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Master Thesis

High performance HR practices and person-job fit: The

mediating role of job crafting

Name:

Rajae El Aiachi

Study Programme:

MSc Business Administration

Track Leadership and Management

University:

University of Amsterdam

Student Number:

10202773

Supervisor:

Dr. C. Boon

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Statement of originality

This document is written by Rajae El Aiachi who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.

I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it.

The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.

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Abstract

The aim of this study is to examine the influence of job crafting in the relationship between high performance HR practices and P-J fit. Job crafting was measured with four dimensions: increasing structural job resources, increasing social job resources, increasing challenging job demands and decreasing hindering job demands. High performance HR practices consist of skill-enhancing HR practices, motivation-enhancing HR practices and opportunity-motivation-enhancing HR practices. Person-job was divided into demands-abilities fit and needs-supplies fit. A total of 266 Dutch employees from different organizations in the Netherlands, have participated in this survey. The results demonstrated that high performance HR practices are positively related to the job crafting dimensions. An exception is decreasing hindering job demands, which was negatively related to job high performance HR practices. In addition several job crafting dimensions were positively related to P-J fit. Decreasing hindering job demands partly mediates and increasing structural job resources fully mediates the relationship between high performance HR practices and P-J fit. In the end, theoretical and practical implications are provided, limitations of this research are mentioned and suggestions for further research are described.

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction ... 1

2. Literature review ... 4

2.1 Job crafting ... 4

2.1.1 Job crafting and the JD-R model ... 5

2.1.2 Dimensions of job crafting ... 5

2.2 Person-job fit ... 6

2.3 Job crafting and person-job fit ... 7

2.3.1 Job crafting and demands-abilities fit ... 7

2.3.2 Job crafting and needs-supplies fit... 9

2.4 HRM practices ... 10

2.4.1 HRM practices, employee perceptions and organizational outcomes ... 10

2.4.2 Conceptualization of HRM practices ... 11

2.5 HRM practices and job crafting ... 12

2.5.1 Skill-enhancing HR practices and job crafting ... 13

2.5.2 Motivation-enhancing HR practices and job crafting ... 14

2.5.3 Opportunity-enhancing HR practices and job crafting ... 16

2.6 HRM practices and person-job fit and the mediating role of job crafting ... 17

2.6.1 HRM practices and person-job fit ... 17

2.6.2 The mediating role of job crafting ... 18

2.7 Research model ... 20 3. Method ... 21 3.1 Sample ... 21 3.2 Statistical procedure ... 22 3.3 Measurements of variables ... 23 4. Results ... 25 4.1 Correlation analysis ... 25 4.2 Direct effects ... 27 4.3 Mediation effects ... 34 5. Discussion ... 38

5.1 Theoretical implications and directions for future research ... 38

5.2 Practical implications ... 41

5.3 Limitations and future research suggestions ... 41

6. Conclusion ... 42

References ... 44

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1. Introduction

Work has substantial meaning for individual’s life and health because work can supply resources to outlive, to have access to relational contacts and participating in control over their life (Blustein, 2008). Moreover, previous research suggested that work that is experienced as stimulating and meaningful by employees is found to contribute to the heart of an organization (Steger, Dik & Duffy, 2012). It is not surprising that managers have access to a knowledge base that is beneficial to design jobs that will lead to more stimulating and meaningful work (Humphrey, Nahrgang, & Morgeson, 2007). However, current research emphasizes that job (re)design is not only affected by managers but also by employees (Fuller, Marler & Hester, 2006).

Job design is an important topic in the management area. Studies conducted on job design have primarily aimed attention at “methods to direct worker behavior to improve performance, either through administrative, engineering design or

motivational approaches” (Smith & Sainfort, 1989, p. 67). Theories of job design suggested that job characteristics have an impact on work/organizational outcomes and individual outcomes. However, work/organizational outcomes in studies are very different ranging from focus on achieving operational productivity (Taylor, 1911) to focusing on motivation and job enrichment (Herzberg, 1966). The promotion of methods to improve work/organization outcomes was directed by the management and has been considered as a top down approach (Wrezniewski & Dutton, 2001).

Throughout the years more research on job design focused on ways of

proactive work behavior to improve the performance of employees (Smith & Sanfort, 1989). Theories of job design have transformed from a top-down approach to a bottom-up approach. The bottom-up approach is about employees creating a more challenging work environment. Employees have an active role in altering and redesigning their own work environment (Chen, Yen & Tsai, 2014). The idea that employees can alter and redesign their work environment is called job crafting. A definition of job crafting is as follows “the physical and cognitive changes individuals make in the task or relational boundaries of their work” (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001, p.179). Employees who engage in job crafting build different jobs for themselves.

Job crafting is a subject that just appeared recently in the research field (Demerouti, 2014). The last few years there have been many studies published about

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job crafting and their consequences (Tims, Bakker & Derks, 2012; Bakker, Tims & Derks, 2013; Berg, Dutton & Wezesniewski, 2013). Some studies suggested that person-job fit (P-J fit) is an outcome of job crafting (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). Person-job fit (P-J fit) is defined as “the relationship between a person’s

characteristics and those of the job or tasks that are performed at work” (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005, p.284). When employees engage in job crafting, they can form their job to meet their own needs and abilities. This in turn will lead to a better P-J fit (Tims & Bakker, 2010). Previous research suggested that employees engage in job crafting behavior because primarily they want to improve the P-J fit or work

motivation as a way to find new meaningfulness in their job (Tims et al., 2013). The relationship between job crafting and P-J fit is interesting to study because an increased P-J fit, for example as result of engaging in job crafting, will lead to lower illnesses and job strain among employees (Tims & Bakker, 2010).

