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An assessment of the effectiveness of EEA po
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anaging gender divers
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g Cederberg Municipality as a case study
ARMSTRONG SIBONGISENI TERENCE NXUMALO
A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Masters in
Business Administration at the Mafikeng Campus of the North-West University
Supervisor: ProfS. Migiro
Nov 2010
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I declare that this research project is my own work. It is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Business Administration at Mafikcng Campus of the onh West University. It has not been submitted before in any degree or examination in any un ivcrsity. I further declare that I -have obtained the necessary authori~:ation and consent to carry out the study.
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AMSTRONG SIBONGISENI TERENCE NXUMALOAcknowledgements
M) heartfelt gratitude goes out to m) supervisor Prof Stephen M igiro and all those "ho ga' e un\\avering support to ~nsurc successful completion of this project. Your understanding. encouragement. guidance and support reassured me that Africa has a bright future in spite of all the socio-economic challenges it faces. This is because its most important asset. its people, are determined to show that they arcttble to work together at all levels.
We pray that the Almighty keep blessing us, our children and generations to come. These are blessings ""c wi!>h to sec bestowed upon every human being on earth as
"'c
arc all his creations and he loves us all equally.Table
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Declaration ... : ... i Acknowledgements ... iii.
Table of Contents ... iv Abstract ... ix Chapter 1: ... 11.11ntroduction and background ... 1
1.2 Motivation of the study ... 4
1.3 The scope ...
s
1.4 Problem statement and Research question ... 71.4.1 Problem statement ... 7
1.4.2 Research question ... 7
1.4.3 Sub-problpmc; r~nd c;ub-questions ... 7
1.5 Research objectives ... 8
1.6 Hypothesis testing ... 9
1.7 Definitions ... 10
1.8 Layout of the research ... 12
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ... 13
2.11ntroduction ... 13
2.2 Gender discrimination at work ... 13
2.3 Gender management at work ... 14
2.4 Conceptual framework ... 18
2.5 Dealing with differences at the workplace ... 19
2.6 The origins of affirmative action ... 19 iv
-2.7 Gender diversity-related to employment legislation ... 22
2.8 Discrimination and Equality in Employment... ... 23
2.9 Equal rights laws, to cfffirmative action ... 24
2.10 Approaches to equal opportunities ... 27
2.10.1 The diverse concepts o( equality ... 27
2.10.2 Affirmative action and gender diversity management.. ... 28
2.11 Paradigm shift to gender diversity management ... 29
2.12 Conclusion ... 29
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 31
3.11ntroduction ... 31
3.2 Research design ... 31
3.3 Population and sample ... 32
3.4 Data collection ... 33
3.5 Data Analysis ... 37
3.5.1 Questionnaires and structured interviews data analysis process ... 37
3.5.2 Focus group discussions analysis process ... 38
3.6 Reliability and validity ... .39
3.7 Ethical issues ... 39
3. 7.1 Permission ... 39
3.7.2 Interviews and focus group discussions ... .39
3.7.3 Administrative aspects ... 40
3.8 Conclusion ... 40
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH RESULTS ... 41
4.11ntroduction ... 41
4.2.1 Simple distributions ... 41
4.2.2 Statistical analysis ... 43
4.2.3 Hypothesis Testing ... 54
4.3 Qualitative analysis ... , ... 59
4.3.llndividual interviews ... ~ ... , ... 59
The purpose of EEA ... 60
The role of the MM in relation to the implementation of EEA ... 61 Training for the implementation of EEA ... 61
Perspectives of employees concerning the EEA policy ... : ... 62
4.3.2 Focus group discussions ... 63
4.4 Conclusion ... 64
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 66
5.llntroduction ... 66
5.2 Discussions, recommendations and conclusion ... 66
5.3 Further research ... 73
REFERENCES ... 74
Griflith, P.G. & MacBride-King, J.L. 1998, Closing the gap, New York, Catalyst. ... 75
Appendices ... 81
APPENDIX A: Description of alphabets ... 81
APPENDIX B: Permission letter ... 82
APPENDIX C: The questionnaire ... 83
SECTION A: Background information ... 83
SECTION B: Compliance to Employment Equity Act ... 87
SECTION C: Gender diversity ... 89
APPENDIX E: Interview schedule ... 92
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE ... 92
MANAGEMENT MEMBERS ... 92
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE ... 93
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE ... 93
FOCU GROUP ... 93
List ofFigurcs Figure 3.1: A schematic outline of research design ... Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 4. 1: Opinions of participants on how well management understands EEA fundamentals and expectations ... 44
Figure 4.2: Participants' perceptions on how well management understands EEA by academic leve1. ... 45
Figure 4.3: Perceptions of participants on whether they think that EEA is relevant, important and that it laid a foundation to promote gender equality ... 46
Figure 4.4: Perceptions by academic level of importance ratings of EEA at Cederberg ... .47
Figure 4.5: Views on whether discrimination exists after EEA implementation ... 47
Figure 4.6: Perception of participants by acade11ic level on whether discrimination by gender still exists after EEA implementation ... 48
Figure 4.7: Participants' perceptions on how to rate skills developmental programmes and training that are inclined to improve females at their work place ... 49
Figure 4.8: Participants' perceptions (by academic level) on how to rate skills developmental programmes that are inclined to improve females at their work place ... .49
Figure 4.9: Perception of participants on whether females are considered fairly in line with EEA expectations when dealing with promotions ... SO Figure 4.10: Perception of participants (by academic level) on whether females are considered fairly in line with EEA expectations when dealing with promotions ... Sl Figure 4.11: Perceptions on whether there is equality on remuneration across gender ... 51 Figure 4.12: Products on offer after female positioning at the workplace ... S2
Figure 4.13: Challenges faced during implementation of employment equity act ... 53
Figure 4.14: Things that management can do to manage diversity at work place effectively ... 53
List of Tables TABLE 4.1: DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICIPANTS BY POSfTION AT WORK ...••.•....•... 48
TABLE 4.2: DISTRIBUTlON OF PARTICIPANTS BY DEPARTMENT ...•... 49
TABLE 4.3: COMPARISON OF PARTICIPANTS VIEWS BY GENDER USING T-TEST ... 60
TABLE 4.4: COMPARISON OF PARTICIPANTS VIEWS BY ACADEMIC LEVEL USING A NOVA ... 63
TABLE 4.5: INTERVIEW RESPONSES ON THE PURPOSE OF EEA AT CEDERBERG MUNICIPAUTY ... .-... 66
TABLE 4.6: INTERVIEW RESPONSES ON THE ROLE OF MUf\ICIPALITY MANAGERS IN RELATION TO EEA ... 61
TABLE 4.7: INTERVIEW RESPONSES ON TRAINING FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF EEA ... 67
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The main purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness ofEEA policy as a tool to manage gender diversity at the workplace.
