nature organizations such as Vereniging

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Forestry Commission), Vogelbescherming (Society for Protection of Birds) and Nationale Parken Nederland (National Parks of the Netherlands), and local and provincial government. Local

communities are more likely to be accepting of, or content with a solar park in their area when they are involved in the early stages of the process (van der Zee et al., 2019). A good dialogue is necessary to find viable solar park locations. Rural and former industrial areas are potentially a good setting for solar parks, since there is more space to benefit from scale advantages. Sometimes farmers get better returns from exploiting or facilitating a solar park than from regular farming. Also, in general the biodiversity is relatively low in these rural areas, therefore a solar park would cause less harm (Blaydes et al., 2021).

For the construction and implementation of a solar park the following steps are necessary (van der Zee et al., 2019):

• Environmental permit • SDE+ subsidy

• Funding

• Cables and network • Infrastructure • Fiscal arrangements

• Interaction with participants and stakeholders An example of an operational solar park is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Birdseye view of solar park Vlagtwedde (www.powerfield.nl)

This thesis focusses on large solar parks, producing 30.000 MW or more per year. These parks, by sheer size, have the greatest impact on the local community and the local environment. As of 2021, thirteen such parks exist in the Netherlands. The location of these parks is shown in Figure 3.

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Figure 3: Map of the locations of the largest solar parks in the Netherlands

2.2.

Ecosystems

The Cambridge Dictionary defines ecosystems as: “all the living things in an area and the way they affect each other and the environment”. Ecosystems exist on different levels and scales. For example, the Atlantic ocean can be studied as one ecosystem, but the IJsselmeer can also be characterized as an ecosystem; even the pond in a backyard can be seen as an ecosystem. Ecosystems have an effect on humanity. The interaction between ecosystems and humanity is identified as ecosystem services.

2.2.1.

Ecosystem services

Ecosystem services are defined as “the benefits humans derive, directly or indirectly, from nature” (Costanza et al., 1997; Daily, 1997; de Groot, 1992; Reid et al., 2005). Ecosystems can provide different services depending on their specific ecosystem attributes (Zhang & Muñoz Ramírez, 2019). For example, an ocean will provide different services than a pond, but both are still identified as ecosystems and have their own ecosystem services. Reid et al., (2005) is the most widely used and

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accepted format. It divides ecosystem services in four categories: provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural, as presented in 4.

Figure 4: The four types of ecosystem services (Overton et al., 2013)

Based on Costanza et al. (1997), de Groot et al. (2002), Reid et al. (2005), and de Groot (2006), Zhang and Muñoz Ramírez (2019) have developed a more specific and detailed format in which 32 sub-categories are defined. These are listed in appendix 1, providing a specified definition of what the services and sub-services are. The list also contains an example of the benefits to human society and welfare for every item.

The sub-categories increase the richness of describing and characterizing ecosystem services. As the management of ecosystem services can be a delicate process, using just four categories could be crude and imprecise. Therefore, the extended classification of Zhang and Muñoz Ramírez (2019) is used in this thesis.

2.2.2.

Ecosystem services in solar parks

Various ecosystem services are present in solar parks, depending on the definition of the boundaries of the ecosystem, and the way the park is managed. For example, greater invertebrate abundance has been observed at solar parks that adopt a biodiversity enhancing management strategy (Randle-Boggis et al,. 2020). The identification and recognition of ecosystem services within an ecosystem can induce management that better suits the needs of those ecosystem services. Randle-Boggis et al. (2020) identified sixteen ecosystem services present in solar parks, as listed in Table 1.

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Table 1: List of ecosystem services present in solar parks (Randle-Boggis et al., 2020) biomass materials provision

air quality regulation

spiritual or religious enrichment climate regulation

educational / cultural interactions flood regulation

food provision

maintaining habitats and biodiversity pest and disease regulation

pollination regulation pollution regulation

recreation and aesthetic interactions soil erosion regulation

soil quality regulation water cycle support water quality regulation

Depending on the ecosystem service researched, different variables and characteristics of the ecosystem may be relevant. This thesis researches the ‘pollination regulation’ ecosystem service. For pollination, the most important ecosystem variables are:

• Radius • Land use

• Plant and crop species

• Abundance of plants and crops

Pollinators on average keep within a radius of three km of their hives (Beutler & Loman, 1951). The geographic boundary of the ecosystem in this thesis is therefore the land use within a three

kilometer radius of the solar park. Within this radius an assessment is made of the plants and crops that demand pollination to determine the relevance for a pollination focused management strategy.

2.3.

Pollination

Pollination is an ecosystem service that comprises the pollination of wild flowers and plants, sustains ecosystem stability and is for a large part responsible for the pollination of agricultural crops

(Blaydes et al., 2021). According to Potts et al. (2016), 75% of important global crop types are affected by animal pollination, both in yield and quality. Worldwide animal pollination enhances the crop production by an estimated US$ 235 - 577 billion (Potts et al., 2016). This shows that pollination has a very big impact and is an important ecosystem service. Scherper et al. (2014) discus the

importance of pollinators for agriculture, providing a list of the crops that fully or for some part rely on pollination by bees. Insect pollination in the Netherlands represents an estimated value of € 1,0 billion, and a disturbance would have detrimental effects on the biodiversity in nature and the environment (Bestuiving, 2021).

