Governing the Burden of Waste in Maamobi, Accra: Individual Actions, Collective Solutions

GOVERNING THE BURDEN OF WASTE

IN MAAMOBI, ACCRA

INDIVIDUAL ACTIONS, COLLECTIVE SOLUTIONS

Carlota Fontaneda

12530883

16

July 2020

Supervisor: Maarten Bavinck

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:

My time in Ghana has been one of the most valuable experiences of my life. I learned more than I ever imagined I would – not only about waste management and development, but also about people, religion and life. I would like to thank my supervisor Professor Maarten Bavinck for proposing this project to me, as well as for his supervision and very valuable advice throughout the whole research process.

I also want to thank both my parents for their unquestionable and absolute support of my adventures, even if they might sometimes have sleepless nights because of them.

Finally I want to extend my gratitude to the people of Maamobi. They welcomed me with open arms, and made sure that I always felt comfortable and safe. They taught me about their traditions, religion and culture, and made sure that I felt part of the community. They also avoided making my food too spicy, something I appreciated very much! Nevertheless, my biggest and most sincere thank you goes to Abubakar Isaaka, head of Borla Plast and Process Sanitation. I am very aware that my experience in Ghana would have been very different without him, and that most of the things that I learned were thanks to him. Not only was he my local assistant, he was also my friend. The Borla Dream Team will never be forgotten.

ABSTRACT:

The burden of waste is becoming one of the most pressing global challenges, particularly in the Global South, where rapid urbanization combined with the inadequate governance of waste by the relevant stakeholders is resulting in environmental degradation, pollution and unsanitary conditions. In rapidly urbanizing Ghana, there are a number of areas experiencing the burden of municipal solid waste. One such is Maamobi, a low-income neighbourhood in Accra which is dominated by informal housing, inaccessible roads, a poor drainage system, and heaps of waste lying on the roads, gutters and drainages. The main purpose of this study is to analyse why there is a burden of waste in Maamobi, and to conduct a waste governability analysis framed by an interactive governance approach and stakeholders analysis. Moreover, policy and structural recommendations will be made throughout. By doing so, this thesis addresses the research question: Why is there are a burden of solid waste in Maamobi and how could a more integrated governance approach contribute to solving this issue? Although the management of waste may seem the responsibility of the governing authorities, it is a complex system that requires the involvement of many stakeholders. Understanding their interconnections will be the main contribution of this research because this is the first exploratory investigation in Maamobi which addresses a social governability problem such as waste management by focusing on the perceptions and interconnections between stakeholders. The data for this research has been collected through a process of semi-structured and structured interviews, spatial analysis, and ‘desk-based´ qualitative analysis of institutional and academic publications. The overall conclusions are the following: inefficient disposal system, lack of awareness among the population, and geographical factors specific to Maamobi are the factors contributing to the burden of waste in this neighbourhood. These factors also become challenges for the proper governance of waste by the stakeholders of the WMS, which can be grouped into formal and informal governing system and the system-to-be governed. Moreover, there is a lack of collaboration and cooperation among stakeholders, fundamentally caused by differences in opinions regarding the degree and nature of the burden of waste. A more integrated governance approach would enhance collaboration amongst stakeholders and base the system on the quality on interactions, which together with an attitudinal change on behalf of the community, is the only way to solving the burden of waste in Maamobi.

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

Acknowledgements ... 2

Abstract ... 3

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations ... 6

List of Figures ... 7

List of Maps ... 7

1. Introduction ... 8

1.1. Research question and relevance of the thesis ... 10

1.2. Thesis Outline ... 12

2. Literature Review ... 13

3. Theoretical Framework ... 18

3.1. Interactive Governance Approach ... 18

3.2. Stakeholder Analysis ... 21 3.3. Conceptual Scheme ... 23 4. Research Methodology ... 24 4.1. Research Design ... 24 4.2. Research Location ... 28 4.3. Research Methodology ... 28 4.4. Unit of Analysis ... 29 4.5. Sampling ... 30

4.6. Ethics and Positionality ... 31

4.7. Research Quality Assessment ... 32

4.7.1. Trustworthiness ... 32

4.7.2. Authenticity ... 34

4.8. Limitations ... 34

5. Analysis of the MSW Problem in Maamobi ... 36

5.1. Waste situation in Maamobi ... 36

5.1.2. The Waste Situation in Maamobi ... 37

5.1.3. Spatial Understanding of Maamobi ... 38

5.1.4. Waste Disposal System ... 40

5.2. Factors Contributing to the Burden of Waste in Maamobi ... 43

5.2.1. Evaluation of the ‘wicked problem’ ... 48

5.3. Stakeholder Analysis of the WMS ... 49

5.3.1. Stakeholders of the Formal Governing System ... 50

5.3.2. Stakeholders of the Informal Governing System ... 53

5.3.3. Stakeholders of the System-to-be-Governed ... 55

5.3.4. Evaluation of the Diversity, Complexity and Dynamics of the WMS ... 58

5.4. Waste Governance Arrangements ... 59

5.4.1. Existing Policies for Waste Management ... 59

5.4.2. Formal and Informal Arrangements ... 61

5.4.3. Orders of Governance and Governability Elements ... 62

5.4.4. Evaluation of the Governing Instruments and Actions ... 63

5.5. Governing Interactions ... 64

5.5.1. Interconnectedness between the Stakeholders of the WMS in Maamobi ... 66

5.5.2. Evaluation of the Governing Interactions ... 71

6. Conclusion ... 73

6.1. Summary of Findings ... 73

6.2. Final Conclusion ... 76

6.3. Theoretical Reflections ... 76

6.4. Suggestions for Future Research. ... 79

Bibliography ... 80

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS:

- In alphabetical order - AMA – Accra Metropolitan Assembly

ANM – Ayawaso North Municipality

DESSAP – District Environmental and Sanitation Action Plan DFID – Department for International Development

ESP – Environmental Sanitation Policy IGA – Interactive Governance Approach IGF – Internally Generated Fund

IMF – International Monetary Fund

MESTI – Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation MLGRD – Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development MMDAs – Municipal and District Assemblies

MSW – Municipal Solid Waste

MSWR – Ministry of Sanitation and Water Resources

NESSAP – National Environmental and Sanitation Action Plan NIMBY – Not in My Backyard syndrome

NPP – National Patriotic Party PPP – Public Private Partnership SA – Stakeholder Analysis

SDGs – Sustainable Development Goals

UNDP – United Nations Development Programme UNSCP – United Nations Sustainable Cities Programme WMS – Waste Management System

LIST OF FIGURES:

Figure 1 – Conceptual Scheme

Figure 2 – Household Sampling Table

Figure 3 – WMS Governance Interactions Diagram Figure 4 – Operationalisation Table

LIST OF MAPS

Map 1 – Accra Metropolis District within the Greater Accra Region of Ghana Map 2 – Position of Maamobi within the Accra Metropolis District