The research '"as based on a case study using Cederberg Municipality that is located in Western Cape Province in South Africa. The primary data was sourced from employees of the municipality using questionnaire, individual interviews and focus group discursions. The study showed that EEt\ policy was not so effective in achieving its intended objectives of emancipating working women from all forms of discrimination such as training and developmental programs, promotions and below par remuneration at the workplace ..
The study further established that in order to improve effectiveness of the EEA policy as an instrument to manage gender diversity at work, Government official as the custodians of the project need to ensure that all the processes such as planning for the project, provision of adequate training to employees, implementation and monitoring ofthe project are key to success. Organizations on the other hand, were identified as an impediment to the successful implementation of the project (EEA policy implementation at v.ork). Managers were advised to familiari7c themselves "ith the policy and its objectives, prepare their staff men tall) for the smooth 00\\ of the project and after implementation assist in monitoring the project consistently.
Chapter 1: 1.1 Introduction and background
Gender discrimination is the differential treatment of men and Y.Omen on the basis of their gender, irrespective of their merits or the requirements of a job. Some sections of the workforce regard gender discrimination as~obsolete and no longer a pressing concern. It is possible that many assume that women tend to exaggerate the role of gender discrimination in the undcrrcprescntation of female managers. lt is conceivable that women might be ascribing I imitations in managerial ad van cement to factors external to themselves, such as gender discrimination, and not to personal shortcomings, possibly as a consequence of ·stigma consciousness the tendency of individuals who have been the victims or targets of stereotypes to be unduly sensitive to discrimination (Pinel, 2002). For example, an inclination of women to report more discrimination than men, \\hile also demonstrating many substantive deficiencies that curb ad van cement, might reflect stigma-consciousness. If women do indeed overestimate the effect of gender discrimination, they might fail to address the impediments to their promotion. Nevertheless. if ''omen are discriminated against and do not receive promotions despite demonstrating the characteristics that would facilitate ad,ancemcnt. organi.tations must recognize that this problem persists and redress the bias. If organizations fail to redress this bias. they risk facing the deterioration in commitment, satisfaction, and productivil:) of employees that transpires \\hen workplace procedures are perceived as unjust (Colquitt. Conlon, Wesson, Porter. 2001 ).
A decade and a half ago, Northeraf1 and Gutek ( 1993) predicted that discrimination against \\Omen at work '~ould persist. Recent research vindicates this prediction, demonstrating that women at all levels of management still report gender discrimination as a barrier to their advancement in most developed countries ( Metz and Tharenou. 200 I) and (Wirth, 2001 ). Recent statistics verify these reports, sho" ing that women constitute almost half of the \\ orkforce but fewer than 15 per cent of the executi\ es in developed countries are women (Catal) st. 2007). In the past decade. studies more frequently reported gender discrimination against women than gender discrimination against men or negligible discrimination. Although stigma consciousness
theory suggests that women are more likely than men to ascribe limited advancement to gender discrimination. research does not corroborate this hypothesis. Men and women are equally likely to impute negative outcomes to discrimination (Major, Gramzow, McCoy, Levin, Schmader and Sidanius, 2002). Indeed, several factors might inhibit any unfounded attributions to discrimination, such as a reduction in self esteem that is likely to ensue (Kaiser and Miller 200 I).
A variety of factors at workplace, in addition to discrimination, can affect managerial advancement for women. For example, family responsibilities seem to impede the advancement of women in management (Grccnhaus and Parasuraman, 1999; Griffith and MacBride-King, 1998), partly because time must be distributed between work and family. Mothers arc more likely than fathers to assume the primary responsibility for the care and nurturing of dependants (Greenhaus and Parasuraman, 1999), even at the executive level (Griffith and MacBride-King, 1998). Furthermore, because mothers are more likely than fathers to assume the primary responsibility for the care and nurturing of dependants, women arc also more likely than men to take career breaks to support their family (Judiesch and Lyness, 1999), which al o stymies promotions. In !.hort, responsibility for dependants and career breaks, not discrimination, could explain the limiteli advancement of women in organizations. In contrast to these family constraints, ''ork hours. level of education, career aspirations. and other individual factors are becoming increasingly similar in men and women (Metz and Simon. 2008). and these factors also significant!) affect advancement (Metz and J'harcnou, 200 I). Nevertheless. recent studies have generated some contradictory results. A recent cross-sectional study found that women, at all levels. exhibited diminished managerial ambitions relative to men (van Yianen and Fischer. 2002), perhaps to accommodate their dual responsibilities offamily and work or perhaps to align with the social norms that characterise the role or females in society (e.g. Hite and MacDonald. 2003). Accordingly, some individual factors. such as career aspirations, might contribute to the diminished advancement of women.
Despite the impressive legislative basis in South Africa, gender-based inequalities still exist in the society and at the workplace. Most women, making up nearly hal fthe labour force, remain in
poorly paid jobs and suffer a lot when compared to their male counterparts at the workplace. While trade unions and business associations have undertaken some actions to promote gender
equality, the top level ofs_ocial dialogue bodies is male-dominated (Casale and Poscl, 2009). Therefore employers need to address the issue of gender discrimination in their organizations to prevent procedural injustices, ultimately ensuring that individuals are attracted and committed to the organization (Colquitt ct al., 200 I). Many policies and procedures that are intended to redress discrimination are ineffective. Indeed, employees who report discrimination are often perceived
by colleagues to be unfTiendly and irresponsible, regardless of whether or not their complaints arc legitimate (Kaiser and Miller, 200 I). Several avenues need to be pursued to redress this issue.
First, employers need to investigate, and then communicate, the barriers to advancement of "'omen in their organizations. A ware ness of the potential for gender discrimination can offset
prejudices and biases in decisions that relate to promotion, training, or selection, provided that managers consider their judgments carefully (Sczesny and Kuhncn, 2004).