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Table 2 shows the definition of pollination according to Zhang and Muñoz Ramírez (2019),

corresponding with the definition that Randle-Boggis et al. (2020) used to identify pollination within solar parks.

Table 2: Definition of the pollination ecosystem service by Zhang and Muñoz Ramírez (2019)

Ecosystem services Definition Benefits to human welfare and

society (examples) Regulating services The maintenance of essential

ecological processes and life support systems, which

influence climate, hydrological, and biochemical cycles, earth surface processes, and biological process. Pollination The role of biota in the

movement of floral gametes

Improvement of biodiversity, protection of certain species

The trend in the decline of insect pollinators, and especially bee populations, could have serious negative impacts on the environment and society. According to Scherper et al. (2014), this

downward trend is the consequence of land use change, resulting in a lack of floral offering. In 2001, Kleijn et al. showed that the bee fauna in Dutch agricultural landscapes is very poor, and that

management is needed to improve the situation. A study in England shows that large scale habitat loss, caused by heavily intensified agriculture over the past decades, is a major cause of bee decline (Ollerton et al., 2014). Furthermore, with the reduction of habitats other aspects of bees life also deteriorate, such as nesting, foraging, food supply and overall living space.

While pollinators are of major importance to agricultural practices, these do not provide a suitable environment for bees and other pollinators to thrive in. On the contrary, agricultural intensification is believed to be one of the reasons pollinator species are declining (Blaydes et al., 2021). Habitat loss and the use of pesticides and fertilizers are some of the agricultural drivers that harm pollinators the most.

So, agriculture is one of the main drivers in pollinator decline. Solar parks located in agricultural areas could be an opportunity to enhance the pollination ecosystem service. Therefore, parks that are not located in areas with agricultural land use are excluded from the research.

2.4.

Management strategies

The Solar Park Impacts on Ecosystem Services (SPIES) tool is a decision-support tool (DST) developed by Randle-Boggis et al. (2020). It aims to provide evidence-based insight of the impacts of different solar park management practices on ecosystem services (Randle-Boggis et al., 2020).

SPIES is the first of its kind and developed to identify ecosystem services and evaluate management strategies to enhance them. This tool is able to link management to ecosystem services and is therefore an excellent tool for this research. The SPIES DST contains 704 peer reviewed pieces of

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evidence by 457 researchers, that asses the impacts of land management on ecosystem services (Randle-Boggis et al., 2020). When creating the tool, Randle-Boggis et al. (2020) weighted all the pieces of evidence to determine if the evidence was strong or weak, and if it had large or small effects on the ecosystem. They classified this in five sections: significantly degraded, degraded, neutral, enhanced, significantly enhanced. This is useful when evidence is conflicted and can be a deciding factor in determining management strategies. So to determine which management strategies are affecting ecosystem services in solar parks (in what way, and to what extent), the SPIES tool can provide an accurate, evidence based answer.

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3. Methodology

In this chapter, the method used is described. The method consists of several steps as presented in a workflow chart in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Workflow chart of method

The flowchart shows the steps carried out, as elaborated in the sections 3.1 to 3.3. The essence of the research is the combination of information from two different sources: geographical information rendered with the ArcGIS tool, and information about the impact of the solar park on the ecosystem services as generated by the SPIES tool. To use the ArcGIS tool, specific data has to be collected and prepared.

3.1.

Data

The data presented in Table 3 is required to answer the research questions. This data was found using key terms such as: “land use”, “land cover”, “gewassen”, “Nederland” and “BRP”. The table shows the source, type of data, scale and a description of the data. This data provides the input for Arc GIS pro. This data is edited to fit the scope of this research, as described in section 3.2.GIS.

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Dataset Source Datatype Scale Description

Corine Land Cover (CLC) 2018, Version 2020_20u1 (Copernicus, 2020) https://land.copernicus. eu/pan- european/corine-land-cover/clc2018 Raster Inter-national

Provides consistent and thematically detailed information on land cover and land cover changes across Europe. identifying 31 different land uses, to asses if the solar parks is located in an agricultural area. BRP – Gewaspercelen 2020 (Esri Nederland, 2020) https://services.arcgis.c om/nSZVuSZjHpEZZbRo /arcgis/rest/services/Ge waspercelen_2020/Feat ureServer Feature layer

National Layer provides a concept version of agricultural plots derived from the

Basisregistratie Percelen (BRP). The plots show the crops cultivated per agricultural plot. This dataset contains information of 326 different crops cultivated on agricultural plots. RealizedSolarPa rks Feature layer

Local Layer provides the geographical locations of the thirteen largest solar parks in the Netherlands.

The third dataset (RealizedSolarParks) was derived from literature research regarding the

geographical locations of the solar parks that were visualized in Arc GIS pro. It is edited and modified for the research, as explained in the next section. And the list of Scherper et al. (2014),which shows which agricultural crops require pollination by bees is presented in Appendix 2.

3.2.

GIS

For the research the tool ArcGIS Pro is used (version 2.7.0; Esri, 2020). For every solar park the tool is used to determine:

1. If the solar park is located in an agricultural area 2. If the area surrounding the park requires pollination

To determine if a solar park is located in an agricultural area:

- The geographical location of the solar park is visualized using the ‘draw polygon’ feature in Arc GIS. The polygons are stored in the ‘RealizedSolarParks’ dataset.