Map 3 – Outline of Maamobi East and its sub-electoral areas Map 4 – Points of Interest in Maamobi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Unwanted and unusable materials, substances and products are commonly referred to as waste1. Waste, in its different forms, has always been part of our daily lives, and its proper management has always been the responsibility of the governing system, which, in the early days of human history, probably consisted of family or community leadership. Since the second half of the last century however, a society based on mass consumerism has emerged, resulting in an exponential increase in the amount of waste generated (Onibokun, 1999). This burden is especially problematic in the Global South, where rapid urbanization - in many cases uncontrolled and unplanned - combined with the inadequate governance of waste by relevant authorities and stakeholders results in environmental degradation, pollution and extremely unsanitary conditions (Baabereyir, 2012; Onibokun, 1999). Underdeveloped countries - such as Ghana - are also accepting the waste from rich nations to treat and discard it in return for foreign exchange - a phenomenon known as Global Waste Trade - which is further contributing to the accumulation of waste in these underdeveloped countries (Sembiring, 2019).

Negative environmental consequences and public health concerns are becoming so extreme, that this issue has acquired wider purchase in the international space by becoming the focus of various development interventions such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Agenda 21, and the United Nations Sustainable Cities Programme (UNSCP) (Baabereyir, 2012). This problem has become a global environmental priority which requires proper and efficient waste management (Mihai, 2012). This is also part of target 11.6 of the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which is to “reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management” (p.22). The Global South has been trying to comply with this target by setting up environmentally friendly technologies via public-private partnerships with firms coming from Western countries, among other strategies. Unfortunately, these technologies are not only costly, but mostly inappropriate for local conditions (Oteng-Ababio et al., 2013). Its proper implementation, which requires systematic planning, is failing because geographical and urban data from developing countries is mostly erroneous or not complete, and the necessary infrastructures and finances are inadequate (Oteng-Ababio, 2011a). There is therefore the need for more local, context-specific strategies

that involve all of the different stakeholders of the Waste Management System (WMS) by considering their roles, interests and challenges (Phong Le et al. 2018).

Local knowledge provides a unique insight into complex and dynamic socio-ecological systems, and hence it is fundamental to local solutions (Reed, 2008). Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), is the ‘rubbish’ or ‘garbage’ generated in residential, commercial, institutional and/or small industrial activities which is managed by municipal authorities (Nathanson, 2019). MSW management is not however, the sole responsibility of local authorities – it is a much more complex system that involves the storage, collection, transport and disposal of waste, and requires the involvement of many different stakeholders (Snel & Ali, 1999). If the system is to be effective and successful, all of them have to be integrated throughout the process of planning and implementation (Sarmento dos Muchangos et al., 2017). Unfortunately, especially in low-income areas of developing countries such as Ghana, this process is complicated and defined by a lack of mutual understanding (Phong Le et al., 2018).

Inadequate waste management in developing countries is also the cause of environmental social injustices. This is as result of the “exploitative socioeconomic relations” inherent to “neoliberal forms of capitalist development” (Swyngedouw & Heynen, 2003, p.911) which highlights the privileged position of richer inhabitants regarding the power and control over waste flows – not only between the Global North and the Global South, but also between low-income and high-income areas within an underdeveloped country (Baabereyir, 2012). Residents of poor neighbourhoods, which lack proper containers and an adequate disposal system, have to live surrounded by heaps of trash with serious public health and environmental consequences. This situation is also worsened due to failures in community collective action and lack of awareness among citizens (Abraham & Aniapam, 2016; Oteng-Ababio et al., 2013). Despite the fact that richer areas are significantly less populated, and hence less generated waste per capita, they hardly experience this burden - at least not to these extremes - because streets are regularly cleaned and generally well maintained (Baabereyir, 2012).

Furthermore, there is the problem of the land. There is a lot of competition for land in the peripheries of large cities to locate landfill sites where the waste generated in the urban area can be disposed (Owusu et al., 2012). Rapid urbanization is forcing landfills to be located in faraway rural areas, where the government is expropriating land traditionally used for farming. This also means however, that when urban areas grow, they come close to the

landfills. This can have sanitary consequences. In sum, the proper management of waste is one of the most pressing global challenges, particularly in the Global South.

Ghana is a developing country which has experienced a rapid urban population growth, and hence an increase in its urban waste generation (Oteng-Ababio, 2011a). Since the mid-1980’s, this West-African country has been pursuing liberalisation policies that have increased its globalised nature (Baabereyir, 2012; Oteng-Ababio et al., 2013). These structural adjustment and trade-liberalisation policies, which are sponsored by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), have increased foreign presence in Ghana’s economy and has opened it up to foreign products (Baabereyir, 2012). This however, has increased international pressure on its economy and made its decision-making processes more market-dependant. Furthermore, due to Global Waste Trade, Ghana is one of the countries receiving foreign debris, especially e-waste, from developed countries in return for money – increasing the accumulation of waste in the country. Many initiatives have been set up and new technologies applied to improve waste management, but because they are inappropriate and incompatible with local conditions, they have ended up failing.

Accra is among Ghana’s urban areas experiencing a domestic waste burden. Some areas of the city are quite developed – long avenues, monumental public buildings, comfortable and clean residential areas. Nevertheless, as mostly happens in developing cities, this ‘new-rich’ development is only happening in certain neighbourhoods. There are many low-income communities in Accra living in slums or informal housing built in a haphazard manner, with roads that are inaccessible, and an inefficient drainage system. This research is based in one of such underdeveloped neighbourhoods in Accra, called Maamobi. In addition to its unplanned development and poor sanitary infrastructure, Maamobi suffers from the burden of solid waste. Its citizens live surrounded by smelly gutters, central containers which are full for days, and drainages used as a dumping sites. As unappealing as all of this may sound, this situation is just what made Maamobi a suitable context to examine.

1.1 Research question and relevance of the thesis

This thesis aims to answer the research question:

Why is there are a burden of solid waste in Maamobi

To help answer it, the following four sub-questions will be addressed:

(1) What is the solid waste situation in Maamobi?

(2) What is the degree and nature of the burden of solid waste in Maamobi? can this issue be considered a ‘wicked problem’?

(3) Who are the stakeholders of the WMS in Maamobi and what are their interests and challenges in relation to waste management?

(4) What are the formal and informal governance arrangements for waste?

(5) What are the governing interactions between the stakeholders of WMS and how could a more integrated cooperation among them contribute to solving the burden of waste?