In introducing legislation promoting employment equity considerations, most governments seek to reduce occupational segrcgat ion, ensure that women have the opportunity to move out of low paid, low status jobs and improve their position in the labour market. Employment equity legislation attempts to change \\Orkplace beha .. iour. practices and culture so \\Omen arc:: better represented throughout the "orl-force.( owack and Preston, 2000). However, poI icy advocates frequently argue about '' hether emplo) ment equity lcgi!>lation has any beneficial efTects. For instance, employment equity legislation was particularly introduced in South Africa to provide more support for equal employment opportunity than could be provided by anti-discrimination legislation. This law was directed at increasing equal employment opportunity rather than preferential hiring or advancement for disadvantaged groups. The legislation contained limited sanctions for non-compliance and self-reporting on outcomes from organizations about progress. The legislation therefore relics on the effective operation of organizational polic) and practice to remove discrimination and secure equal employment opportunity. Evaluating the success of such a policy depends on a series orfactors. Some of"' hich include, judgments about changes in such indicators as the overall employment segregation or pay equity evident in the workforce may be
utilized to determine the effectiveness of legislation aimed at achieving employment equity (Peetz, 2007).
Since 1994, several structural and political changes took place in South Africa. Before 1994, South Africa was governed by a .:;ystem of apartheid. Males occupied predominantly managerial positions while females were almost non-existing at formal places of work. Thanks to the new Government in South Africa, the Employment Equity Act 55 (EEA) of 1998 was ratified and its core aim was to eliminate any form of unfair discrimination and promote equitable representation of all gender groups throughout all levels of organisations (Casale and Pose!, 2009).
'I he employment equity act which seeks to promote women at the workplace among other things has been in place for over ten years in South Africa, but still regrettably a lot women raise up issues of discrimination and marginalization at the workplace (Casale and Pose!, 2009). For this reason. this research study therefore aims to assess the effectiveness of the employment equity act (I:I::A) in promoting gender diversity at the workplace in South Africa, using Cederberg Municipal it) as a case study.
1.2 Motivation of the study
It has been over ten years since the Govemm~;nt of South A friea enacted a policy framework that seeks to;
• identify and abolish all barriers and policies including unfair discrimination that hampers the emplo)ment and advancement ofemployees
• implement affim1ative action measures to redress the disadvantages in employment experienced by individuals from the designated groups that includes women
• Optimize the potential of all employees in order to enhance the performance of the organization in serving the community and to achieve an effective and efficient administration.
Underlying the purpose of this policy is that;
• All employees ha\'e the right to be treated fairly, equally and to be protected from any form of unfair discrimination while at work including sexual harassment
• Past practices did cause unfair discrimination to exist in the workplace and needs to be
addressed
• Implementation of employment equity is an integrated and holistic process involving the entire organization and all its employees to expand the skills pool
• Central to such transformation is the development of human potent!al and the implementation of affirmative action and employment equity aimed to further enhance the effecti,cness and emciency of its administration
• Affirmative action is the development tool that must be used to re-evaluate its current policies, practices and procedures and institute specific actions to comply with the applicable legal requirements
Despite crafting one ofthe best policy framework that seck to abolish any form ofdiserimination against \\Omen at work, it can be argued that South Africa working women still face a myriad of problems at wort.. that arc abusive and discriminatory in nature.
fhis stud) therefore attempts to assess whether employment equity framework that seeks to promote gender diversity at the worl-.place has been effective (on the ground). fhe study hopefully will enable the policy makers (Government) to re-strategi1.e and come up with a working model that assists in identifying gaps especially at implementation phase going forward and hence devise '' ays and means of dealing with these issues e fTectivc ly. In such
a
case. women. organi;ation and the society at large stand to benefit both financial!) and othem i e.1.3 The scope
This study "hich seeks to assess whether EEA has been effective in promoting gender diversity in South Africa, is limited to assessing whether there are any forms of discrimination against \\omen at the worl-.place. Anything that happens outside the boundaries of work settings is not in the interest of the study.
The study is limited to understanding the opm10ns of workers (both men and women) at managerial, operational and shop floor staff levels. This hypothetically will assist the researcher to gauge whether EEA is implemented appropriately to benefit every working woman across the whole structure of the organization. This research study is not confined to just understanding the opinion of workers but hopes to identify deficiencies and challenges during and after implementation of EEA. This is crucial for policy makers as it assists them to review their implementation strategy accordingly to ensure that gender diversity at the workplace is enforced.
The researcher is going to solicit for opinions from workers in the Western Province. Cederberg Municipality in this province is going to be used as a case study. The advantages of using Cederberg Municipality are as follows;
• This happens to be around the researcher's neighbourhood, implying reduced costs for data capturing and any other associated costs
• There is a good mix of both male and female workers at Cederberg. rhis will help avoid any dilution of results rrom the opinions that might come from male colleagues.
• With the limited amount oftime to do this research study using Cederberg as a case study will ensure that data is captured quick enough to meet the strict submission deadline. llo\\e\cr, the researcher is cognitant of the disad\ anlages or threats that come "ith using Ccc..lt:rbcrg Municipality as a case study. l'hesc threats arc as foliO\\S;
• It is observed that the area under study (Western Province) is predominantly coloured and white communities. Opinions from blacks will be limited. This might not be good enough to represent all other organi1ation in other parts of South Africa "ith regards to gender di\ersity at the \\Orkplace.
• Cederberg Municipality consists of relatively few workers compared to other municipalities in South Africa. This will mean reduced data points especially if the response rate is very low. This clearly might more likely affect the quality or rigour of the research study.
1.4 Problem statement and Research question
1.4.1 Problem statement·
From the literature search, detailed in background and introduction of this report, it is observed that a lot of effort has been by the South African Government to craft policy framework that emancipate working women from all kinds of discrimination. It has been over ten years since this policy framework has been in force. llowever, the main problem here is that the modem day South African working women still continue to complain about marginalization and discrimination at the workplace when compared to their male counterparts, even though so much on paper has been done by the policy makers.
1.4.2 Research question
Is the Government driven policy framework {equity employment act. (EEA)} that is supposed to uplift and promote women at work effective?
The above question is an ovcrarching question. and hence sub questions and sub problems were designed "ithin the boundaries of this research stud).
1.4.3 Sub-problems and sub-questions
• Sub-problem I: To ascertain whether managers clearly understand EEA fundamentals,
expectations and how to implement them as a tool to cnlorcc gender diversity at the \\Ork
place.
• Sub-question I: Do senior managers understand the fundamentals and expectations of EEA along with how to implement this at their workplace to enforce gender diversity?
• Sub-problem 2: To establish ifEEA is important, relevant and that it laid a foundation to promote gender balance.
• Sub-question 2: Is EEA important. relevant and laid a foundation to promote gender balance at workplace?