- The land use surrounding the solar park is visualized by:

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o Clipping it to only show present land use in the Netherlands

- The results are combined to assess if the solar park is located in an agricultural area

To determine if the agricultural area surrounding the solar park requires pollination:

- A buffer with a three kilometer radius was inserted around the solar park using the ‘create buffer’ feature. This shows the area earlier defined as the ecosystem and is the area relevant for the research.

- The dataset ‘BRP – Gewaspercelen 2020’ is loaded into the geodatabase, using the Arc GIS online portal.

- A cross reference is made between the list of Scherper et al. (2014), as presented in

Appendix 2, and the crops in the ‘BRP – Gewaspercelen 2020’ dataset. This indicates to what extent crops require pollination.

- The ‘measure’ feature is used to quantify the areas (in hectares) that require pollination.

3.3.

The Solar Park Impacts on Ecosystem Services (SPIES) tool

The SPIES tool is used to answer the third research question, which solar park management

strategies enhance the pollination ecosystem service?

The tool has two options: management actions, and ecosystem service. To use the tool either the option ‘management actions’ or ‘ecosystem service’ is selected. Management actions, will leave you to select the actions or strategies in eight different categories. These can be selected simultaneously, and will then show which ecosystem services it impacts.

Within the ecosystem services tab, out of the 16 ecosystem services mentioned the ‘Pollination regulation’ ecosystem service is selected (Figure 6). This will produce management strategies that impact the ‘Pollination regulation’ ecosystem service.

Figure 6: Example of how the SPIES tool works

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3.4.

Output and analysis

The results will comprise three variables:

- Total agricultural area

- Agricultural area that requires pollination

- The management strategies for optimal pollinator enhancement

As there are no scientifically defined norms yet to compare the GIS data to, the results are analyzed using index numbers. This is done for the absolute value ‘agricultural area that requires pollination’, where the base value is the average of the variable: agricultural area that requires pollination. And for the relative value of the agricultural area that requires pollination/ total agricultural area. Parks not located in agricultural areas are excluded.

This will give an indication of the absolute and relative amount of agriculture that requires

pollination in the area. On which conclusions can be based regarding the adaptation of the pollinator management strategies.

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4. Results

This chapter presents the results in two categories, agricultural area and pollination plots and the SPIES tool. Section 4.1 presents the results of the agricultural surroundings of the solar parks. Section 4.2 presents the management strategies as produced by the SPIES tool.

4.1.

Agricultural area and pollination plots

Table 4 shows the variables that were measured in in Arc GIS. The table shows to what extend the agricultural area requires pollination.

Table 4: Results derived from ArcGIS

Table 5 shows there are four parks (listed in bold font) with both an absolute and a relative index above the average. Indicating that these areas are abundant in agriculture that requires pollination. Table 5: Indexation of agriculture that requires pollination

Name of solar park Absolute (ha) Index Relative Index

Average 552 100% 18,2% 100% Vlagtwedde 1.364 247% 25,2% 138% Scaldia 1.122 203% 30,8% 169% Ooltgensplaat 730 132% 39,0% 214% Oranjepoort 690 125% 26,6% 146% Buinerveen/paardetangendijk 627 114% 16,6% 91% Midden-Groningen 418 76% 15,1% 83% Musselkanaal (Stadskanaal) 349 63% 20,3% 111% Delfzijl 191 35% 7,7% 42% Zonneakker voorst 18 3% 0,7% 4% Vennekoten/oosterwolde 9 2% 0,3% 2%

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4.2.

Management strategies

The SPIES DST resulted in eight different management strategies that have a positive impact for pollinators, as shown in Fout! Verwijzingsbron niet gevonden.. One strategy seems to have a negative impact: this piece of evidence argues that the reduction of grazing has a negative impact on the plant species’ richness and would be counterproductive. Therefore, the positive impact strategy would be, to increase grazing (if previously grazed).

Not all management strategies are equally supported but none of the management strategies have evidence suggesting a negative impact. But none of them regarding a management strategy is conflicted. The strategies are all focused on habitat and food supply.

Table 6: Results of the SPIES tool

Management strategies

Pieces of evidence

Strong

positive Positive Neutral Negative

Strong negative

Mow later in the year 1 1

Reduce/cease pesticide and fertiliser use if previously used 1 1

Reduce grazing intensity if previously grazed 1 1

Graze later in the year 1 1

Install/maintain beehives 2 2

Connect habitats 6 2 3 1

Plant/maintain hedgerows/shelterbelts 7 4 2 1 Create/maintain buffer zones/field margins/set-aside 14 3 11

Plant/maintain wild flower/nectar seed meadows 24 8 16

TOTAL 57 17 36 3 1 0

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5. Conclusions

This research shows which of the largest solar parks in the Netherlands would benefit from adopting a management strategy that enhances the ecosystem service ‘Pollination’. The present ecosystem services largely determine which strategies are viable and which strategies are to be adopted. To what extent an agricultural area requires pollination is a great factor in whether the pollination ecosystem service is a good choice. For the main research question: “Which large scale solar parks in the Netherlands are fit to adopt a management strategy that enhances the ecosystem service

‘pollination’?” it can be stated that the parks located in agricultural areas with a larger absolute and relative amount of agriculture requiring pollination, are best suited to adopt pollination

management strategies. In this thesis four parks fitted that description: Vlagtwedde, Scaldia, Ooltgensplaat and Oranjepoort.