Nevertheless, there are few studies that examined the relationship between job crafting and P-J fit. Until now two studies found support for the notion that job crafting will lead to an increased P-J fit (Chen, Yen & Tsai, 2014; Tims, Derks & Bakker, 2016). Chen et al. (2014) found that there is a positive relationship between individual and collaborative job crafting and P-J fit of Taiwanese employees. Tims et al. (2016) found that employees who craft their job reported a higher degree of person-job fit. This research will build on previous research in examining the relationship between job crafting and P-J fit.

As said before there are a lot of studies that investigated job crafting and the consequences, such as well-being of employees (Tims et al., 2012; Bakker et al., 2013). According to Wrzesniewski and Dutton (2001), specific job characteristics can stimulate job crafting. For instance when there is autonomy in a certain job, this will lead to more perceived opportunity for job crafting among employees. Until now, research on job crafting has not examined whether organizational context such as HR practices can elicit job crafting behaviors among employees. It is therefore important to contribute to the recent knowledge about job crafting and its antecedents. This study will examine whether an organization’s HR practices can provoke job crafting behaviors among employees. Furthermore, this study will expand the literature on the relationship between job crafting and P-J fit. This study will focus on job crafting, P-J fit and HR practices and will address the following research question:

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“Does job crafting mediate the relationship between an organization’s HR

practices and person-job fit? “.

According to Berg, Wrzesniewski and Dutton (2010, p. 181) “Job crafting matters to organizations. At a time when employees are increasingly expected to find proactive ways to meet organizational objectives and contribute the best of their talents to their organizations”. They also claim “organizations may find that there is more they can offer to facilitate [job crafting]” (Berg et al., 2010, p. 181). This study will focus on the antecedents, in particular HRM practices, of job crafting. In that way, this study will contribute to the current scientific knowledge, because there is no knowledge about the relationship between HR practices and job crafting.

Organizations who are concerned in directing job crafting behaviors among

employees can take their advantage from this study. So, this study makes a scientific contribution as well as a practical contribution.

This study is structured in the following manner. In the next chapter, the relevant literature about job crafting, P-J fit and HR practices is discussed. Then in chapter three, the research methodology is explained. Furthermore, the results of the analysis are presented. In the end, the discussion, implications, ideas for future research and conclusion are described.

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2. Literature review

This section considers the most relevant findings regarding the job crafting literature. Also relevant information about P-J fit and the relationship with job crafting is explained. Furthermore, the role of an organization’s HR practices are taken into consideration. The hypotheses around the key concepts of this study are stated. The chapter ends with a research model that illustrates the hypotheses and relationships between the concepts.

2.1 Job crafting

Job crafting is defined as “the physical and cognitive changes individuals make in the task or relational boundaries of their work” (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001, p.179). Job crafting is strongly related to job design theory that pay attention on supervisors designing jobs for subordinates (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). However, job crafting is different from job design in the way that it directs the process by which employees alter aspects of their job and relationships with others to reconsider the meaning of their job. Kulik, Oldman and Hackman (1987) were the first who introduced the concept of job crafting by stating that employees could independently redesign their job. This means that employees can do this with or without supervision.

An employee’s profession consists of “a set of task elements grouped together under one job title and designed to be performed by a single individual” (Ilgen & Hollenbeck, 1992, p.173). In this way, tasks serve as the most essential component of the connection between employees and the organization (Griffin, 1987). Employees can craft a job by shaping tasks, relations and cognitions of a job. Task crafting is described as embracing more or fewer tasks, altering how the tasks can be performed and increasing or decreasing the extent of tasks. Relational crafting is defined as altering the way one interacts with other individuals of the company. Cognitive

crafting is explained as changing how an individual thinks about the tasks including in one’s job (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). Job crafting is not about changing the entire job but altering particular aspects of a job within the barrier of the particular job tasks.

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2.1.1 Job crafting and the JD-R model

The description of job crafting stated by Wrzesniewski & Dutton (2001) is only limited to changes in the tasks, relational and cognitions of employees toward their work. Current studies have proposed that job crafting can take other styles as well (Lyons, 2008). For instance, research done by Lyons (2008) suggested that

salespersons craft their job in order to participate in self-initiated skill development. As a consequence, Tims et al. (2012) expanded and validated a scale to measure job crafting based on the job demands-resources model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). This theory is also known as the JD-R model. Building on this model job crafting is defined as “the changes that employees may make to balance their job demands and job resources with their personal abilities and needs” (Tims et al, 2012, p.174). As reported by the JD-R model, all job elements can be classified in two categories known as job demands or job resources. Job demands are about all the characteristics of the job that need emotional and cognitive abilities or effort. An example of job demands is employees having a heavy workload. Job resources are about aspects of a job that are useful in accomplishing work objectives, decreasing job demands and encouraging personal growth, learning and progress (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). An example of job resources is including performance feedback in the work environment.

2.1.2 Dimensions of job crafting

Tims et al. (2012) suggested that job crafting consist of four dimensions namely increasing challenging job demands, increasing structural job resources, increasing social job resources and decreasing hindering job demands. However, in the first studies increasing social job resources and increasing structural job resources were combined in one variable (Tims & bakker, 2010). This study will focus on the four dimensions of job crafting. The dimensions will be described below.