• Sub-problem 3: To establish if discrimination exists after EEA implementation at the workplace
• Sub-question 3: Is discrimination still prevalent after implementation of EEA at the workplace?
• Sub-problem 4: To determine if there are any training and development programs for
working women after implementation of EEA.
• Sub-question 4: Are there any training and development programs for \\Orking women after implementation of EEA?
• Sub-problem 5: To find out if women are treated fairly (in terms of positioning and remuneration) in the workplace after implementation ofEEA.
• Sub-question 5: Are women treated fairly (in terms positioning and remuneration) in the workplace after implementation ofEEA?
• Sub-problem 6: To establish if there arc any major challenges that are faced during and after EEA has been implemented at the workplace.
• Sub-question 6: Are there any major challenges that arc faced during and after implementation ofEEA?
• Sub-problem 7: To determine what management can do to play an effective role tn managing gender diversity at the workplace.
• Sub-question 7: What can management do to play an effective role in managing gender diversity at the workplace?
1.5 Research objectives
• To assess" hether EEA is effective in promoting gender diversity at the \\Orkplacc. • To find out the challenges that organizations face to promote gender diversity alter
implementation ofEEA.
• To establish what the participants think are the probable solutions to alleviate challenges that can be faced by an organization during EEA implementation.
• To find out whether there are any differences in workers' opinions on the critical EEA issues raised above by gender and academic qualifications.
1.6 Hypothesis testing
The following hypotheses are going to be tested using the questionnaire data captured at Cederberg Municipality.
a) Hypothesis statement 1
110 Both men and women employees at Cederberg municipality express similar views on how well they think management understand EEA fundamentals and its expectations
b) Hypothesis statement 2
llo Both men and women employees at Cederberg municipality express same views on how far the management rate the importance ofEEA at the workplace.
c) Hypothesis statement 3
110 Both men and women employees at Cederberg municipality express same views on fair treatment of women at the workplace in terms of remuneration and promotions after EEA implementation.
d) Hypothesis statement 4
110 Both men and women employees at Cederberg municipality express same vtews on the prevalence of discrimination at the workplace afler EE/\ implementation
c) Hypothesis statement 5
110 Both men and women emplo)ees at Cederberg municipality express same views on the provision of training and developmental programs for women at work after EEA implementation.
1.7 Definitions
The following terms that.are frequents used in this report are defined in depth in this section as follows;
Management is working with human, financial and physical resources to achieve organizational objectives by performing the planning, organizing, leading, controlling functions and coordinating. as the success of an) organization depends on the effectiveness and efficiency of its management Meggison ( 1991) and Surridge (2002).
Diversity: Kondolcr and Fullerton (1994) hold the opinion that diversity consists of visible and non-visible differences which will include factors such as sex, age, background, race, disability, personality and work style. Diversity takes individuals as the primary focus of con.cem groups. llowever, for this study diversity refers to fair representation of gender across various ranks of any organisation.
Assessment: this is an act of evaluation to verify whether certain expectations have been achieved, Wilmer (2000). In the current context, assessment is an exercise that intends to confim1 whether EEA has achieved its intentions.
Effccti\·encss: this is a capability of producing a desired result or a degree of achieving success rhomas ( 1991 ). More spcci fie to this study. effectiveness refers to the degree or extent to which F.EA policy has achieved the intended goals.
Affirmative action: Sachs ( 1992) argues that aflirmative action in the South African context has extremely broad touching connotations, as apartheid did on every area of life. Affirmative action co\ers all purposive activity designed to eliminate the negative effects of apartheid (segregation) and to create a society where everyone has the same chance to get on in I ife. Thomas ( 1992) believes that affirmative action can be viewed as a process whereby underutili..r,cd and disadvantaged resources can be mobilized and developed for the benefit of the wider community. As mentioned, the core components of Affirmative action '" ith focus on job/employee advancement and training, black business advancement, education and culture, housing and residential infrastructure.
Affirmative action is understood to be a measure adopted to correct or compensate for past and present discrimination. It is a "remedial" rationale aimed at fostering values of inclusiveness. In short, it is a "diversity·· rationale (Lee (2003).
Discrimination: Mollan (1991) points out that discrimination essentially is \\hen people are excluded from benefits and processes. merely because of their skin colour. thereby stifling development and opportunity.
Racism: In its usual sense, actually designates two very different things. On the one hand it is a matter of behaviour, usually a manifestation of hatred or content for individuals who have well -defined characteristics different from our own. On the other hand it is a matter of ideology a doctrine concerning human races, Todorov and Tzvetan (1993)
Designated groups, means black people, women and people with disabilities.
Employee, as defined in the Basic Conditions of Employment Act, Act 75 of 1997 and the Labour Relations Act, o. 66 of 1995.
Employment equity", means the removal of discrimination and the implementation of affirmative action to create equality of environment and opportunity at work.
Equal opportunity, means a situation where everyone has the same chance of applying for a benefit and con firms the right of any person to be protected against unfair discrimination and to be treated on personal merit.
employment policy or practice, means recruitment procedures, appointment process, job classification and grading, rl!muneration employment benefits and terms and conditions of employment, job assignments, working environment and facilities, training and development, performance evaluation systems, promotion, transfer, demotion, disciplinary measures.
Municipality, means the Council and its employees
Stereotype. means to attribute characteristics to an individual solely because that pL:rson appears to belong to a group of people'' ith the same characteristics.
Sc\.ual harassment". mean!> un\\anted conduct of a sexual nature and therefore not \\elcome or mutual ... Such behaviour'' ill be regarded as sexual harassment if:
• it is persisted in, although a single incident can also be seen as an act of sexual harassment;
• it is considered as offensive by the recipient and clearly communicated as such:
• the perpetrator should ha\e kno\\n that the behaviour will be regarded as unacceptable. An) unwanted conduct of a sc>.ual nature as described above, v. hether it is in a ph) sica I. verbal or non-\erbal form or in exchange for other sexual favours or advances, is regarded as an act of sexual harassment.
The few above-described concepts serve as references and as basis for the use of terminology in the advancement and development of this research report. The next section describes the structure of the dissertation.
1.8 Layout of the research
Chapter I sets out the background and introduction of the research study. The chapter outlines the statement of the research problem that led to this research. The purpose ofthis study is to enlighten managers about gender difTerences in the organization, and to acknowledge the importance of managing gender diversity at the workplace. Motivation ofthis research study and its scope are covered in depth in this chapter. Broad overview of related literature about the
implementation issues of EEA in organizations, problem statement and research questions
formulation, main objectives of the study and the definition of tenns that arc frequently used in this report are all covered in chapter I.