To answer the sub-research question: “What defines large scale solar parks?” it can be stated that large scale solar parks are defined by their size, generating capacity (greater than 30.000 MW), larger impact on local society and significant impact on land use. (Compared to rooftop solar power and smaller private solar parks).

To answer the second sub-research question: “What type of areas require pollination, and to what extent?”, it can be stated that the types of areas are the agricultural plots that cultivate crops that require pollination as listed by Scherper et al., (2014). And the extent to which the area requires pollination is provided in Table 5. This shows that these four parks require pollination above average on both, absolute and relative, level.

The answer to the third sub-research question: “Which solar park management strategies enhance the pollination ecosystem service?” is presented in the results in Table 7. The strategies

‘Create/maintain buffer zones/field margins/set-aside’ and ‘Plant/maintain wild flower/nectar seed meadows’ are supported by the most pieces of evidence and have the strongest positive impact. Not much research has been done on this topic and this research is explorative. For more accurate conclusions on solar park management strategies further research is needed. This thesis is a contribution to the increasing need for research on the implementation of sustainable energy and solar park ecomanagement.

6. Discussion and recommendations

This chapter will discuss the results, and reflect on the methods. Followed by recommendations for practice and recommendations for further research.

6.1.

Discussion of results

6.1.1.

Solar parks

As seen in Figure 3, solar parks are spread throughout the Netherlands. These parks are located in lower populated areas and ten out of thirteen are located in agricultural areas. Literature shows that large scale solar parks are harder to incorporate into society as they affect more stakeholders and environments. The increasing size of solar parks shows that these challenges can still be overcome.

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6.1.2.

Pollination

The agricultural surroundings of the solar parks are shown in Table 4. The specific need for pollination in absolute and relative value is shown in Table 5. Both are used to determine which areas require pollination and to what extent. This method is not conclusive for the entire area surrounding a solar park, but is only appliable to the surrounding agricultural areas.

6.1.3.

Strategies

The management strategies as presented by the SPIES tool (Figure) all positively impact pollinators. The pollination ecosystem service will be significantly enhanced if implemented in solar parks. The fact that there are no negative pieces of evidence on the management strategies makes it confident output, and attractive to implement.

6.1.4.

Discussion of methods

The methods used in this thesis are discussed and reflected upon.

The methods used in Arc GIS were sufficient, however three steps could be improved. The total area for the solar parks located near water was not adjusted to cover only land. This could as a result label parks as not located in agricultural area and exclude them from further research. This was prevented by looking at just the total agriculture, and checking the maps. The research could be more efficient if the dataset “BRP – Gewaspercelen, 2020” was in an editable format. And the data “Corine Land Cover, 2018”, was not accurate enough. The dataset “BRP – Gewaspercelen, 2020” was better suited to identify agricultural land use.

The SPIES tool performed well and there were no issues. The tool deemed to be useful and provided results in an orderly fashion. The SPIES tool is however insensitive towards scale, strategies are recommended for all parks and no difference is made regarding the different scales of the parks. The output and analysis provided results that contributed to answer the research questions. However, this is a new field of research and there is a lack of comparable data. It would be interesting to compare this data to similar studies that can reinforce or improve this thesis.

6.2.

Recommendations for practice

The findings in this thesis could be of importance when formulating new ways on how to asses which solar park management strategies are a viable option for individual parks. Also, this thesis could be of use to local governments and stakeholders to see how solar parks can positively contribute to ecosystems.

6.3.

Recommendations for further research

Further research regarding management strategies and the contribution of solar parks to ecosystems is advised. Research focused on the effects of solar park scale on both ecosystem services and management strategies, would benefit studies such as this thesis. This research is focused on pollination, other ecosystem services where also radius and area is an important variable could be research in the same manner as pollination.

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7. Acknowledgements

Hereby I would like to thank dhr. A.C. Seijmonsbergen and dhr. J. Groot MSc for their feedback and assistance throughout the research. And dhr. E.J.J.A. Jonk for his assistance writing this thesis.

8. References

A list of all references used, in accordance with the APA format.

Bestuiving. (2021). Atlas Natuurlijk Kapitaal. https://www.atlasnatuurlijkkapitaal.nl/natuurlijk-kapitaal/bestuiving

Beutler, R., & Loman, D. (1951). Time and distance in the life of the foraging bee. Bee World, 32(4), 25-27.

Blaydes, H., Potts, S. G., Whyatt, J. D., & Armstrong, A. (2021, July 31). Opportunities to enhance pollinator biodiversity in solar parks. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111065

Costanza, R., d'Arge, R., De Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., ... & Van Den Belt, M. (1997). The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. nature, 387(6630), 253-260.

Daily, G. C. (2013). Nature’s services: societal dependence on natural ecosystems (1997) (pp. 454-464). Yale University Press.

De Groot, R. S. (1992). Functions of nature: evaluation of nature in environmental planning, management and decision making. Wolters-Noordhoff BV.

Díaz, S. M., Settele, J., Brondízio, E., Ngo, H., Guèze, M., Agard, J., ... & Zayas, C. (2019). The global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services: Summary for policy makers. Dutch New Energy Research 2019. Nationaal Solar Trendrapport 019

Kleijn, D., Berendse, F., Smit, R., & Gilissen, N. (2001). Agri-environment schemes do not effectively protect biodiversity in Dutch agricultural landscapes. Nature, 413(6857), 723–725.