The main purpose of this study is to evaluate the governance of MSW in Maamobi, and make policy and structural recommendations throughout. This will be achieved by understanding the interests and challenges of the relevant stakeholders of the WMS2 in Maamobi and exploring the interactions among them. An interactive governance approach (IGA), complemented with a stakeholder analysis (SA), will inform the logic of analysis, focusing on the ‘wicked problem’; the stakeholders of the formal and informal governing system and the system-to-be-governed; and governing interactions. The analysis of this thesis consists of five sections, each addressing one of the sub-questions. During fieldwork it became evident that before dealing with any governability issue, it was necessary to first comprehend why there is a burden out of waste. Therefore, the first section will be dedicated to evaluating the waste situation in Maamobi, and the second section to analysing the degree and nature of the burden of waste. The WMS requires the involvement of many different stakeholders, so understanding their environment is also fundamental to further comprehend the governance of MSW in Maamobi. Accordingly, the third section will follow with a SA enquiring into roles, challenges and interests. This will also include an evaluation of the diversity, complexity and dynamics of the system. The fourth section will then be dedicated to the governance arrangements related to sanitation which guide the actions of the governing system. Finally, the interactions among the stakeholders will be evaluated in the fifth section in order to understand which stakeholders have a fruitful relationship and which of them are being neglected or left out from decision-making processes.

It is a wide-spread belief among scholars that involving stakeholders of the WMS in the decision-making and implementation process is essential for the efficient and successful

management of waste. Nevertheless, for stakeholders to be properly involved, it is fundamental to understand their specific features, interdependence, relationships and influences among them (Phong Le et al., 2008). Any crisis regarding waste management is caused by lack of attention given to these factors, hindering stakeholders from effectively playing their part (Phong Le et al., 2008). Unfortunately, not enough research has been done on the interactions between stakeholders – at least not in Accra, and especially not in Maamobi. This neighbourhood’s WMS is complex and includes many different stakeholders that play a key role in it. Understanding their interconnections will be the main contribution of this research. Moreover, this investigation is academically relevant because although there is existing literature available on the problems of waste management in Accra, this is the first exploratory investigation in Maamobi which evaluates a social governability problem such as waste management by focusing on the perceptions and interconnections between stakeholders. As Onibokun (1999) states: “although the body of literature and practical knowledge about the technical, administrative, and institutional dimensions of waste management in Africa is large and growing, policy frameworks and implementation strategies must be accompanied by new forms of governance to increase efficiency and effectiveness and maximize popular participation in service provision” (p.5). Therefore, structural and policy recommendations framed by an interactive governance approach are also included when analysing the governance of MSW in Maamobi.

1.2. Thesis outline

The outline of this thesis is as follows: Firstly, the existing literature on waste management and stakeholder engagement in developed countries, especially Ghana, will be explored. This section will be followed by the theoretical framework, in which the theory behind the IGA and SA will be presented together with the conceptual scheme of this thesis. Upon doing so, the research methodology employed to gather the necessary data will be revealed and justified. Subsequently, the five sections of the analysis will include: an examination of the waste situation in Maamobi, an analysis of the factors contributing to the burden of waste, a SA, an overview of the formal and informal waste governance arrangements - as well as the existing sanitation policies - and an examination of the governing interactions. Finally, the findings will be wrapped up in the conclusion, and recommendations for further research will be presented.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter is dedicated to the examination of existing literature addressing waste management issues which has been used as secondary sources throughout this thesis. Specifically, the literature focuses on waste mismanagement as a global issue, the burden of MSW in Africa, the prominence of the informal waste sector, factors contributing to the burden of waste, and issues related to waste in Ghana.

Environmental contamination due to waste mismanagement has drawn the attention of many scientists, geographers and academics. Existing literature focuses on the management of many different types of waste produced by, for example, char fuel (Lohri et al., 2016), food (Thi et al., 2015), electric and electronic equipment (Ongondo et al., 2011), used batteries (Bernardes et al., 2004), healthcare (Ali et al., 2017), and households (Inglezakis & Moustakas, 2015). As Ferronato & Torretta (2019) explain, the burden of waste has an impact at the local level - soil pollution and air contamination - at the regional level - pollution of waterbodies used for agriculture and household purposes - and at the global level – global warming and marine littering. All of these issues caused my waste mismanagement are central aspects of the current climate crisis and the systematic degradation of the environment. Therefore, the burden of waste could be considered a ‘tragedy of the commons’ – a concept introduced by the ecologist Garrett Hardin in 1968. According to Hardin’s theory, when men pollute they are putting something into the commons, as opposed to men taking something out of it – which is normally the case. This is because “the rational man finds that his share of the cost of the wastes he discharges into the commons in less that the costs of purifying his wastes before releasing them” (Hardin, 1968, p.1245). Once waste has been dumped, it is suddenly no one’s concern. Mies & Benholdt-Thomsen (2001) go further and explore the concept ‘garbage as commons’ by looking at the contradictions and absurdities of the existing system of waste disposal. They pose the question “can there be something like global commons?” (p.1). Their answer is yes – the global is in the local and vice versa. The World Bank, IMF and Transnational Corporations are an example of a global decision-making elite that manages ‘global commons’. When it comes to waste however, Mies & Benholdt-Thomsen (2001) refer to it as a ‘negative common’. Developed countries do not want to be responsible for the waste they generate, and therefore choose to dump it into other countries’ commons. These countries - mostly underdeveloped - declare themselves responsible for it, assuming all the negative consequences that this global waste trade process entails. According to Ferronato & Torretta (2019), it is indeed in developing countries where the

burden of waste is most visible and problematic, but this does not mean that they have to deal with it on their own. They claim that “common projects should be introduced at a global level in order to reduce the environmental contamination and health issues” (p.21).

It is a shared agreement among scholars such as Onibokun (1999), Oteng Ababio (2009; 2011a), Oteng Ababio et al. (2013), Orlu et al. (2016), Owusu et al. (2012) and Owusu (2010) that MSW management has become an environmental health burden in many African cities – mostly due to uncontrolled and unplanned urbanization and rapid urban population growth. Onibokun (1999) believes that this issue is threatening the governance of urban centres, and therefore, it is necessary to assess the extent to which governability is responding to the challenges which arise due to the burden of waste. What he claims is that “the sheer volume of waste does not actually constitute the problem – it is the inability of governments and waste-disposal firms to keep up with it” (p.3). Governments are insufficiently informed by the practical problems of service provision, and until now have failed to provide a clear conceptual and strategic framework that empowers citizens organizationally and institutionally. Managerial and organizational efficiency, accountability, legitimacy, transparency and responsiveness to the public are some key elements that Onibokun (1999) considers fundamental for the efficient and effective governance of waste. Moreover, it is necessary to not only focus on the formal governance structures for collection, transportation, and disposal of waste, but also on the informal ones, and the existing relationship between them.

The informal waste system is very prominent in African countries. There are many scholars, such as Oteng-Ababio (2009; 2011a), Oteng-Ababio et al. (2013), Yankson (1992), Wilson et al. (2006), Sharholy et al. (2008) and Ferronato & Torretta (2019), among others, that recognize their importance and argue that their inclusion in the formal waste system would have beneficial outcomes for the WMS itself and for the livelihoods and working conditions of the informal waste pickers.