Chapter 2 provides an in-depth literature review of the related research work do~e by others
researchers around the globe. The researcher makes every effort to identify gaps in chapter 2 and concludes by proposing to close those gaps using this research study.
Chapter 3 describes the research design approach that is used in this study. This forms the mainstay of the research study and hence thorough and appropriate details pertaining to this research arc gathered here. Issues that are co\lcrcd in chapters 3 include relevance of the study,
research t) pe. and type of study, data acquisition and data Analysis. In addition to this chapter,
ethical aspects arc identified, described and adhered to. v. hilc applicable administrative
procedures for the research are also described.
Chapter 4 presents detailed analysis of the gathered data from questionnaires, intervic\\ s and focus group discussions in line "ith the objectives of the research study. The results of the analyses are consequently interpreted and concluding remarks based on the analyses arc made here.
Chapter 5 provides a discussion of the study results draws conclusions from them and offers recommendations established from the analyses.
CHAPTER
2: LIT
E
RATURE
R
E
VIEW
2.1 IntroductionApartheid in South Afri<::a saw women suffer a double oppression. As women, they had to contend with restrictive and repressive apartheid legislation, which ensured alien control over all facets of their lives. They had to contend with the fact that they were negated to a position of dependency and inferiority to men, as such; they were even further discriminated against (Nuttall & VanDer Merwe, 2004).
In the traditional African culture, patriarchy was at the core of family life. Men generally were unquestioned heads of the family, providers or breadwinners, as well as disciplinarians (Mogosctsi & Ryke, 2005). In the traditional African family and community. women played maternal roles. Women's responsibilities were mainly around the home: child rearing, cooking, household chores and socialisation involving training and education of children 'in line with family and community expectations (Mungazi, 1996). Women ''ere expected to be submissive. Men perceive women's rights as problematic. They fee I that women have lost respect for men and thereby disregard men's human rights. These men feel women have lost their traditional/cultural feminine roles, Y-hich are socially accepted in the African culture (Mogosetsi & Ryke, 2005).
Unfortunately, the above cultural views can hold women back, especially at work. Although many changes have tal-en place to promote the role of women in a traditional culture, living conditions and traditional ways of living in rural areas, continues to contribute to the oppression of women.
With the Employment Equity Act greater emphasis is placed on equal appointment of \\Omen, but barriers appear to be still in place ( 'uttall& VanDer Mcmc. 2004).
2.2 Gender discrimination at ·work
Gender issues such as outlined abo\e refer to all aspects that affect males or females in their day-to-day functions at the work place. Lithcko & Del port (2002) assert that South African women in the workplace still experience various forms of discrimination and abuse. For example, discrimination in salary paid to women '"hile doing the same jobs as men. being subjected to un"elcome sexual advances and reaching a glass ceiling (stuck in middle management positions while males hold senior positions) arc some of the fom1s of workplace-based discrimination noted.
The rationale for research regarding the discrimination and equality issues of women would be to establish the extent to which the above inequalities still prevail in society. In order to realistically investigate the status of women in society a research project was conducted specifically in a rural area to determine the e~tent of discrimination against women in the workplace and hence evaluate the effectiveness of employment equity act in promoting women issues at the work place. A rural workplace was selected since it was argued that discrimination would be most visible in this context due to. the characteristics of rural living conditions and cultural perspectives as outlined above.
The study's main focus was to develop a scale that can measure employee empowerment in an organisation, as well as a set of indicators that will reflect the level of employee empowerment in an organisation. "Empowerment is recognizing and releasing into the organisation the power that people already have in their wealth of useful 1-.nov.ledge and internal motivation·· (Randolph, 2000).
Randolph contends that specific differences between male and female regarding empowerment issues "ere observed providing a strong notion of discrimination of employees by gender at the workplace. Female employees at the factory received considerably less feedback than male employees on their work performance.
Organizations these days arc challenged with the reality of a diverse workforce entering the workplace, but these employees arc also assertive and want to gain respect and support from their colleagues, bosses and the organisation (Loden & Rosener, 1991 ). At the factory, this respect can be shO\\ed to give female employees less feedback on their \\Ork performance. The employees, mostly male employees who did receive feedback, felt more support from the factory and they felt more empowered because of this feedback. By changing feedback systems, the facto!) can improve cmpo" cnnent '' ith black female employees that ''ill in tum benefit the organisation.
2.3 Gender management at work
Mabaso ( 1998) points that managers had to adopt a diverse management style f(H their diverse wort-. force. Supervisors at the factory can be made av. are that ideas of female respondents were less implemented than male employees. This can be changed when the factory is made aware of this practice. The employees whose ideas have been implemented felt more empowered and supported by the factory. All hough it is unrealistic that all employees' ideas can be implemented, all empiO) ees can be listened to. Seeing that employees work on the floor, they can have practical ideas. By implementing a system where employees can voice their ideas, the factory can enable (in this case) the female employees, to be empowered. At the same time. they will feel more support from the factory. This will benefit the organisation
People work for different reasons and the work environments influences the individual's personality and present him/her with the opportunity of self-fulfillment (Litheko & Delport, 2002).
Seeing that a person's work environment influence them so much, it seems viable that they are
integrated in the decision making process. Jt must be noted that this involvement in the decision
making process should only pertain to decisions relating to their own job and the environment they are working in. Those cmpioyecs at the factory who were involved in the decision making
process were employees at middle and top management. The employees that work in the factory
were the employees not involved in the decision making process. These employees are mostly
female employees. These female employees arc the people doing the actual work in the factory. By listening to them, the factory can make them feel more part of the process that will assist the factory in having a more empowered workforce.
South Africa desperately needs to make use of all its human resources, making the need for
\\Omen's integration into the workplace urgent. These employees can only reach their full
potential when the organisation fully acknowledges and utilises them. (Nuttall & Van Ocr
Men~ c, 2004).
This study concluded that male and female employees are treated different at work. It can be due
to the fact that the study was done in a rural area with mainly traditional families with traditional
values. The factory has been established in 1939. The factory might not have been practicing fair
labour practice on purpose or for any malicious reasons, but more because of habit and not being
aware of above. /\II of above practices can he changed through an effective policy framework
that is not biased in favour of any gender.