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9. Appendix 1

Table 7: List of main ecosystem services and definitions (Zhang & Muñoz Ramírez, 2019)

Ecosystem services Definition Benefits to human welfare and society (examples)

Regulating services The maintenance of essential ecological processes and life support systems, which influence climate, hydrological, and

biochemical cycles, earth surface processes, and biological process. 1 Local climate regulation The influence and regulating of

ecosystems on local climatic conditions

Favor local climate, such as alleviating the urban heat island effect 2 Global climate regulation The impact on global climatic

conditions

Control global warming 3 Gas regulation The effect of ecosystems on

bio-geochemical cycles

CO2/O2 balance, ozone layer protection

4 Disturbance prevention The ability of ecosystems to moderate adverse natural events and environmental disturbances

Flood prevention, storm protection, human and city safety

5 Natural hazard mitigation The mitigation of natural disasters Creation of stable life-communities and safe environments for human societies

6 Air quality regulation The improvement of air quality through ecological processes and components

Access to cleaner air

7 Water regulation The regulation of runoff and river discharge

Irrigation and drainage maintenance

8 Water purification The purification and filtering of water

Water security for human, flora, and fauna 9 Groundwater recharge Underground water supplement Optimal allocation of

water resources 10 Soil retention The role of vegetation root matrix

and soil biota in soil retention

Maintenance of

agricultural productivity and prevention of damage due to soil erosion

11 Soil formation The weathering of rock,

accumulation of organic matter

Maintenance of crop productivity and natural productive soils

12 Nutrient regulation The role of biota in storage and recycling of nutrients

Local plant growth, migration of animals 13 Pollination The role of biota in the movement

of floral gametes

Improvement of biodiversity, protection of certain species

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14 Waste treatment/disposal The dilution, assimilation, and chemical re-composition of certain waste

Pollution control,

filtering of dust particles, noise abatement, space for solid waste disposal, effective use of organic wastes

15 Erosion protection The role of vegetation and biota in erosion protection

Flood, agriculture, and coastal erosion protection 16 Biological control Population control through

trophic-dynamic relations

Control of pests and diseases, reduction of herbivory

17 Disease regulation The role of biota in disease control

Prevention of the outbreak of diseases Provisioning services The provision of natural resources

18 Food The conversion of solar energy

into wild edible plants and animals

Provision of certain food production for humans (e.g., crops, livestock, capture fisheries, fodder)

19 Water The filtering, retention, and

storage of fresh water

Consumptive use (e.g., domestic water,

irrigation, industrial use) 20 Raw materials The conversion of solar energy

into biomass

Human construction (i.e., wood and sturdy fibers for building, oils and latex for industrial purposes, and energy resources like fuel-wood and bio-chemicals) 21 Genetic resources Genetic material and evolution in

wild plants and animals

Maintain cultivars productivity, improvement of individual quality and adaptability, such as resistance to pests 22 Medicinal resources Variety in chemical substances in

natural biota

Maintenance of human health, e.g., drugs and pharmaceuticals, animals tests

23 Ornamental resources Variety use of wild plants and animals for ornamental purposes

Resources for fashion, handicrafts, jewelry, pets, worship,

decoration, souvenirs, etc.

Habitat services The provision of habitats (suitable living spaces) for wild plant and animal species and the

maintenance of ecological processes

24 Habitation Suitable living spaces for wild plants and animals, and

Maintenance of biodiversity

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sustainable spaces for human living

25 Nursery Suitable reproduction habitats Provision of breeding and nursery areas for commercially harvested species

Cultural services The provision of opportunities for recreation, cognitive

development, relaxation, spiritual reflection, to the benefit of human beings

26 Identity The strong feeling of belonging to a particular community

Improve sense of regional, cultural, landscape identity, etc. 27 Aesthetic Attractive landscape features and

views

Satisfy human enjoyment of scenery and aesthetic experience

28 Recreation Landscapes for (potential) recreation or amusement use

Provision of daily or periodic recreation activities for people 29 Cultural and artistic Variety in natural and

semi-natural features with cultural and artistic value

Nature and cultural landscape as sources of inspiration to promote the development of art and cultural industry (e.g., film, painting, architect, literature, etc.) 30 History and religion The spiritual and historical value

of nature and semi-natural landscapes

Religious purposes and historical values (natural and semi-natural

ecosystems and features, and heritages values) 31 Science and education The scientific and educational

value of nature

Natural elements and features provide a range of opportunities for scientific research, excursion, nature study, environmental education 32 Tourism Variety in nature with (potential)

tourism value

Travel to natural ecosystems for eco-tourism

10. Appendix 2

Crops pollinated by bees

List of crops pollinated by bees in the Netherlands (Free, 1993; O’Toole, 1993; Williams,1994;

Hensels, 2000; Blacquière, 2009). Pollination plays a role in the cultivation of their (false) fruit and/or their seed (as raw material, food, oil, etc.)propagation purposes). The utility value of bees for

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self-incompatible crops) to beneficial (self-fertile but not completely autonomous self-pollinating crops) (Scherper et al., 2014).