The first dimension is about increasing structural job resources. JD-R model has demonstrated that job resources encourage work engagement and as a result lead to positive organizational outcomes (Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti & Schaufeli, 2009). Job resources also perform as a shield to undesired work outcomes like illness and burnout (Bakker, Demerouti & Euwema, 2005). General speaking it would be pleasant to have a high level of job resources in a job. Examples of increasing

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resources is about employees seeking feedback, support and coaching from their

supervisor.

Increasing challenging job demands is about employees developing a higher

level of job demands at their job. This means that they develop more challenges at their job when they experience that their work is not providing them enough chances and opportunities to use their skill and grow. By including more tasks to their work, adopting tasks from their manager/supervisor and volunteering for extra activities and projects, employees can expand their level of job demands (Tims & Bakker,

2010). Previous research has shown that challenging demands do not have a connection with negative work outcomes like job dissatisfaction and illness.

Challenging demands rather have a positive relationship with goal achievement and motivation (Cavanaugh, Boswell, Roehling & Boudreau, 2000). In other words, challenging demands result in positive work outcomes.

Decreasing hindering job demands is used when the job demands surpassing

abilities and competences. A way employees can decrease their job demands is by not taking a lot of difficult decisions in their work. So employees can achieve their work objectives without a lot of strain and by staying in good health. These forms of job demands are named hindrance demands because they hinder employees in

accomplishing their objectives. It is essential for employees to find manners to decrease the level of hindrance demands for accomplishing well and to be satisfied with their work (Tims & Bakker, 2010).

2.2 Person-job fit

Person-Environment fit (P-E fit) is the all in all concept of fit and is defined as ‘‘the compatibility between an individual and a work environment that occurs when their characteristics are well matched’’(Kristof-Brown et al., 2005, p. 281). P-E fit is about the interaction between the environment and a person. P-E fit is an umbrella concept meaning that employees match levels of their work environment like the job,

supervision, organization, team or occupation (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). In the literature there are different types of fit such as job fit (P-J) fit, person-organization fit and person-supervisor fit (Kristof-Brown et al, 2005).

P-J fit is defined as “the relationship between a person’s characteristics and those of the job or tasks that are performed at work” (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005, p. 284). Job crafting exists at the job level therefore this research focuses on person-job fit (P-J fit). Edwards (1991) identified two concepts of P-J fit namely

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demands-abilities fit (D-A) and needs-supplies fit (N-S). Demands-demands-abilities fit is about the notion that employees’ abilities, skills and knowledge are corresponding with the job demands. Needs-supplies fit takes place when employees’ preferences, needs and desires are served by the work that individuals carried out (Edwards, 1991). P-J fit is important for organizations because there is a positive relationship

with job satisfaction (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005), work engagement (Scroggins, 2008) and well being (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). A fit is associated with positive work outcomes such as well-being and on the other hand, misfit is

associated with negative work outcomes such as burn-out and stress (Kristof, 1996; Edwards, 1996).

2.3 Job crafting and person-job fit

Within the literature, job crafting is a topic of research that just showed up recently (Demerouti, 2014). A lot of studies suggested that there is a relationship between job crafting and person-job fit (Berg, Dutton, & Wrzesniewski, 2010; Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). However, there is limited empirical data that demonstrated the

relationship between job crafting and P-J fit. There are just two studies that examined the relationship between job crafting and P-J fit (Tims, et al., 2016; Chen et al., 2014). The study of Chen et al. (2014) investigated whether hotel employees in Taiwan engage in collaborative and individual job crafting. Moreover, they examined whether individual and collaborative job crafting actually lead to increased

person-environment fit and job engagement. They found that both individual and collaborative job crafting lead to job engagement and that this relationship is

mediated by P-J fit. The study of Tims et al. (2016) examined whether job crafting by using their job resources and job demands leads to better P-J fit. The results suggested that job crafting leads to improved P-J fit.

This current study examines the relationship between job crafting and P-J fit. Based on previous research, there is a positive relationship between the four

independent job crafting dimensions and P-J fit (Tims et al., 2016). Through job crafting employees can improve their P-J fit by altering their work characteristics (Lu, Wang, Lu, Du & Bakker, 2014).

2.3.1 Job crafting and demands-abilities fit

When employees engage in job crafting by increasing social and structural job resources, this allows them to employ their skills, develop themselves and generate

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access to substantial resources such as feedback and support. Subsequently employees are going to experience that they have enough skills, abilities and competences to perform the demands of the job (Lu et al., 2014). As a result, the DA fit will increase. The same counts for crafting increasing challenging job demands, which will

probably also result in a bigger D-A fit. An example is when an employee wants to learn more skills or wants to use more abilities, increasing challenging job demands is likely to lead to a better fit of the preferences and abilities with the work. Crafting decreasing challenging job demands will also lead to a better DA fit. When the job demands exceed employees because they do not have the right abilities, knowledge and/or skills to carry out particular work, these specific job demands can be decreased. Consequently, the DA fit will increase as well. The balance between individual’s skills, abilities and knowledge and the job demands can be refreshed.