The introduction of the Employment Equity legislation provides the catalyst for organizations in
South 1\frica to rcvie" their Emplo) ment 1-:.quity Act process and the sub-variables of
discrimination, racism, amrmativc action and cultural diversity that impact upon the process of
employment equity policy practice.
Dr. Ben T" inomugisha at the I Iuman Rights and Peace Centre (IIURIPEC), Makcrcre
University carried out a study to analyse gender make up of African parliaments. This study is predicated on a strong belief that the gender make-up of African parliaments must rellect the
gender demographics of African states. It is onl) when that is achieved that the concepts of
equality, non-discrimination and democracy can gain their true meaning.
As a departure point, the study makes a case that statistically women are under-represented
under-representation is prevalent amid the existence of international, regional and domestic instruments, all providing for women's right to representation in decision-making processes. Thus, the study demonstrates that there is a gap between de jure and de facto representation. The
study then argues that the convoluted ideology of patriarchy, sacrosanct cultures, inviolable
religions, the constructed public/private dichotomy, low levels of education, and the negative impact of globalisation all act in concert to deny!\ frican women their rightful place in decision -making institutions, particularly pari iaments. In a bid to investigate how this can be reserved, the
study explores the Rwandan and South African models for purposes of gaining insights on how
they ha\ c contrived to reach and surpass the critical mass of women in their parliaments. These two models demonstrate that a combination of temporary special measures and gender mainstrcaming are effective tools for emancipating women and ensuring their representation in parliaments. These have to be buttressed by strong legal and institutional frameworks, which
operate in a conducive socio-political environment.
Kinyondo, G and Mabugu. (2004) carried out a study on the general equilibrium effects of a
producti' ity increase on the economy and gender in South Africa. This study utilized a
computable general equilibrium model to examine the effects of economy-wide (SIM I) and
partial (SIM 2) productivity increases on the economy, gender employment, wages, income and
''elfarc in South Africa. SIM I results in 'output' led employment demand and increased earnings
for all sk.ill t)pes of men and women.
The study concludes that skilled men benefit more than others in most sectors. Under SIM 2,
productivity has a negath e emplo) ment impact in the selected sectors, on all skills mostly in
labour-intensive sectors. In general, productivity improves households' \\elfare due to reduced
commodity prices and improved earnings. If productivity rises only in men-intensive sectors,
men's wages rise: while raising productivity in only women-intensive sectors affect ''omen
negati,cly. This confirms yet another form of discrimination (remuneration) against women at the work.p lace.
Gender di\crsity management is fast becoming a management approach that is being applied
effectively within organizations. Internationally, a gradual shift of focus in theory and practice
has occurred from managing gender diversity "in its narrow view of focusing" on gender to that
of managing diversity. There is a theoretical proof that the application of the diversity management approach is essential for all organi;;ations in functioning effectively '' ithin the diverse, local and national population. Gender diversity management approach is applied in practice at organizations, Greybe & Uys, (2001 ).
If gender diversity management is to succeed in its objective of greater organizational effectiveness, practical strategies should be identified. It is important that management is acquainted '~ ith the environment "ithin '" hich they operate in order to be able to apply the correct strategy in the correct circumstances at the right time.
The focal point of this research is the identification of strategies for the management of gender diversity at the workplace. In order to place this aspect in its context. the concept of diversity management is firstly defined. Secondly, the shift. in focus that has occurred, from the management of gender to diversity management, is described and explained. Thirdly, the innuence of gender diversity on management is highlighted and defined. Fourthly, organizational examples arc given on how diversity may be utilized within the workplace.
There is increasing worldwide acknowledgement of the presence and efTect of workforce diversity and its dynamics. (Abdelsamad & Sauser 1992; Arredondo 1996). Referred to the po"erful social idcntiry shifts that ha\e already taken place in South Africa since 1994, this provides a comprehensive rendition of the challenges that these changes pose to national and organizational leadership (Booysen, 2006).
The legislation towards empowerment and the assumption of political, economic and social powers. ascertain that the significant changes in social society and in the markets are responsible for the gro" ing workforce diversit). (Colliers & Smit, 2006) .Therefore the globalization process compels organiLations all over the world to deal with increasing number of international customers and sup pi iers (Cox and Blake, 1991; Milliken and Martins. 1996). Improvements in transportation and communication and the change in lifestyles contribute to the growing mobility of people (Kosse!.. and Lobel, 1996). rhc participation of social groups traditionally seen as minorities or the disadvantaged groups. in the workplace. has increased in numbers. qualifications and innuence (Carr-Rumno, 1996). Women, older people, individuals with disabilities and people with different ethnic backgrounds, lifestyles, religious faiths, and sexual orientations, arc becoming regular players in the labour market (Dass and Parker, 1996). In this context, managing the increasing \\Orkforce diversity has become a strategic issue that organization is aiming to achic\e or maintain an international competiti\e. However. the vic\\ of di\crsif) as an asset \\Orth valuing (Cornelius et at., 2000), seems to contradict the traditional preference for strong organizational cultures that encourage uniformity in thinking patterns and behaviours (Gran rose, 1997). Thus, considerable changes are required in the organizational culture if organi/.ations are to attract and benefit from a diverse workrorcc. There is consistent evidence thai dcmo!:,rraphic diversity is also rising in higher institutions. Managers and staff members exchange and cross border recruitment arc increasing.
Much of the research conducted on workforce diversity has taken place in North America (Cox 1993: Cox & Blake 1991; Fernandez, 1991 and Thomas, 1990). The particular interest in this paper is to explore whether what is often called "the business case"', put forward by these authors
as a key principle for managing gender diversity, can be empirically supported by
implementation of the Employment Equity Act, 1998 (EEA). The contention is that the
increasing diversity of the workforce of recruitment pools, of customers and of stakeholders.
demands a response from. organizations. Furthennorc, an organization which can value gender,
manages diversity effectively by deliberately recruiting diverse employees. Such an organisation
can gain a competitive edge or utilize the full creativity and talents of diverse employees,
assisting their recruitment, retention and motivation, by enabling better communication with
diverse customers and markets and the development of appropriate good services.
Mike Noon and Emmanuel Ogbonna,(1991). The concept of equal opportunities is increasingly
being replaced with the notion of the management of diversity, in particular gender diversity at
the workplace. In both theory and practice it offers a new challenge to both concep~ualising and
tackling the issues of equality, discrimination and injustice in employment. The first is to explore
the nature of equality by analysing the framework, assumptions and policy implications that
emerge fTom an approach of equal opportunity compared with the management of diversity. In
this respect. the introduction can be seen as the centre of a network of ideas, problems, dilemmas
and themes that interlink the various chapters. In terms of approach, the authors reveal their
difft.:rcnt orientations to the equal opportunities or management of diversity at the workplace
problem.