Wetenschappelijke naam/ Nederlandse naam/ Familie Toepassing Actinidia chinensis kiwi (tweehuizig) Actinidiaceae Fruitteelt

Agastache foeniculum dropplant Lamiaceae Sierteelt Agastache mexicana dropplant Lamiaceae Sierteelt

Ageratum houstonianum mexicaantje Asteraceae Sierteelt Allium cepa ui Alliaceae Akkerbouw, groenteteelt

Allium porrum prei Alliaceae Akkerbouw, groenteteelt Allium schoenoprasum bieslook Alliaceae Groenteteelt Allium sp. look Alliaceae Sierteelt

Ammobium alatum zandbloem, papierknopje Asteraceae Sierteelt Anacyclus depressus Marokkaanse kamille Asteraceae Sierteelt Anethum graveolens dille Apiaceae Groenteteelt

Angelica archangelica engelwortel Apiaceae Groenteteelt Anthriscus cerefolium kervel Apiaceae Groenteteelt

Antirrhinum majus grote leeuwenbek Plantaginaceae Sierteelt Apium graveolens selderij Apiaceae Akkerbouw, groenteteelt Arabis blepharophylla randjesbloem, rijstebrij Brassicaceae Sierteelt Arabis caucasica randjesbloem, rijstebrij Brassicaceae Sierteelt Armeria maritima Engels gras Plumbaginaceae Sierteelt Armoracia rusticana mierikswortel Brassicaceae Groenteteelt Artemisia dracunculus dragon Asteraceae Groenteteelt

Asparagus officinalis asperge Asparagaceae Akkerbouw, groenteteelt Aubrieta-hybriden aubrieta Brassicaceae Sierteelt

Begonia sp. begonia (eenslachtig) Begoniaceae Sierteelt Beta vulgaris spp. biet Amaranthaceae Akkerbouw

Borago officinalis bernagie (borage) Boraginaceae Akkerbouw, groenteteelt Brachycome iberidifolia australisch madeliefje Asteraceae Sierteelt

Brassica napobrassica, B. rapa rapen (koolraap, knolraap) Brassicaceae Akkerbouw Brassica napus koolzaad (winter-zomer) Brassicaceae Akkerbouw

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Brassica oleracea spp., B. rapa spp. koolsoorten Brassicaceae Akkerbouw, groenteteelt Brassica rapa raapzaad Brassicaceae Akkerbouw, groenteteelt

Calendula officinalis goudsbloem Asteraceae Sierteelt Callicarpa bodinieri callicarpa Lamiaceae Sierteelt Callicarpa japonica callicarpa Lamiaceae Sierteelt

Camelina sativa huttentut (dederzaad) Brassicaceae Akkerbouw Campanula spp. klokjessoorten Campanulaceae Sierteelt Capsicum annuum paprika Solanaceae Groenteteelt Capsicum annuum sierpeper Solanaceae Sierteelt Carum carvi karwijzaad Apiaceae Akkerbouw

Catananche caerula blauwe strobloem Asteraceae Sierteelt

Celastrus orbiculatus boomwurger (tweehuizig) Celastraceae Sierteelt Centaurea cyanus korenbloem Asteraceae Sierteelt

Alterra-rapport 2592 | 45

Wetenschappelijke naam Nederlandse naam Familie Toepassing Centranthus ruber spoorbloem Caprifoliaceae Sierteelt

Chaenomeles japonica Japanse dwergkee Rosaceae Sierteelt Cheiranthus cheiri muurbloem Brassicaceae Sierteelt

Chrysanthemum carinatum chrysant Asteraceae Sierteelt

Chrysanthemum maximum grootbloemige margriet Asteraceae Sierteelt Chrysanthemum segetum gele ganzenbloem Asteraceae Sierteelt Cichorium endivia andijvie Asteraceae Akkerbouw, groenteteelt Cichorium intybus cichorei Asteraceae Akkerbouw

Cichorium intybus var. foliosum witlof Asteraceae Akkerbouw, groenteteelt Cleome spinosa kattensnor Brassicaceae Sierteelt

Coleus blumei siernetel Lamiaceae Sierteelt

Coreopsis tinctoria meisjesogen Asteraceae Sierteelt Coriandrum sativum koriander Apiaceae Groenteteelt Cosmos bipinnatus cosmea Asteraceae Sierteelt Cotoneaster sp. dwergmispel Rosaceae Sierteelt Cucumis melo meloen Cucurbitaceae Groenteteelt

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26

Cucumis sativus augurk Cucurbitaceae Akkerbouw, groenteteelt Cucumis sativus komkommer Cucurbitaceae Groenteteelt

Cucurbita pepo courgette Cucurbitaceae Akkerbouw, groenteteelt Cucurbita pepo sierkalebas Cucurbitaceae Akkerbouw

Cucurbita pepo patisson Cucurbitaceae Groenteteelt

Cucurbita spp. pompoen, kalebas (sier) Cucurbitaceae Sierteelt Cuphea ignea lucifersplant Lythraceae Sierteelt

Cydonia oblonga kweepeer Rosaceae Fruitteelt Dahlia-hybriden dahlia Asteraceae Sierteelt Daucus carota wortel (peen) Apiaceae Akkerbouw

Delphinium nudicaule ridderspoor Ranunculaceae Sierteelt Dianella caerula vlaslelie Hemerocallidaceae Sierteelt Dianella tasmanica vlaslelie Hemerocallidaceae Sierteelt Dianthus barbatus duizendschoon Caryophyllaceae Sierteelt Echinops ritro kogeldistel Asteraceae Sierteelt

Echium vulgare slangenkruid Boraginaceae Sierteelt Eruca sativa rucola Brassicaceae Akkerbouw