There are many different reasons why the burden of waste has become such an environmental health hazard that African cities are struggling to cope with. Scholars argue these factors are: inefficient and insufficient waste disposal services (Oteng-Ababio, 2011a; Oteng-Ababio et al., 2013; Abraham & Aniapam, 2016; Hazra and Goel, 2009; Moghadam et al., 2009), ineffective policy (Seik, 1997; Owusu, 2012; Pokhrel and Viraraghavan, 2005; Orlu et al., 2016), lack of law-enforcement (Abraham & Aniapam, 2016), the failure to appreciate that sustainable waste management practices entail proper collection transportation, treatment and safe disposal of residuals (Oteng-Ababio, 2011b; Abraham &

Aniapam, 2016; Wilson et al., 2006), and the lack of financial resources to pay for disposal services (Abraham & Aniapam, 2016). Guerrero et al. (2013) provide a more extensive and detailed list of social factors - such as gender and family size - that might also be contributing to the burden of waste.

Although the problems related to waste management and the burden of waste have been researched in many African countries, Ghana appears to be one of the most analysed cases due to the severe of its waste problem and because it is where the Adbogbloshie site - one of the biggest dump sites for electronic waste in the world - is located. Researchers interested in the waste problem in Ghana - particularly Accra - whose work has been relevant for this thesis include Baabereyir (2012) Abraham & Aniapam (2016), Owusu (2010), and Stacey & Lund (2016), Aye & Crook (2003). There is however, one scholar who is very highly regarded within the academic sphere in Ghana as an expert in the topic of waste. His name is Martin Oteng-Ababio, the head of the Department of Geography and Resource Development at the University of Legon, Accra. He has written articles on the involvement of the private sector in the WMS (Oteng-Ababio, 2009), the role of the informal sector in the WMS (Oteng-Ababio, 2011a), problems with investments in new solid waste management technologies (Oteng-Ababio et al., 2013), conflicts and governance of landfills (Owusu et al., 2012), collection, storage and transportation of waste (Oteng-Ababio, 2011b), the impact of waste on the environment (Oteng-Ababio, 2010), and much more. His work presents an overview of the waste situation in Ghana from different angles and perspectives which is fundamental for any researcher who wishes to dig further into the topic. In his essay ‘Missing Links in Solid Waste Management in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area in Ghana’, Oteng-Ababio (2010) asserts the importance of reducing, reusing, recycling or composting waste in order to establish a more sustainable WMS. Many municipalities are not able to afford this sustainable process, so there is the need to stimulate privatised refuse collection. He also identifies two factors which are hindering the process from being more sustainable: the lack of an appropriate waste minimisation act - the current one does not recognize waste minimisation as a fundamental aspect of a more sustainable system - and the lack of proper disposal sites - an important challenged faced by most stakeholders of the WMS. He digs dipper into the problem of the landfills in an essay he writes together with George Owusu and Robert Afatu-Kotey (2012). There are numerous problems regarding the landfills, especially land ownership and the granting of permits, which result in conflicts between municipal authorities and communities located near landfills.

Baabereyir (2012) writes about the “ecological distribution and associated environmental injustices in Accra’s growing domestic-waste burden and examines how inequalities in spatial distribution for waste-collection services and waste-disposal sites reflect the uneven distribution of power and wealth in Ghanaian society” (p.297). He highlights the unjust waste-burden flows between low-income and high-income area, and between Ghana and the Global North, reflecting the privilege of the wealthy and powerful at the expense of the poor. As a solution to this issue, he urgently calls for formal and informal stakeholders to engage with one another so that their roles can be better recognised and supported, with the ultimate aim of improving the quality of service in low-income areas and illegal settlements.

Abraham & Aniapam (2016) carry out an investigation on sanitation and waste disposal practices from community members’ perspective belonging to three low-income communities in Accra: Alajo, Nima and Sabon Zongo. They concluded that failures in community collective action, poor practices and insufficient facilities cause poor sanitation and poor waste disposal practices, and hence city authorities should collaborate with community members to solve environmental problems. Owusu (2010) also carries out an neighbourhood-specific investigation in a poor Zongo community3 in Accra. He however, criticizes the governing authorities for their inability to deal with management - especially in terms of policy and action - and to keep up with the rapid pace of urbanization. Owusu (2010) also makes an important remark, which is that slums and poor urban communities in Accra are not homogeneous, even if they have similar characteristics. Therefore, “understanding the internal dynamics and key stakeholders at the urban community level is critical to any solutions to address the challenges of sanitation and waste management in poor urban communities in Accra” (p.158). Stacey and Lund (2016) do not focus specifically on waste management, but still provide a very interesting governance analysis of an informal urban settlement in Accra called Old Fadama, next to which the infamous Adbogbloshie site is located. They discuss how informal arrangements can be beneficial for the provision of basic services and try to argue against the popular perception that large-scale informal settlements are chaotic, lawless and subversive.

As Guerrero et al (2013) explain, there is a popular perception that waste management is solely the responsibility of municipal authorities, when it actually requires the participation of many different stakeholders. Therefore, they claim that:

A detailed understanding on who the stakeholders are and their responsibilities they have in the structure are important steps in order to establish an efficient and effective system. Communication transfer between the different stakeholders is of high importance in order to get a well-functioning waste management system in the cities in developing countries (p.227)

This thesis makes use of all of the mentioned literature to acquire further academic knowledge to the one obtained in the field. The need - which is mentioned by several scholars - of understanding who the stakeholders are and what their role is in the WMS, has been taken into account and considered when assessing the burden of waste in Maamobi.

CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This thesis makes use of two analytical frameworks when evaluating the data: interactive governance approach and stakeholder analysis. Both theoretical models are broadly explained in this chapter.

3.1 Interactive Governance Approach

This research makes use of an IGA as a framework to analyse the governance of waste in Maamobi and propose structural and policy recommendations. By exploring the interactions and initiatives of the state, private actors, civil society organisations and the public when dealing with complex social problems, which Bavinck et al. (2009) refer to as ‘wicked problem’ (Edelebos & van Meerkerk, 2016). According to Rittel & Webber (1973), “problems can be described as discrepancies between the state of affairs as it is and the state as it ought to be” (p.165). Nevertheless, they claim that there is no definitive way of formulating a ‘wicked problem’ because it is not really possible to establish its degree and nature. This however, is what makes of a problem a ‘wicked problem’. Only by finding a solution can a problem start to be defined. What matters is the understanding of the problem, and therefore it is not possible to determine if a perception is right or wrong. This means that there can be a variety of solutions, but there is no real way of knowing which is the one to apply.