Methodologically, the papers range from qualitative to quantitative approaches, using a variety
or research tools and techniques: non-structured and semi-structured interviews, questionnaires,
quasi-experiments, observation, secondary data anal)sis, action research and convert method.
These papers arc e:-..ploring "hcther there are an) policies in place to promote gender diversity at the \\Ork place. Most of these papers further looJ.. at whether such policies arc effective in accomplishing their objectives (i.e. promoting women at the workplace).
2A Conceptual framework
Minorities refer to group of people that in some features-like national origin, race gender
physical condition age, sexual orientation, As pointed by Brickson (2000), minorities belong to
identity groups traditionally seen as disadvantagcd groups in terms of power and opportunities.
They become recurrent targets of organizational prejudice and discrimmation in recruitment,
se Icc lions. career opponun ity, "ages, training (Kossck and Lobel, 1996).
The cognitive nature of prejudice makes it harder to deal with organiLations that discriminate
features, such as gender, in spite of their irrelevance to accomplishment of the task. Broadly speaking, discrimination, refers to policies and practices that resu It in members of a subordinate group being treated differently in ways that disadvantage them (Carr- Ruffino, 1996).
2.5 Dealing with differences at the workplace
Different approaches to dealing with gender diversity at work, prejudice. and discrimination have been suggested, ranging &om the legalistic ones to the more pragmatic and managerial vision of valuing diversity. LifT (1999) summarizes this perspective. The lhinking is that discrimination occurs because social group characteristics, such as gender and ethnicity, are taken into account when they are irrelevant to the requirements of the job, and that equality consists of rejecting such criteria and ensuring instead that individuals are judged against each other only on job -relevant bases.
This approach has been critici;cd on the grounds that it does not account the initial disadvantages women and minorities have to deal with. In the case of ''omen, they result fTom the traditional family roles and/or the different patterns of qualifications and work experiences. (Liff and Wajeman, 1996). Under this perspective the organization is supposed to act as if all individuals were from the same race, gender and ethnical background, thus assuming that the::: diverse workforce docs not influence the organit.ational culture and work practices (Thomas and
Ely, 1996).
Affim1ativc action is also an originally US legalistic approach based on the premise that organizations must reflect the social diversity of the community at large. The several social groups in society arc supposed to be convenient!) represented in the worh.place. so that it begins to look like a ·'patchwork quilt" (Gilber: et al., 1999). In some, affirmative action fails to eradicate the deep roots of prejudice and inequality does little to enhance the full potential of minorities and to promote a multicultural environment (Grosh I and Doherty, 1999).
2.6 The origins of affirmative action
Affirmative action is also a legalistic approach, originally from United State (US) based on the premise that organizations must reflect the social diversity of the community at large. The several social groups in society are supposed to be conveniently represented in the" orkplace, so that it begins to look like a "patchwork quilt" (Gilbert et al., 1999). However, affirmative action
fails to eradicate the deep roots of prejudice and inequality docs little to enhance the full potential of minorities and to promote a multicultural environment (Grosh and Doherty, 1999).
Although the perception· that women within the workplace has started changing like, for an example the perception that women do not have business acumen, and therefore their place is at home. There are still fewer women in senior positions within organizations. The glass ceiling eff~o:ct is !:>till in place, as certain positions within the business arc still considered to be men's domain. Management needs to take cognisance of the fact that women are starting to play a dominant role within the organization, particularly now as many women choose careers over family. Managers need to be cognisant of the difTerences between women and men and need to manage this and set the tone for these changes.
llofstcdc ( 1999) refers to the cultural expectations and differentiation, which societies have in association with the gender roles betv.cen men and women. Men are considered to be assertive, tough, resilient and focus on material success, while women arc associated with modesty. tenderness and the concern for quality of life.
Based on this dimension, it has been identified that those who show mru.culine values, tend to focus on work with particular emphasis on corporate growth and material success and respond well to job recognition, advancement and financial reward. Feminine culture values tend to give greater emphasis on quality of life, thus respond better to time off and vacations. Masculine characteristics are often associated with a more analytic and logical approach to decision making "hile the feminine culture counterpart makes better use of intuition to facilitate decision-making. So whatever policies are put in place to correct gender inequalities at '"ork, they have to contend '' ith harsh realities of cultural expectations especially in South Africa.
People or employees expect the manager to be a fountain of knowledge on all what is to be knm' non gender diversity. The "gender diversity driver" is proving to be valuable, practical and supply valuable resource that can assist the organization to do the following:
• Define the meaning of diversity in an organization;
• Clarify current strengths: and to
• Identify improvements that can be made to successfully integrate gender diversity within
the organizational culture, policies and procedures, (Farrer, 2004):
In addition, organiLations have found that the manager is a constructive means of analysing how
successful employees are at engaging with a diverse range of existing gender equilibrium. The manager tends to support organizations seeking to expand the gender issues with skills, by highlighting areas that could be improved to attract a more diverse range of provision users, thus opening up new challenges of client markets to target.
To overcome the drawbacks noted above, a new approach emerged during 1980's that became known as gender diversity management. According to lvancevich and Gilbert (2000), it "refers to the systematic and planned commitment by organizations to recruit, retain, reward and promote a heterogeneous mix of employees". This voluntary and strategic-oriented approach recognizes the '' orkcr's individuality am.l bdid!> in the benefits of gender diversity of the organization (Cornelius et at., 2000). It is not intended to guarantee the assimilation of minorities into a dominant culture, but to challenge the organi/ation policies and practices so that everyone can succeed by being him or herself (Thomas, 1990). Under the diversity fi-amework, the equality based on sameness is replaced b:> the equality based on difTcrcnce (LifT and Wiseman,
1996).
Gender diversity management also questions the traditional way of confronting equal opportunities at work. More than a legal or moral issue, diversity is now regarded as a business case (Thomas and Ely, 1996). Seveml contributions such as the lollowing are expected from a d i' erse "ork force (Cox and B lai-c, 1991 : Thomas and I:. I}, 1996 ):
• lmprovcments in decision-mah.ing processes:
• Increased llexibility;
• Innovation and learning, and
Organizations that follow this orientation will probably also reduce costs associated with turnover; absenteeism, stress, litigation related to discrimination, and low productivity of minority workers (Cox and Blake, 1991 ).