Eschscholzia californica slaapmutsje Papaveraceae Sierteelt Fagopyrum esculentum boekweit Polygonaceae Akkerbouw Foeniculum vulgare venkel Apiaceae Groenteteelt

Fragaria aardbei Rosaceae Groenteteelt Freesia armstrongii freesia Iridaceae Sierteelt Freesia refracta freesia Iridaceae Sierteelt Gilia capitata gilia Polemoniaceae Sierteelt Godetia amoena clarkia Onagraceae Sierteelt

Gypsophila elegans gipskruid Caryophyllaceae Sierteelt

Helianthus annuus zonnebloem Asteraceae Akkerbouw, sierteelt Helianthus tuberosus aardpeer Asteraceae Akkerbouw

Helichrysum bracteatum goudsstrobloem Asteraceae Sierteelt

Heliotropium peruvianum vanillebloem, zonnewende Boraginaceae Sierteelt Hesperis matronalis damastbloem Brassicaceae Sierteelt

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27 Heuchera sanguinea purperklokje Saxifragaceae Sierteelt Hypericum androsaenum hertshooi Hypericaceae Sierteelt Hypericum persistens hertshooi Hypericaceae Sierteelt Hyssopus officinalis hyssop Lamiaceae Groenteteelt Iberis amara bittere scheefbloem Brassicaceae Sierteelt Ilex aquifolium hulst Aquifoliaceae Sierteelt

Ilex verticillata hulst (tweehuizig) Aquifoliaceae Sierteelt Impatiens balsamina tuinbalsemien Balsaminaceae Sierteelt Impatiens walleriana vlijtig liesje Balsaminaceae Sierteelt

Ipomoea purpurea dagbloem, sierwinde Convolvulaceae Sierteelt Ipomoea violaceae blauwe winde Convolvulaceae Sierteelt Iris foetidissima stinkende lis Iridaceae Sierteelt

Lactuca spp. sla Asteraceae Groenteteelt

Lavandula spp. lavendel Lamiaceae Akkerbouw, groenteteelt Lepidium sativum tuinkers Brassicaceae Akkerbouw, sierteelt Levisticum officinale lavas (maggi) Apiaceae Groenteteelt Liatris spicata lampenpoetser Asteraceae Sierteelt Ligustrum sp. liguster Oleaceae Sierteelt

Limnanthes alba akkermoerasbloem Limnanthaceae Akkerbouw Limonium sinuatum lamsoor Plumbaginaceae Sierteelt

Linum usitatissimum vlas Linaceae Akkerbouw Lobelia erinus lobelia Campanulaceae Sierteelt

Lonicera quinquelocularis kamperfoelie Caprifoliaceae Sierteelt Lotus corniculatus rolklaver Fabaceae Akkerbouw

Lunaria annua judaspenning Brassicaceae Sierteelt Lupinus polyphyllus vaste lupine Fabaceae Sierteelt Lupinus spp. lupine Fabaceae Akkerbouw

Malus sierappel Rosaceae Sierteelt

Malus domestica appel Rosaceae Fruitteelt

Malva moschata muskuskaasjeskruid Malvaceae Groenteteelt Malva sp. voedermalva Malvaceae Akkerbouw

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28 Matthiola incana violier Brassicaceae Sierteelt Medicago sativa Luzerne Fabaceae Akkerbouw

Melampodium paludosum melampodium Asteraceae Sierteelt Melilotus sp. honingklaver Fabaceae Akkerbouw, groenteteelt Melissa officinalis citroenmelisse Lamiaceae Akkerbouw, groenteteelt Mentha ×piperita pepermunt Lamiaceae Akkerbouw, groenteteelt Mespilus germanica mispel Rosaceae Fruitteelt

Myosotis scorpioides moerasvergeet-mij-nietje Boraginaceae Sierteelt Myosotis sylvatica bosvergeet-mij-nietje Boraginaceae Sierteelt Nemophila menziesii bosliefje, babyoogje Boraginaceae Sierteelt Nepeta cataria wild kattenkruid Lamiaceae Sierteelt

Nepeta mussinii blauw kattenkruid Lamiaceae Sierteelt Nicandra physalodes zegekruid Solanaceae Sierteelt

Nierembergia hippomanica nierembergia Solanaceae Sierteelt Nigella damascena juffertje-in-het-groen Ranunculaceae Sierteelt Nolana paradoxa nolana Solanaceae Sierteelt

Ocimum basilicum basilicum Lamiaceae Groenteteelt Oenothera sp. teunisbloem Onagraceae Akkerbouw Onobrychis viciifolia esparcette Fabaceae Akkerbouw

Origanum majorana echte marjolein Lamiaceae Groenteteelt Ornithopus sativus serradelle Fabaceae Akkerbouw

Papaver somniferum blauwmaanzaad Papaveraceae Akkerbouw Papaver somniferum slaapbol Papaveraceae Sierteelt

Pastinaca sativa sativa pastinaak Apiaceae Groenteteelt

Penstemon serrulatus schildpadbloem Plantaginaceae Sierteelt Pernettya mucronata parelbes (tweehuizig) Ericaceae Sierteelt Petroselinum crispum peterselie Apiaceae Groenteteelt Phacelia tanacetifolia phacelia Boraginaceae Akkerbouw