According to this approach, governing authorities should solve societal problems through interactions with other members of the governing system and system-to-be-governed. (Kooiman & Bavinck, 2013). Therefore, a failure in society cannot be attributed solely to the governing authorities, it requires a holistic assessment of the actions and interactions of all of the actors involved (Kooiman & Bavinck, 2013). Governability is defined by Kooiman et al. (2008) as “the overall capacity for governance of any societal entity or system” (p.3). Societal systems are composed of a governing system, a system-to-be-governed, and the governing interactions between them. The theoretical perspective which focuses on such interactions is known as interactive governance, which Kooiman & Bavinck (2005) define as “the whole of interactions taken to solve societal problems and to create societal opportunities, including the formulation and application of principles guiding those interactions and care for institutions that enable them” (p.17). This approach provides an alternative mode of governance to overcome increasing social complexity, dynamics and

diversification which is undermining the ability to effectively, efficiently and legitimately govern society (Edelebos & van Meerkerk, 2016). The combining efforts between actors - individuals, associations, organisations, firms, governmental agencies and international bodies - to tackle societal problems and opportunities is what Kooiman & Bavinck (2013) refer to as interactions.

As explained by Bavinck et al. (2013), there are four dimensions of the IGA that need to be examined in order to assess the governability of a ‘wicked problem’. The first dimension is related to the degree and nature of a ‘wicked’ problem. As already mentioned, identifying what the ‘wicked problem’ is can in itself be challenging because stakeholders have different opinions revolving the degree and nature of a problem . They frame problems according to their own perceptions and interests, so in certain cases it can be puzzling to agree on the importance of a problem and its urgency to resolve it. It must also be taken into account that ‘wicked’ problems are normally embedded within a bigger social problem, meaning that they can only be solved if the bigger issue is also addressed (p.339). Moreover, it is hard to recognize when a goal has been accomplished because there is hardly a point or moment which indicates when a ‘wicked problem’ has been solved (p.338). Mistakes when solving a ‘wicked problem’ can be costly and irreversible, so it is crucial to be careful how and which solving policies are implemented (p.339)

The second dimension identified by Bavinck et al. (2013) is related to the properties of the natural and social systems-to-be-governed and how such properties may be lowering or enhancing governability in particular situations. It is necessary to examine three things: Firstly, the diversity related to resource units and relevant stakeholders - meaning the system components, the elements comprising the system, and their characteristic and numbers (p.340). Secondly, the complexity of the system - meaning the connection between system components (p.340). And thirdly, the dynamics of the system, so “how system components actively influence each other, provide inputs and feedback to each other, and how they make the systems change either gradually or in leaps and bounds” (p.341). Societal systems are becoming more diverse, complex and dynamic, and although their intensity does vary between systems, they pose challenges to their overall governability due to uncertainty and unpredictability in system behaviour (Kooiman & Bavinck, 2013). The overall hypothesis is: “the more diverse, complex, dynamic and scale extensive the system-to-be-governed and the governing system are, the lower their governability due to the wickedness of the governance” (p.339).

The third dimension is related to the governing system, which Bavinck et al. (2013) define as: “the institutions and steering instruments and mechanisms that are established to deal with governability issues arising as ‘wicked problems’ within the system-to-be-governed” (p.340). This means that is not only formal governmental authorities those belonging to the governing system. Informal organizations and informal leaders that have a certain degree of authority over a fraction of society are also considered to be part of the governing system. The purpose of this third dimension is to assess what elements driving the governing system, how efficiently its mode of governance is responding to ‘wicked problems’, and how its policies foster or inhibit the governing system to produce outcomes which benefit the systems-to-be-governed (p.343). Governance will be effective if the governing system is capable of dealing with a ‘wicked problem’ while taking into account the characteristics of the system-to-be-governed, regardless of their diversity, complexity and dynamics (p.342). Politics and bureaucracy are fundamental styles of management of the governing system, and therefore they cannot be ignored or taken for granted when conducting a governability assessment (Kooiman & Bavinck, 2013). In this third step, there are two features of governance that have be assessed: elements and orders. Governing elements are the resources available for the governing authorities to carry out their tasks (Kooiman & Bavinck, 2013). These include: images such as knowledge, facts, theories, judgments, convictions, goals, etc; instruments, such as rules, regulations, taxes, fines an subsidies; and actions, such as the implementation of policies and mobilization of actors. This is the point where governing interactions emerge (Kooiman & Bavinck, 2013). Governing orders are the categories in which governing activities take place (Kooiman et al. 2005). Three categories can be distinguished: the first order, which is where day-to-day governing activities take place; the second order, which is the institutional setting in which strategic plans dealing with major issues are developed. As Kooiman et al. (2008) explains, here “the term ‘institution’ denotes the agreements, rules, rights, laws, norms, beliefs roles, procedures and organisations that are applied by first-order governors to make decisions” (p.7). Finally the third-order, also known as meta-governance, are all the decisions made based on overall norms, values and principles that guide institutions and actions (Kooiman & Bavinck, 2013).

Finally, according to Bavinck et al. (2013), the fourth dimension focuses on governing interactions by examining the institutions and processes through which the system-to-be-governed and the governing system relate to one another (p.344). There are three modes of governance: hierarchical governance, a top-down control system; co-governance, when the government cooperates with civil society actors and other relevant stakeholders;

and self-governance, when stakeholders take individual decisions and act independently. The hypothesis is “the more wicked and complex the problem and the goal structure are, the more difficult it is for the government to work alone” (p.343). This means that in order to deal properly with a ‘wicked problem’, the government should work together with other relevant stakeholders. Kooiman et al. (2008) identify three forms of governance interactions: participatory interactions, which depend on the responsiveness of the community members as the essential factor dictating their success; collaborative interactions, in which groups, organisations and authorities collaborate and cooperate with one another by sharing information and activities, or by establishing Public Private Partnerships (PPP) for governance purposes; and policy and management interactions, in which the governing system aims at having an impact on a system-to-be-governed through interventionist initiatives, such as policies (p.8). Power plays a crucial part in governance interactions, as unjust or hegemonical power relations will obstruct effective governance. In order to avoid this, it is fundamental to have a balanced distribution of power (p.345). The IGA understands governance as being a process which combines the forces of the governing system, the system-to-be-governed and governing interactions, and therefore relies on the “ability of the totality of these systems to deliver on the challenges and demands brought about by their diversity, complexity, dynamics and scale” (p.347).

3.2 Stakeholder Analysis

SA is defined by the British ministerial Department of International Development (DFID) as: “the identification of a project’s key stakeholders, an assessment of their interests, and the ways in which their interests affect project riskiness and viability” (ODA, 1995, p.2). It combines institutional evaluation together with social analysis under one single framework in order to explore and understand stakeholder participation (ODA, 1995). Freeman (1984) was the first scholar to introduce the stakeholder approach by applying it to business management. He referred to stakeholders as those who can affect, or are affected by a business activity. The fundamental role of stakeholders has been increasingly recognised by policy makers and scholars, therefore, during the last two decades, this analysis has been applied in the fields of sustainable development, global environmental change and waste management (Heindrich et al., 2009). For the purpose of this research, SA will be specifically applied in a local solid waste management scheme. Waste management involves a complex

set of operations taking place at a large scale, and therefore its proper governance is fundamental for an efficient collection and disposal system (Snel & Ali, 1999).