The expectation is that the four dimensions of job crafting will lead to an increased DA fit. D-A fit is about employees’ whose abilities, skills and knowledge are corresponding with the job demands. This reasoning can be reinforced by Boon, Den Hartog, Boselie and Paauwe (2011) in which they demonstrated that perceived job aspects such as autonomy, delevopment opportunity, training and challenging work were positively related to person-job fit. Job crafting also refers to employees who proactively wants to increase these job characteristics like training. Therefore a positive relationship between job crafting and DA fit is expected. Summarized, the prediction is that the four job crafting dimensions will result in a positive alignment between a person’s abilities, knowledge and skills and the demands of a specific job. The information above will lead to hypothesis one described below.

Hypothesis 1a: Increasing structural job resources is positively related to demands- abilities fit

Hypothesis 1b: Increasing social job resources is positively related to demands-abilities fit

Hypothesis 1c: Increasing challenging job demands is positively related to demands-abilities fit

Hypothesis 1d: Decreasing hindering job demands is positively related to demands-abilities fit

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2.3.2 Job crafting and needs-supplies fit

The same interpretation counts for the relationship between job crafting and needs-supplies fit. N-S fit takes place when employees’ preferences, needs and desires are served by the work that individuals carried out. By forming job characteristics, it is attainable to create alignment between a specific job and an individual’s preferences, desires and needs. It is expected that the four job crafting dimensions may result in an increased N-S fit. The self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000) helps to

understand why job crafting will result in N-S fit. According to these theory employees have three basic needs: competence, relatedness and autonomy.

Competence is the need to be competent in dealing and controlling the environment. Relatedness is the need to interact and connect with people and to establish close relationships. Autonomy is the need to control our own lives and act in harmony with ourselves (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Crafting a job in order to satisfy the three basic needs (competence, relatedness and autonomy) will result in a better N-S fit. By crafting job

characteristics, it is attainable to align a job with employees’ preferences, needs and desires. Satisfying the three basic needs will result in an increased NS fit (Edwards & Shipp, 2007). Increasing structural job resources including autonomy and learning opportunities will result in employees who feel more autonomous and qualified. By engaging in increasing social job resources via conversations and meaningful contact, which consists of feedback, coaching and help, the profession will probably provide the idea of relatedness. According to Van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste, De Witte and Lens (2008) hindering job demands have a negative relationship with need

satisfaction. This means that decreasing hindering job demands will lead to more need satisfaction. Increasing challenging job demands by adopting more tasks to their work and volunteering for extra activities, gives employees more chance to develop themselves, use their skills and grow. This will satisfying the need competence and as a result will lead to a better NS fit. Summarized, engaging in the four job crafting activities will result in a better N-S fit because the job makes it possible for the employee to feel autonomous, competent, and related to other people. Based on the information above, hypothesis two is formulated below.

Hypothesis 2a: Increasing structural job resources is positively related to needs-supplies fit

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Hypothesis 2b: Increasing social job resources is positively related to needs-supplies fit

Hypothesis 2c: Increasing challenging job demands is positively related to needs-supplies fit

Hypothesis 2d: Decreasing hindering job demands is positively related to needs-supplies fit

2.4 HRM practices

In the past twenty years, studies in the field of strategic human resource management (HRM) identified in what way and why organizations attain their objectives by the use of human resource (HR) practices. Classic HRM studies have concentrated on the relationship between individual HR practices, examples are training, selective

recruitment and information sharing, and concentrated on organizational outcomes. However, research conducted in the field of strategic HRM emphasizes the use of bundles of HR practices in examining the effect on organizational outcomes. Bundles of HR practices are often mentioned as performance work systems,

high-involvement work systems and high-commitment work systems (Wright & McMahan, 1992).

2.4.1 HRM practices, employee perceptions and organizational outcomes

Strategic HRM research has demonstrated that when organizations use systems of HR practices to improve employees’ knowledge, skills and abilities, motivation and opportunity, this will lead to positive organizational outcomes. Examples of positive organizational outcomes are more commitment (Gong, Law, Chang & Xin, 2009), lower turnover rate (Batt, 2002), improved financial performance (Huselid, 1995) and higher quality and productivity (MacDuffie, 1995). Through HR practices,

organizations can communicate with employees by sending signals about valuable goals and desired behaviors of employees (Rousseau, 1995). Because of dissimilarity in values, preferences and experience, employees interpret signals send by

organizations differently (Bowen & Ostroff, 2004). Employee’ perceptions have an important impact on the relationship between HR practices and organizational outcomes (Guest, 1999). Wright and Nishii (2007) likewise presented a model that shows that the impact of HR practices on employee’ attitudes and behaviors take place by way of employees perceptions of HR practices. This means that employees

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perceptions will affect employee and organizational outcomes. Therefore this study will focus on employee perceptions of HR practices within an organization.

2.4.2 Conceptualization of HRM practices

Research conducted by Lepak, Liao, Chung and Harden (2006) proposed to conceptualize individual HR practices in one of the three following elements consisting of skill-enhancing HR practices, motivation-enhancing HR practices and opportunity-enhancing HR practices. This is corresponding to the AMO model that consists of ability, motivation and opportunity. Skill-enhancing HR practices are described as HR practices that guarantee skilled employees in an organization. Skill enhancing HR practices consists of extensive recruitment, selection and training.

Motivation-enhancing HR practices are carried out to improve employee’s

motivation. Typical examples are competitive compensation, performance appraisal, career development, job security and incentives and rewards. Opportunity-enhancing

HR practices are implemented to authorize employees to apply their skills and

motivation to attain organizational goals. Examples are information sharing, work teams and flexible job designs.