Phaseolus coccineus pronkboon Fabaceae Akkerbouw, groenteteelt Physalis alkekengi echte lampionplant Solanaceae Sierteelt

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29

Polemonium caeruleum jakobsladder Polemoniaceae Sierteelt Polygonum sp. varkensgras, duizendknoop Polygonaceae Sierteelt Prunus armeniaca abrikoos Rosaceae Fruitteelt

Prunus avium zoete kers Rosaceae Fruitteelt

Prunus cerasus zure kers (morel) Rosaceae Fruitteelt Prunus domestica pruim Rosaceae Fruitteelt

Prunus dulcis amandel Rosaceae Fruitteelt Prunus insititia mirabel Rosaceae Fruitteelt Prunus persica perzik Rosaceae Fruitteelt

Prunus persica (mutant) nectarine Rosaceae Fruitteelt Pyracantha sp. vuurdoorn Rosaceae Sierteelt

Pyrus communis peer Rosaceae Fruitteelt

Raphanus sativus niger ramenas (rettich) Brassicaceae Akkerbouw Raphanus sativus oleiferus bladramenas Brassicaceae Akkerbouw Raphanus sativus sativus radijs Brassicaceae Akkerbouw, groenteteelt Reseda odorata tuinreseda Resedaceae Sierteelt

Rheum rhabarbarum rabarber Polygonaceae Groenteteelt Rhodanthe manglesii rhodanthe Asteraceae Sierteelt Ribes ×nidigrolaria jostabes Grossulariaceae Fruitteelt Ribes divaricatum worcesterbes Grossulariaceae Fruitteelt Ribes nigrum zwarte bes Grossulariaceae Fruitteelt Ribes rubrum rode/witte bes Grossulariaceae Fruitteelt Ribes uva-crispa kruisbes Grossulariaceae Fruitteelt Rosmarinus officinalis rozemarijn Lamiaceae Groenteteelt Rubus loganobaccus loganbes Rosaceae Fruitteelt

Rubus fruticosus braam Rosaceae Fruitteelt Rubus idaeus framboos Rosaceae Fruitteelt

Rubus loganobaccus x laciniatus x idaeus boysenbes Rosaceae Fruitteelt Rubus phoenicolasius japanse wijnbes Rosaceae Fruitteelt

Rudbeckia hirta ruige rudbeckia Asteraceae Sierteelt Ruta graveolens wijnruit Rutaceae Groenteteelt

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30 Salvia farinacea meelsalie Lamiaceae Sierteelt Salvia horminum bonte salie Lamiaceae Sierteelt Salvia officinalis salie Lamiaceae Groenteteelt Salvia splendens vuursalie Lamiaceae Sierteelt

Sanvitalia procumbens huzarenknoop Asteraceae Sierteelt Satureja hortensis bonekruid Lamiaceae Groenteteelt

Scabiosa atropurpurea zwartpurperen duifkruid Caprifoliaceae Sierteelt Scorzonera hispanica schorseneer Asteraceae Akkerbouw

Silybum marianum mariadistel Asteraceae Akkerbouw Sinapis alba gele/witte mosterd Brassicaceae Akkerbouw Skimmia japonica skimmia (tweehuizig) Rutaceae Sierteelt Solanum lycopersicum tomaat Solanaceae Groenteteelt Solanum melongena aubergine Solanaceae Groenteteelt Symphoricarpos chenaultii sneeuwbes Caprifoliaceae Sierteelt Tagetes spp. afrikaantje Asteraceae Akkerbouw, sierteelt Teucrium chamaedrys echte gamander Lamiaceae Sierteelt Teucrium sp. gamander Lamiaceae Groenteteelt

Thymus serpyllum kleine tijm Lamiaceae Sierteelt

Thymus vulgaris echte tijm Lamiaceae Groenteteelt, sierteelt Trachelium coeruleum halskruid Campanulaceae Sierteelt

Trifolium alexandrinum alexandrijnse klaver Fabaceae Akkerbouw Trifolium incarnatum inkarnaatklaver Fabaceae Akkerbouw 48 | Alterra -rapport 2592

Wetenschappelijke naam Nederlandse naam Familie Toepassing Trifolium pratense rode klaver Fabaceae Akkerbouw

Trifolium repens witte klaver Fabaceae Akkerbouw Vaccinium corymbosum blauwe bes Ericaceae Fruitteelt Vaccinium macrocarpon cranberry Ericaceae Fruitteelt Vaccinium myrtillus blauwe bosbes Ericaceae Fruitteelt Vaccinium vitis-idaea rode bosbes Ericaceae Fruitteelt Valeriana officinalis valerian Caprifoliaceae Akkerbouw

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31 Veronica spicata aarereprijs Plantaginaceae Sierteelt Vicia faba tuinboon Fabaceae Akkerbouw, groenteteelt Vicia faba minor veldboon Fabaceae Akkerbouw Vicia faba var. minor duiveboon Fabaceae Akkerbouw Vicia spp. wikke Fabaceae Akkerbouw

Viola cornuta hoornviooltje Violaceae Sierteelt Viola odorata maarts viooltje Violaceae Sierteelt Viola tricolor driekleurig viooltje Violaceae Sierteelt Viola wittrociana viooltje Violaceae Sierteelt Vitis vinifera druivenstok Vitaceae Fruitteelt

Xeranthemum annuum papierbloem Asteraceae Sierteelt Zinnia elegans zinnia Asteraceae Sierteelt

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