The interaction of culturally diverse workers is not without problems, such as the increased
turnover, among individuals from the dominant group, decreased group integration, and
communication barriers (Co, 1991; Brickson, 2000; Milliken and Martins, 1996). In order to
overcome these obstacles and to benefit from a diverse workforce, several authors argue that
organizations must develop cultures that welcome, support and value gender diversity (Ca
rr-Ruffino, 1996; Cox, 1991; Cox and Blake, 1991; Miller, 1998).
One of the consistent themes within all analyses of discrimination is the role of stereotyping, so it is of no surprise that it surfaces as a key issue in several of the chapters. In partic.ular, there is
notable evidence ofthe importance of job-typing and stereotyping in terms of disability.
Gender-typing of jobs has long been recognised as a significant factor in the social construction of women's disadvantage for example; (Ph ill ips & Taylor, 1986; and Steinberg, 1990) but there is less analysis of the implications for men entering gender- typical work. Interestingly, although the same processes of stereotyping as noted above might be expected to occur, the outcomes are very different. These reflects how jobs stereotyped as 'women's work' are consistently rewarded less than ·men·s work· even in spite of legislation on equal pay and work of equal value. Second!), feminisation has not gro\\n to the extent predicted in the 1980s and so there has not been expansion of gender-typing work in the 1990s. Thirdly, many of the fcminised jobs are part-time, and employers arc less ''illing to employ men because the stereot)pical assumption is that they are simply biding time until they can find a full-time job.
1.7 Gender diversity-related to employment legislation
Most democratic and many non-democratic countries in the \\Orld toda) ban job discrimination that is related to gender, race, and ethnicity.
South Africa's anti discrimination legislation is relati,ely new and broad (I \\yla, 2002). The
new South Africa Constitution, adopted in 1996, declares that the country belongs to all who live
in it ''united in our diversity." Chapter 2, 9 (3) of Constitution, (1996). The State may not unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against any-status, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture language and birth.'.
Firstly, the diversity list is far more inclusive than those of many other nations. Second, "unfair
discrimination "was banned, implying that it was possible to "fairly discriminate" and paving the way for a ffinnative action (Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996). It remains to seen whether this piece of legislation has been efTective at the workplace in as far as protecting and promoting working '~omen.
2.8 Discrimination and Equality in Employment
In broad terms, discrimination in employment occurs ''hen (i) individuals, institutions, or government's treats people differently because of personal characteristics like race, gender, or sexual orientation rather than their ability to perform their jobs and (ii) these actions have a negative impact on access to jobs, promotions. or compensation.
Discrimination occurs as a result of an explicit policy or law that generates unequal treatment. Covert Jiscrimination is the result of an implicit side effect of another policy or decision. SeconJ, discrimination can be indi\ idual or institutional. It is individual ''hen a single manager or a co-'.'.orkcr in conjunction with his or her individual prejudice perfonns the prejudicial action or actions; it is institutional when it is performed as part of the organisation's common practices or policies (Michalle E. Mor Barak. 200 I ).Therefore it is important to note that there is a fundamental difference between attributes that mal-e a person a unique human being and those rhat based group membership rathc1 than individual characteri~tics- yield negative or positive consequences.
Workforce diversity is not about the anthropological differences between people that "make them special'' (using the terminology of or invisibly different from '' hatcvcr is considered ·'mainstream" in society. It is about susceptible to employment consequences as a result of one's association within or outside certain social groups (Michalle E. Mor Barak, 200 I).
[n response to the growing diversity in the workforce around the world. many companies has instituted <>pccific policies and programs to enhance recruitment, inclusion, promotion, and retention of employees who are different from the privileged echelons of society. Just as the privileged groups may vary from one country to the next, although equal rights legislation and affirmative action policies have helped disadvantaged groups obtain access to a variety of jobs not pre\ iousl} open to them, it is their exclusion from circles of innuence in work organisations that has kept them from fully contributing to and benefiting from their involvement in the workplace. Diversity management policies and programs are designed to create a welcoming organisational environment to those groups that, in the past and through the present, have not had access to employment.. in general. and to more lucrative jobs, in particular.
The term "gender diversity management" originated in North America but has slowly taken hold in other regions and countries of the world (D'Netto & Sohal, 1999; Hurwitz, Bowmaker -Falconer, & Searle, 1996; Palmer, 2003: & Palma, 200 I).
With the globalisation of economies and the increase in multinational corporations, gender diversity managements no longer refers solely to the heterogeneity ofthe workforce within one
nation but often refers also to the workforce composition across nation. For an example a
German company instituting policies and training programs for its employees to improve
sensitivity and provide employment opportunities to members of minority groups and recent immigrants in its workforce. Then the type, cross-national gender diversity management, refers to managing a workforce composed and immigrants in different countries. Each of these types of diversity management presents different challenges and dilemmas, and each requires a difTerent
set of policies and programs.
In addition to practicing within the laws and social norms of its home country, cross-national
diversity management requires employers to take into consideration the legislative and cultural
context in other countries, depending on where their workforce resides. For example. a company based in South Africa has to abide by the South African equal rights legislation, which compels
it to treat men and women equally. If the same company has a branch in Saudi Arabia, ho, ... ever, it "ill ha\e to treat its emplo)ees according to the laws of that country, which is the Islamic
tradition of prescribed gender roles. In South Korea, for example, the cultural norms dictate that
married women with )Oung children leave their careers and devote their time to their families. I hen.:forc, "hile a U.S. company is likely to provide training and promotion opportunities to
) oung women (in compliance with antidiscrimination legislation), its Korean subsidiary may
'ic" such policies as a waste of time, considering the Korean cultural norms (Lee. 1997).
Co\. (1994) indicates that "the objective of gender diversity management is to contribute and
achieve their full potential ...
2.9 Equal rights laws, to arfirmativc action
·1 he current business focus on gender diversit) is quite different from equal rights legislation and from affirmative/positive action programs. The latter arc about trying to achieve equality of opportunities by focusing on specific groups and righting past wrongs. Diversity efforts focus on managing and handling the diverse workforce to give company a compctitiH:: advamagc. All
these may be viewed as a continuum: l~qual Employment Opportunities (l~EO) legislation means
that it is against the law to discriminate; affirmative action programs means that organizations need to take positive steps to ensure equal opportunities; and diversity management is proactive
and aimed at promoting a diverse and heterogeneous workforce (Bryan, 1999). Equal