The relationship between bundles of HR practices and organizational

outcomes is often examined. Although, the relationship between HR practices and job crafting has not been studied previously. If employee’ perceptions of HR practices have a relationship with organizational outcomes, then it means that employee’ perceptions of HR practices can also provoke job crafting behaviors among employees. Additionally, examining the relationship between job crafting and perceptions of HR practices will expand the knowledge about job crafting and consequently have a scientific contribution. This study focuses on the indirect effect of HR practices on P-J fit via job crafting behavior. Researchers introduced the ability-motivation-opportunity (AMO) model of HRM. In this model employee performance is a function of three fundamental elements, namely ability, motivation and opportunity. Recently, the AMO model is validated and approved by various empirical research (Bailey, Berg, & Sandy, 2001; Batt, 2002; Huselid, 1995; MacDuffie, 1995; Subramony, 2009).

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2.5 HRM practices and job crafting

Tims and Bakker (2010) have demonstrated that a mix of individual and work characteristics is needed to realize job crafting. Examples of work characterizes are task independence and autonomy and examples of individual differences are proactive personality and motivation. This means that performing job crafting is dependent on individual factors and work characteristics. Organizations as well as employees can change work characteristics at any possible time. This implies that organizations can stimulate job-crafting behavior among employees by changing work characteristics.

This study will focus on work characteristics in the form of bundles of HR practices based on the AMO model in predicting the relationship between job crafting and person-job fit. Work characteristics and organization are able to provoke job crafting (Tims & Bakker, 2010). According to signaling theory, when employees have incomplete or different information, organizations have to send clear signals to employees to explain the desired behaviors (Connelly, Certo, Ireland & Reutzel, 2011). These signals can be provided by diverse organizational instruments, for instance via routines, procedures and practices in the workplace. Employees can make conclusions about what is expected from them. In addition Bowen and Ostroff stated (2004) that it is for strong HRM systems achievable to send unambiguous messages about expected employees’ behavior. This notion can be an indication that HR practices can guide and elicit job crafting behaviors among employees.

According to Tims and Bakker (2010), job crafting is to some magnitude bolstered by job resources that are administered and supported by the organization. Job resources are defined as “physical, psychological, social or organizational features, which may be functional in achieving work-related goals; decrease job demands and their associated costs; and encourage development and personal growth” (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2001, p.501). Examples of job

resources are autonomy, supervisory support, feedback and social support. These specific job resources were already examined in previous research (Hakanen, Bakker & Schaufeli, 2006) in promoting positive outcomes such as job satisfaction.

Additionally, previous research examined whether these job resources influence job crafting (Tims & Bakker, 2010). HR practices and in particular the aspects of the AMO model can affect these job resources. For example by enhancing motivation enhancing practices which consists of feedback, competitive compensation and

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performance appraisal, some job resources are altered. This is achieved by giving feedback by which employees are encouraged to develop. Also performance appraisal and competitive compensation encourage employees to develop and grow and to achieve work-related goals. HR practices provide employee with the resources to engage in job crafting. In this way job resources are altered by HR practices. How the aspects of the AMO model can elicit job crafting behaviors among employees will be explained in more detail below. First skill-enhancing HR practices, then motivation-enhancing HR practices and ultimately opportunity-motivation-enhancing HR practices in relation with job crafting will be discussed below.

2.5.1 Skill-enhancing HR practices and job crafting

HR practices, and thus the AMO model can be used to support desired behaviors of employees (Bowen & Ostroff, 2004). Skill-enhancing HR practices that consists of comprehensive training, rigorous selection and extensive recruitment, are designed to create skilled employees within an organization. Consequently, employees will get the feeling that an organization stimulate employees and invests in them (Kehoe & Wright, 2013). For instance, when organizations use extensive recruitment and selection, employees may get the feeling that organizations value them well.

Social exchange theory is defined as “favors that create diffuse future obligations, not precisely specified ones, and the nature of the returns cannot be bargained about but must be left to the discretion of the one who makes it” (Blau, 1964, p.93) and can be used to explain that employees get the feeling that they have to reciprocate behavior that is beneficial to an organization. This theory stated that when employees receive benefits such as extensive training, employees will not harm the organization from which they receive these benefits (Sun, Aryee & Law, 2007). What can be concluded is that employees will choose to work harder to show that investing in them is worthwhile. Employees can chose to work harder by adding new and extra challenging tasks to their job. In this way, employees increase their challenging job demands that are part of job crafting. This is formulated below as hypothesis 3c.

Also according to the social exchange theory, employees will also engage in increasing structural and social resources when they perceive skill-enhancing HR practices. They want to meet the deadlines and become better in what they do when they perceive HR practices such as extensive recruitment and selection. Examples of job crafting behaviors in which employees can engage are increasingly asking and wanting feedback and coaching from their supervisors. See hypothesis 3a and 3b

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formulated below. The social exchange theory can also give an explanation why employees engage in decreasing hindering job demands when they perceive skill-enhancing HR practices. Employees want to meet the deadlines and produce good work because they want and feel obliged to pay the company back. Employees will use decreasing hindering job demands to meet objectives and at the same time stay in hood health (hypothesis 3d). What is important to note is that skill-enhancing HR practices only can bring reciprocal behavior into being when it is also perceived by employees as skill-enhancing HR practices.