Doing a SA is useful for several reasons: firstly, it explores the relations between stakeholders and identifies conflicts and alliances between them; secondly, it recognizes how they act according to their interests in relation to the problem in question; thirdly, it assesses their level of influence and importance; and finally it identifies their risks and challenges (ODA, 1995). In sum, the main purpose of SA is to “understand their behaviour, intentions, interrelations, agendas, interests, and the influence or resources that they have brought - our could bring - to bear on decision-making processes” (Brugha & Varvasovszky, 2000, p.338). Stakeholders are the people, groups, institutions, organisations or companies which have interests in a project, are positively or negatively affected by it, or have influence over the decision-making and implementation process (ODA, 1995)(Brugha & Varvasovszky, 2000). Depending on their relation with the issue in question, stakeholders can be divided into three groups: primary stakeholders, which are those directly affected, either positively or negatively, by the project; secondary stakeholders, those who are playing an intermediary role and somehow influence the project’s outcome; and the external stakeholders, which may be affected by the project but are not directly involved in it (ODA,1995). If the stakeholder has a significant influence over the project, or/and if it is important for its success, then he/she is considered to be a key stakeholder. Influence and importance should be considered separately, because a stakeholder could be both, only one of them, or none. Influence refers to the degree of power that a stakeholders has over how and what decisions are made, how such decisions are implemented, their ability to persuade others into making decisions, and their capacity to mobilise resources for or against a policy (ODA, 1995)(Schmeer, 2001). Importance refers to the stakeholders whose participation is crucial for the project’s success, and therefore their challenges, needs and interests must, or rather should, be taken into account (ODA, 1995). It is especially necessary to understand their challenges in order to address them as they might be risking the successful development of the project.

Understanding the culture and environment in which stakeholders is fundamental in order to evaluate their interactions (Brugha & Varvasovszky, 2000). This is however, a limitation of SA. Particularly in developing countries, the cultural, political, economic and social context changes over time, implying that the data used at a certain point may not be representative of that same context some years later (Brugha & Varvasovszky, 2000). Therefore, for those interested in the information provided by a SA, it is necessary to keep

updating the data every few years. The guidelines of how to carry out the SA will be provided in the research design of this thesis [Chapter 4.1].

3.3 Conceptual scheme

This conceptual scheme presents the key concepts of this thesis and visually displays the relationship between them. How each concept is operationalised and, therefore measured, will be included in the operationalisation table [see appendix 1].

Figure 1 C U RRE N T W A ST E SI T U A T IO N IN M A A M O B I B U RD E N O F W A ST E FA C T O RS C O N T RI B U T IN G T O T H E B U RD E N O F W A ST E : Ø In ef fic ie nc y o f t he w as te di sp os al s er vi ce s Ø A tt itu de o f t he c om m un ity Ø G eo gr ap hi ca l f ac to rs G O V E RN A N C E O F W A ST E I N M A A M O B I G O V E RN A B IL IT Y AN AL Y SI S • St ak eh ol de rs • E xi st in g P ol ic ie s an d F or m al & I nf or m al G ov er na nc e A gr ee m en ts • G ov er ni ng I nt er ac tio ns Ø Pr im ar y Ø Se co nda ry Ø Ke y Ø F or m al G ov er ni ng S ys te m Ø In fo rm al G ov er ni ng S ys te m Ø Sy st em -to -be -Gov er ne d H ow c an a m or e i nt er ac tiv e g ov er na nc e a pp ro ac h c on tr ib ut e t o s ol vi ng th e b ur de n o f w as te ? B U RD E N O F W A ST E

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter is dedicated to explaining the research methodology employed in this research. This is an abductive investigation because the theoretical understanding of the context and social world in Maamobi has been achieved through participants’ perspectives and understandings of reality (Bryman, 2012). Therefore, it was necessary to use appropriate research methods that similarly emphasised the importance of social life and social actors. To further understand this social reality, I merged into the culture and society of Maamobi. I investigated and lived there, as I realised that I would not be able to establish a close relationship with the community if I did not fully understand their everyday struggles and challenges. The fact that I had to deeply understand the world of Maamobi’s citizens to be able to comprehend the information given to me by my informants, also makes this an ethnographic research.

4.1. Research Design

In order to answer the research question, the analysis of this thesis is divided into five main sections, each of which addresses one sub-question. The first section is more explanatory and descriptive in nature. It explores the waste situation in Maamobi and provides a spatial understanding of the area. The second section provides an analysis of the factors contributing to the burden of waste and examines how the waste problem is perceived by the relevant stakeholders of the WMS. Until recently, the issue of waste management had mostly been treated by scientists, but there is a growing need to analyse it from a more social, economic and geographical perspective (Mihai, 2012). From Mihai’s statement: “geographical distribution of the demographic and socio-economic indicators influences the generation of waste in a city” (2012, p.42) we learn that it is fundamental to consider social and territorial implications when understanding the origins of a waste problem. As stakeholders are the ones responsible for the current functioning of the WMS, in the third section a SA will be carried out enquiring into their roles, challenges and interests. To do so, the following steps - adapted from the ones provided by the British DFID (ODA, 1995) - will be used as guidelines:

(1) Identify all the stakeholders of the WMS in relation to Maamobi and divide them into primary, secondary, and key stakeholders.

(3) Explain their role within the waste management chain.

(4) Reveal what their interests are, and how they are acting according to them. (5) Explain their challenges and analyse how those challenges are putting the whole

WMS at risk.

(6) Explore their interrelations, including alliances and conflicts between them.

Point six however, will not be carried out in the third section of the analysis, but in in the fifth. The degree of influence and importance of the stakeholders within the WMS of Maamobi has been established and justified according to my own perception depending on the level of authority of the stakeholders. Therefore, I acknowledge that my opinion could be questioned by the stakeholders themselves or by other academic opinions. Although scholars such as Varvasovszky & Brugha (2000), Phong Le et al. (2018) and Sarmento dos Muchangos et al. (2017) use matrix tables in order to quantify the data, this will not be the case in this thesis because the applied version of SA has been modified to be able to obtain detailed information regarding the stakeholders.

The fourth section provides an overview of the waste governance arrangements that guide the actions of the governing system. This includes the existing policies for waste management, and the formal and informal municipal governance arrangements. This section is essential because before analysing and evaluating the interactions between the stakeholders of the WMS in Maamobi, it is first necessary to comprehend the nature and functioning of the institutional policies and arrangements related to sanitation that frame such interactions. The fifth and final empirical section analyses the interactions among the stakeholders of the WMS and evaluates how a more integrated cooperation among them could contribute to solving the burden of waste.

ACCRA METROPOLIS DISTRICT WITHIN THE GREATER ACCRA REGION OF GHANA

POSITION OF MAAMOBI WITHIN THE ACCRA METROPOLIS DISTRICT

4.2 Research Location

This research is specifically based in Maamobi EAST, which together with Maamobi West and New Town forms the Ayawaso North Municipality (ANM). Ayawaso North is a constituency located within the Accra Metropolis District of the Greater Accra Region of Ghana [see Map 1 and 2]. Maamobi EAST4 is an electoral area which is then divided into tree sub-electoral areas called Ladidi, Sawaba and Maamobi East. For simplicity reasons, throughout the thesis the electoral area Maamobi EAST will only be referred to as Maamobi, but it is important to remember that it does not include Maamobi West nor New Town. Until the end of 2018, the ANM did not exist as an independent decision making power. The whole neighbourhood was under the jurisdiction of the Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA) until eventually in 2018, the ANM was created, assuming all political and administrative responsibilities and becoming the institution with the highest decision-making authority in Maamobi.

4.3 Research Methodology

Although this thesis relies heavily on qualitative data, different methods have been employed to answer the research question in the most complete way possible.

First, semi-structured interviews have been used as the primary source of data in order to reach a better understanding of the different challenges, perceptions and opinions of the relevant actors. This type of interview does follow the general form of an interview schedule, but the questions are more general in nature and it is possible to vary their sequence (Bryman, 2012).

Second, GIS tools - particularly the OSMAN App – have been employed to carry out a spatial analysis of Maamobi and achieve a spatial understanding of the area. Four maps are included in this thesis: one situating the Accra Metropolis District within the Greater Accra Region of Ghana, a second one identifying Maamobi within the Accra Metropolis District, a third one tracking the outline of Maamobi EAST and its three sub-electoral areas, and a fourth one indicating points of interest such as the current and former location of central containers, places where the burden of waste is most visual and problematic, the

4 In order to make it easier for the reader to differentiate between Maamobi EAST as an electoral area and

Maamobi East as one of the three sub-electoral areas, Maamobi EAST as an electoral area will be written in capital letters.

location of public bins, the Nima-Maamobi drainage and the operational headquarters of the ANM. This fourth map includes pictures I took during fieldwork in order to provide a more visual understanding of the burden of waste in Maamobi. Normally this research method is considered to be quantitative, but in this case it is qualitative because it integrates local knowledge, multimedia and ethnographic data (Arpagian & Aitken, 2018).

Third, a series of structured interviews were conducted with household members of Maamobi. The structure of this type of interview is standardized so that the differences between interviews are minimized (Bryman, 2012). As the objective was to interview 40 household members, I wanted the answers to be a concise as possible and, therefore, I recurred to this form of research interview rather than a semi-structured one. The purpose of conducting these interviews was to understand the community’s opinion on the current waste situation and WMS and evaluate household disposal practices.

Fourth, a series of articles, books and policies have been analysed in order to acquire a better understanding of the topic and policy background. Fifth, all the observations and fieldnotes taken during the research process have been used to complement all the other data. And finally, I have relied on my own opinion, - framed by all the acquired data during the research process - in order to establish the degree of influence and importance of the stakeholders within the WMS of Maamobi.

4.4 Unit of Analysis

The primary units of analysis in this research are the relevant stakeholders of the formal and informal WMS in Maamobi. These include: the ministries dealing with waste, the ANM, former and current assemblymen5 of Maamobi EAST, the private companies Zoom Lion and Alliance Waste, a number of civil society organisations based in Maamobi, religious leaders, chiefs, members of the informal waste system and household members.

5 ‘Assemblyman’ is the local term used in Maamobi for an elected representative in the ‘Assembly’. Under

AMA jurisdiction, the assemblymen of Maamobi where part of the Ayawaso East Sub-Metropolitan Assembly, which executed and implemented policies and decisions on behalf of the AMA. When the ANM was created and Maamobi stopped being under the jurisdiction of the AMA, the assemblymen became part of

4.5 Sampling

Sampling refers to the selection of units - people, organizations, departments, etc - to whom questions are asked to acquire information for the research (Bryman, 2012). For the semi-structured interviews, units were selected according to purposive sampling. This means interviewees were strategically selected in terms of relevance to the research question, which in this case are all the stakeholders of the WMS. A total of 31 semi-structured interviews were conducted with people belonging to 8 different groups of stakeholders. In the case of government officials, private companies and civil society organisations, I only spoke with one person representing the institution/company/organisation. In the case of the assemblymen, community leaders, and informal waste-pickers, more people of each group were interviewed as each individual represents his/her own perception rather than that of a group.

For the structured interviews, households were selected according to two sampling frames. Firstly, according to the sub-electoral area: 15 households were selected in Ladidi, Sawaba and Maamobi East. And secondly, according to their location within the electoral area: 5 households which were near a main road, a central container, or in the middle of the lungus6. Sawaba is the only electoral area which does not have a central container and hence only households in the lungus or near the main road were interviewed. Once these two sampling frames were applied, households were selected randomly so that citizens had equal probability of inclusion. In total, a number of 40 households were interviewed.

6 Local name used for the chaotic combination of informal housing and slums.

HOUSEHOLDS... IN LADIDI IN SAWABA IN MAAMOBI EAST

Near to a main road 5 5 5

Near to a central

container 5 – 5

In the middle of the

lungus 5 5 5

Figure (2)

4.6 Ethics and Positionality

This section reflects on my positionality as a researcher as well as ethical considerations while conducting my research in Maamobi.

Most of the interviewees at municipal level were recruited with the help of my local assistant Abubakar Isaaka. He is involved in many recycling projects, and hence already knew most of the people I wanted to talk with. The meetings with private companies and governmental institutions were organised with the help of my local supervisor.

Everybody who was contacted immediately agreed to participate; in fact, they seemed very excited to do so. The only ones who asked for a support letter from my university were the private companies, but as soon as I provided it they agreed to talk with me. To my surprise, even government officials were willing to make space for me in their busy agendas, and gave to me all the information that I needed. I acknowledge that contacting and accessing interviewees was relatively easy because of two main reasons: first, I was respected for being a foreign researcher and coming from a well-known university. Everybody was very interested in my work and they were proud that I had chosen Ghana as my research location. Secondly, as all of my respondents were contacts from either my research assistant or local supervisor, there was a level of trust which was already ensured. I did come up with the dilemma that as most of my interviewees were contacts of my contacts, they might have felt obliged to some extent to participate in my interview as a favour. I will never be able to know if indeed they felt this way, but I did make it clear that they could finish the interview at any moment that they did not have to answer any question that they did not feel comfortable with.