Hypothesis 3a: Employees perception of skill-enhancing HR practices will be positively related to increasing structural job resources

Hypothesis 3b: Employees perception of skill-enhancing HR practices will be positively related to increasing social job resources

Hypothesis 3c: Employees perception of skill-enhancing HR practices will be positively to increasing challenging job demands

Hypothesis 3d: Employees perception of skill-enhancing HR practices will be positively related to decreasing hindering job demands

2.5.2 Motivation-enhancing HR practices and job crafting

Motivation enhancing HR practices such as performance appraisal, incentives, job security and competitive compensation will give employees the impression that they are appraised and valued for their work and achievement (Takeuchi, Lepak, Wang & Takeuchi, 2007). Furthermore, motivation-enhancing HR practices support the extrinsic motivation of employees and this in turn leads to employees that search for challenges in their job (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Self-regulation theory illustrated that when employees set objectives and try to achieve their goals, they compare their actual goal fulfillment condition opposed to their expected goal fulfillment condition (Lord, Diefendorff, Schmidt & Hall, 2010). When there is a difference between the actual and expected goal fulfillment condition, then employees might make adjustments in the way they behave for example (Lord et al., 2010). Employees can do this by engaging in job crafting. An example is when employees want to accomplish specific goals aroused by motivation enhancing HR practices, but they face hindering job demands that hinders employees in achieving their goals. Employees can use job crafting by decreasing these hindering job

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demands and increase their skills and chance to meet the goals, as formulated in hypothesis 4d.

When employees perceive motivation enhancing HR practices, they get the feeling that they are valued for their work and effort (Takeuchi et al., 2007). Employees will therefore do their best to pay the organization back but also to get performance-based reward, to get promotion or other benefits. They can do this by engaging in job crafting and specific in increasing challenging job demands. They expand their level of job demands through including more tasks to their job,

volunteering for extra projects and adopting tasks from their supervisor in order to use their skills and grow. This is described in hypothesis 4c.

Conservation of resources (COR) theory, a motivational theory, can be used to explain why motivation-enhancing HR practices can elicit job crafting behaviors among employees. The basic principle of the COR theory is that individuals have a urge to develop, advance, retain and take care of the condition and capacity of their resources. In the COR theory, these resources are related to well-being and survival of employees. The COR theory consists of three principles: the primacy of resources loss, resource investment and loss and gain spirals (Hobfoll, 1989). According to principle two resource investment, individuals should invest in resources with a view to preserve against loss of resources and in order to gain resources. According to the COR theory, employees that have to handle menacing situations are likely investing in resources that help them to deal with these difficult situations (Angelo & Chambel, 2014). So Generally speaking, the COR theory expected that employees try to gain resources that they do not possess and make effort in taking care of the resources that they have. This results in a positioning of employees that admits their best

employment (Angelo & Chambel, 2014). This means that when employees perceive motivation-enhancing HR practices such as incentives, appraisals and competitive compensation, they will engage in increasing social and structural job resources (hypothesis 4a and 4b). They will do this by asking for feedback, engaging in learning opportunities, autonomy and coaching in order to protect their resources and to gain resources that they do not possess. This results in a positioning of employees that admits their best employment triggered by motivation-enhancing HR practices. It is again important to emphasize that it is about the subjective experience of employees; they have to perceive motivation-enhancing HR practices. Based on the information above, hypothesis four is formulated below.

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Hypothesis 4a: Employees perception of motivation-enhancing HR practices will be positively related to increasing structural job resources

Hypothesis 4b: Employees perception of motivation-enhancing HR practices will be positively related to increasing social job resources

Hypothesis 4c: Employees perception of motivation-enhancing HR practices will be positively related to increasing challenging job demands

Hypothesis 4d: Employees perception of motivation-enhancing HR practices will be positively related to decreasing hindering job demands

2.5.3 Opportunity-enhancing HR practices and job crafting

Opportunity enhancing HR practices such as flexible job design, information sharing and work teams are created to allow employees to apply their abilities and motivation to attain organizational goals. Flexible job design is a form of autonomy that can be defined as “ employee’s perception regarding “the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out “ (Hackman & Oldham, 1976, p.258). As reported by Hackman and Olham (1976), autonomy expands a person’s feeling of accountability for work outcomes because outcomes of work with a lot of autonomy is contingent on an individuals’ own achievements, choices and actions rather than dependent on external factors.

Wrzesniewski and Dutton (2001) as well as Tims and Bakker (2010) have suggested that perceived autonomy by employees will facilitate job crafting because of higher freedom in their work.

Today there is no research that investigated the relation between job crafting and HRM practices such as the AMO model. Therefore there is a need to study the relationship between job crafting and the AMO model. It is already proposed that strong HRM systems can shape expected behaviors among employees. The AMO model of HR practices is proven by previous research that it demonstrated high performance HR practices (Jiang, Lepak, Hu & Baer, 2012. Below hypothesis five about opportunity-enhancing HR practices and job crafting is described.

Hypothesis 5a: Employees perception of opportunity-enhancing HR practices will be positively related to increasing structural job resources

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Hypothesis 5b: Employees perception of opportunity-enhancing HR practices will be positively related to increasing social job resources

Hypothesis 5c: Employees perception of opportunity-enhancing HR practices will be positively related to increasing challenging job demands

Hypothesis 5d: Employees perception of opportunity-enhancing HR practices will be positively related to decreasing hindering job demands

2.6 HRM practices and person-job fit and the mediating role of job

crafting

In this section the relationship between the two dimensions of P-J fit and skill-enhancing, motivation-enhancing and opportunity-enhancing HR practices will be explained. Furthermore the mediating role of job crafting in the relationship between P-J fit and HR practices will be considered.