Before every interview I would explain who I am and what the purpose of my research is. I would also ask for their oral consent and if I could record the conversation. I was not asked to sign any confidentiality letter, but government officials did insist that I not share the recording on social media. I ensured that the recordings would be treated with absolute privacy. For the purpose of this research it is not necessary to use the individual names of the respondents – what is relevant is the group of stakeholders that they belong to. Most identities have been kept anonymous, except that of some individuals who are referred to by their position within their company, organisation or institution. These individuals did never mention that they did not want their identity to be revealed. Moreover, given the nature of the study, I believe that participants should not be in real danger for having taken part in this research.

I felt safe and confident at all times in the field because Abubakar was often assisting me. I spent a lot of time in Maamobi because I worked and lived there. The neighbourhood is not very big, and news spread fast. I was the only baturia7 living in that area, so everyone immediately knew who I was. As soon as I arrived I went to visit the chiefs of the area, which I was told was the first step to be accepted in the community. I obviously had to use my common sense, but I had the feeling that my circle of acquaintances in Maamobi always kept an eye on me.

The biggest challenge however, came at the end of my research. My presence in Maamobi as a foreigner coming from a developed country had had an unintended effect on the community. Some people had expectations from me - especially financial ones - which I did not realise until the end. Moreover, they seemed tired of foreigners coming for volunteer work or research and then going back home while the community continues under the same conditions. This is when I realised how problematic working in a community can be, even if it is done with the best intention. My lesson for the future has been to be extremely clear from the beginning on about how and what exactly the researcher will contribute to the community and people working around him/her, so that there are no misunderstandings and disappointments at the end. It is important to mention that Maamobi is a very special and unique neighbourhood, and therefore my experiences require a cultural sensitivity and contextual ethical consideration which might be different from any previous research made in Ghana.

4.7 Research Quality Assessment

In order to assess the quality of the data and to ensure its validity and reliability, this research makes use of two primary criteria proposed by Lincoln & Guba (1985), namely trustworthiness and authenticity. The proposed assessment criteria fits best for this kind of research which heavily relies on qualitative data, as an alternative assessment criteria for a quantitative research.

4.7.1 Trustworthiness

This primary criterion is determined by four sub-criteria, specifically (1) credibility, whether the data provides an accurate account of the reality; (2) transferability, whether the findings

can be generalized or applied to other contexts; (3) dependability, whether the research process has been carried out in a transparent manner; and (4) confirmability, the extent to which the investigator’s inevitable subjectivity influences the research.

(1) During fieldwork I came across the challenge of having differences of opinion - in some cases even contradictory - between stakeholders regarding the same topic. I puzzled to determine which version was the most accurate to reality, and was worried that this could put into question the credibility of my final data. This is when I realised that I had to adopt a constructivist ontological position. According to Bryman (2012); constructivism as an ontological position “asserts that social phenomena and their meaning are continually being accompanied by social actors [...] Social phenomena and categories are not only produced through social interactions but are in a social state of revision” (p.33). What matters is not what the ‘real’ version is, but to understand each of versions and why they are different. Nevertheless, to grasp the overall opinion I opted for respondent validation by consulting most of my new information with other respondents, especially with Abubakar, who is an expert in the topic and is very involved in the ‘waste world’.

(2) Due to the ethnographic character of the research, the data specifically informs about the solid waste situation and WMS in Maamobi. Therefore, the capacity to generalise the findings across other social settings can be considered to be quite challenging. This does not however, deny the transferability of the research, as it does not mean that other societies cannot learn from the waste situation in Maamobi as well as its stakeholders’ actions in order to avoid certain problems or improve the situation somewhere else.

(3) To ensure the dependability of the data, all phases of the research process - including problem formulation, fieldwork notes and interview transcripts - were recorded and kept in an accessible manner to the participants and the supervisor of this research. Moreover, a transparency document has been elaborated.

(4) Although I acknowledge the impossibility of absolute objectivity, I tried to ensure the confirmability of the research by behaving as objective as possible when acquiring and analysing the data. Nevertheless, as already explained, I relied heavily on my local network to make sure that my findings were accurate. Abubakar is the head of Borla Plast and Process Sanitation - two civil society organisations in Maamobi - and, therefore, I acknowledge that his information might have been biased according to

his own interests and perceptions – maybe also influencing the translations he helped me with.

4.7.2 Authenticity

The other primary criterion concerns issues associated with the wider political and social impact of the research. These include: (1) whether all the different viewpoints are fairly represented, and (2) whether the research can contribute to the community’s understanding and improvement of the situation.

(1) Prioritising any contribution would undermine one of the principal purposes of this research, as the findings would not properly represent the role and challenges of each stakeholder. Therefore, not only as an ethical principle, but also as a necessity, all viewpoints are taken on board.

(2) While I was on fieldwork, Abubakar and I would constantly say “this is the kind of research the authorities should conduct to properly understand the waste situation in Maamobi and be able to find a solution to it”. Throughout the thesis I provide policy and structural recommendations framed by an integrated governance approach to help solving the burden of waste in Maamobi. I acknowledge however, that having only stayed in Maamobi for two months does not give me the capacity to judge what is best for its people. I do not underestimate the current administrative and political system, nor believe that the WMS in Maamobi can, nor should, be compared to that from developed countries. Each country/city/neighbourhood should find a system which best applies to its local conditions. Nevertheless, this evaluative research does provide a thorough analysis of the current waste situation in Maamobi and an evaluation of the interconnectedness between the stakeholders involved, which could be extremely helpful for governing authorities and other stakeholders of the WMS to develop a plan to improve and eventually solve the burden of waste in Maamobi.

4.8 Limitations

The biggest methodological limitation in this research was not being able to access the bylaws corresponding to the ANM. I only recognized once back from the field the importance of

municipal bylaws, which can only be accessed at the ANM, not online. Therefore, I have unfortunately not been able to get hold of them. This primary data, which contains municipal policies and local sanitation targets, would have been useful to fully understand the principles guiding sanitation projects in Maamobi. Instead, I had to rely on secondary data and on the information provided by my informants.

Two minor limitations were: first, not being able to interview more members of the waste informal sector. It was complicated to arrange interviews with them because their working hours are very long. Some of them agreed to give me a few minutes of their time, but it was still difficult to get hold of them. The informal waste sector is very prominent in Maamobi, and I would have liked to be able to understand better their internal system. And second, the language barrier. Most interviewees spoke English, but in some cases Abubakar had to translate, as they felt more comfortable speaking in their local language. Conversations could have been more fruitful if we had spoken the same language, as information always gets lost in translation.

In sum, this chapter has described the research design, the methods used to collect the data, information regarding the research location and respondents, the quality of my research, my positionality as a researcher and ethical considerations. Moreover, methodological limitations have been included. The following chapter, which is divided into five sections, is dedicated to the empirical analysis of the acquired data in the field.