2.6.1 HRM practices and person-job fit

According to Boon, Den Hartog, Boselie and Paauwe (2011) HR practices can take a substantial part and function in attaining an increased P-J fit by matching employees with their job. This is also confirmed by Rousseau and Greller (1994) showing that HR practices are an important instrument by which employees comprehend the terms of their job. The basic characteristics of an organization, which includes the culture, norms, values and goals, influence the demands, supplies and fit of a certain job (Kristof 1996). These basic characteristics of an organization are conveyed by means of HR practices within an organization (Judge & Bretz, 1994). Furthermore, certain HR practices like training & development and selection can help by matching individuals’ KSAs with the job wants. This means that HR practices play an important role when it comes to P-J fit. HR practices might lead to an increased person-job fit. According to Huselid (1995) high performance HR practices will be more powerful than individual HR practices. These high performance HR practices consist of skill-enhancing HR practices, motivation-enhancing HR practices and opportunity-enhancing HR practices (Appelbaum, Bailey, Berg & Kalleberg, 2000).

Based on the studies conducted by Kristof (1996), Bretz and Judge (1994) and Huselid (1995), can be derived that through skill-enhancing HR practices such as extensive training employees will learn the abilities that are required to meet

organizational requirements. Through motivation-enhancing HR practices such as competitive compensation, employees will make sure that they do possess the

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organizational demands so that they sure that they have the abilities to meet organizational objectives. Through opportunity-enhancing HR practices such as information sharing and work teams, employees will learn from others in the

organization to possess the abilities needed to accomplish the work. This will lead to a better demands-abilities fit stimulated by the dimensions of the AMO model, which is formulated in hypothesis 6.

The same reasoning applies to needs-supplies fit. Skill-enhancing HR practices results in employees who their needs and desires are satisfied by for example extensive training. Through motivation-enhancing HR practices and opportunity-enhancing HR practices like performance appraisals and work teams, employees their preferences and desires might be satisfied. This will lead to a better needs-supplies fit, which is described in hypothesis 7. The hypotheses six and seven are formulated below.

Hypothesis 6a: Skill-enhancing HR practices will be positively related to demands-abilities fit

Hypothesis 6b: Motivation-enhancing HR practices will be positively related to demands-abilities fit

Hypothesis 6c: Opportunity-enhancing HR practices will be positively related to demands-abilities fit

Hypothesis 7a: Skill-enhancing HR practices will be positively related to needs-supplies fit

Hypothesis 7b: Motivation-enhancing HR practices will be positively related to needs-supplies fit

Hypothesis 7c: Opportunity-enhancing HR practices will be positively related to needs-supplies fit

2.6.2 The mediating role of job crafting

It is already noted that HR practices might have a positive influence on P-J fit because of HR practices (Boon et al., 2001; Rousseau & Greller, 1994). Tims and Bakker (2010), proposed that work characteristics and organizations can provoke job crafting. This study focuses on the positive effect of high performance HR practices on P-J fit via job crafting. As described in the chapter about the relationship between HR practices and job crafting, skill-enhancing, motivation-enhancing and

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opportunity-enhancing HR practices gives employees the opportunity to craft their job. By job crafting behaviors, employees can align their needs, desires, preferences and abilities more with their job and themselves. This might lead to a better P-J fit. Motivated and stimulated by high performance HR practices, employees can craft their job and thereby optimize their P-J fit. Summarized, this study state that job crafting mediates the relationship between an organization’s HR practices and P-J fit. This relationship is represented in hypothesis 8 and 9.

Hypothesis 8a: Job crafting mediates the relationship between employee perceptions of skill enhancing HR practices and demands-abilities fit

Hypothesis 8b: Job crafting mediates the relationship between employee perceptions of motivation enhancing HR practices and demands-abilities fit

Hypothesis 8c: Job crafting mediates the relationship between employee perceptions of opportunity enhancing HR practices and demands-abilities fit

Hypothesis 9a: Job crafting mediates the relationship between employee perceptions of skill enhancing HR practices and needs-supplies fit

Hypothesis 9b: Job crafting mediates the relationship between employee perceptions of motivation enhancing HR practices and needs-supplies fit

Hypothesis 9c: Job crafting mediates the relationship between employee perceptions of opportunity enhancing HR practices and needs-supplies fit

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2.7 Research model

Figure 1: Conceptual Model

H8, 9 H6

H3

H4

H5

The relationship between HR practices, job crafting and person-job fit are illustrated in the conceptual model (Figure 1) described above.

Skill enhancing HR practices Motivation enhancing HR practices Increasing challenging job demands Decreasing hindering job demands Increasing social job resources Opportuniy enhancing HR practices Increasing structural job resources Demands-abilities fit Needs-supplies fit H1 H2 H7

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3. Method

This chapter starts with the first empirical information of this study. First of all, the characteristics of the collected sample will be summarized. After that, the statistical approach that was taken for testing the expected relationships between the hypotheses is discussed in this chapter. Finally, the measurements of the variables that are part of the questionnaire are explained. The entire questionnaire (in Dutch) is represented in the appendix.

3.1 Sample

Questionnaires were used to gather information about the relationship between HR practices within an organization and job crafting and whether this will lead to a better P-J fit. The population that is targeted for this study are Dutch employees working fulltime or part-time in any given organization. This study is constructed on the data that was collected by a research team of UvA students in the timeframe of 2013-2015. They used two different surveys, one for employees and one for managers/

supervisors. Each questionnaire was coded in order to make obvious which questionnaires formed a pair. For employees, it was around 20-25 minutes to

complete the questionnaire. For managers, it took around 10-15 to fill in the survey. The questionnaires were sent to employees and their managers in the

Netherlands from the end of February till the mid of May. An existing survey was used to collect data, increase the sample size and test the hypotheses. The

questionnaire was sent by email to participants including an accompanying letter with the link to the online survey and an individual code, which they need to fill in the online survey. After two week participants who do not participated or finished the questionnaire, received a reminder with a friendly request to complete the online survey. The division of the surveys was done by myself and by persons in my network. Non-probability sampling techniques were used to collect data. It is impossible to get an entire list of employees and managers.

The types used for this study are convenience sampling and snowball sampling. Convenience sample and snowball sampling were used because of the limited timeframe for this study. Convenience sampling makes it easy to collect data fast, easy and inexpensive. Through personal contacts and by help of my network it was possible to gain access to employees and managers/supervisors. Snowball sampling was used by asking already participating employees and supervisors to

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make an effort to gather more data from colleagues. One requirement was that all the respondents could speak and read Dutch because the entire survey was in Dutch as well. The participants were assured that their answers will be completely anonymous and that I am only interested in averages and not in specific answers.

The final sample consists of 266 employees and 156 managers. Only the employee sample will be used because this study focuses on employees’ behavior. After cleaning the dataset and removing participants who skipped almost al the questions, the dataset consists of 211 employees. The final sample comprised of 86 (40.8%) male and 125 (59.2%) female employees, although there were three missing gender entries. Age of the participants ranged from 14 to 63 with an average age of 33.63 (SD= 12.07). In general the participants were highly educated, but the respondents still had different educational background. Namely 40 participants enjoyed a MBO education (18.7%), 95 participants HBO (44.4%), 14 participants completed a bachelor at the university (6.5), 32 participants master degree’s (15%), one PhD student and 27 participants completed a secondary education program (12.6%). Further, the participants worked from a month until 42 years for the

organization. On average, participants worked 6.6 years for their present organization. (SD=7.7).

3.2 Statistical procedure

IBM SPSS Statistics was used to analyze the collected data and perform the statistical analyses. The following steps were taken to test the hypotheses. First of all, the dataset was cleaned whereby participants who skipped almost all the questions were removed from the dataset. The other missing values were represented with 999. Secondly, counter-indicative items were recoded which contain all the items of

decreasing hindering job demands. Thirdly, a Cronbach’s Alpha test was conducted to examine the reliability of the scales. Almost all the scales had a score higher than 0.7 that means a good scale (Table 2). Two scales measuring skill-enhancing and

opportunity-enhancing HR practices had a reliability between 0.6 and 0.7. All in all, this means that most of the scales are reliable and can be used for following analysis. Based on the reliability analysis, it can be concluded that items should not be deleted in order to raise the Cronbach’s Alpha (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2009). Scale means were computed and normality check was conducted by analyzing skewness and kurtosis and multicollinearity. After that hierarchical regression is used to test the hypotheses.

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Table 1: Cronbach's Alpha

Variable α Items

Increasing social job resources .767 5 Increasing structural job resources .751 5 Increasing challenging job demands .758 5 Decreasing hindering job demands .872 6

Skill-enhancing HR practices .675 4 Motivation-enhancing HR practices .707 6 Opportunity-enhancing HR practices .644 5 Demands-abilities fit .867 3 Needs-supplies fit .937 3

3.3 Measurements of variables

All the items that are used in this survey were derived from English research. Because the questionnaire was distributed in the Netherlands and all the people had to speak Dutch, the original items were already translated into Dutch by the previous research team. At the beginning of the questionnaire, employees and managers were asked to fill in any demographic information like gender, age, how many years they are working for the organization and education level.

Job crafting was measured by using the 21-items scale of Tims, Bakker and

Derks (2012). Job crafting consists of four dimensions: increasing structural job resources, increasing social job resources, increasing challenging job demands and decreasing hindering demands. Each dimension of job crafting consists of five items except for decreasing hindering job demands that consists of six items. All the

measures of job crafting were assessed by using a five-level Likert item ranging from never (1) till very often (5). An sample item measuring increasing structural job resources was, “I try to develop my capabilities”, for decreasing hindering job demands, “I make sure I have not to take a lot of difficult decisions in my work”, for increasing social job resources, “I ask colleagues for advice” and for increasing challenging job demands, “When it is quiet at work, I see that as an opportunity to

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The scale of Cable and DeRue (2002) was used to measure person-job fit. This scale consists of 6-items scale, which included needs-supplies fit as well as demands-abilities fit. Needs supplies fit consists of three items and demands-abilities fit consists also of three items. The measures of person-job fit were determined by using a seven-level Likert item ranging from strongly disagree (1) till strongly agree (7). A sample item for measuring demands-abilities is “My personal skills and

education fits well with what is expected of me in my current job”. Needs-supplies fit

included sample item such as “My current job offers me everything I expect from a

job”.

To measure HRM practices within an organization, a 15-items scale of Kehoe and Wright (2013) was used. HRM practices consists of three elements namely skill-enhancing HR practices, motivation-skill-enhancing HR practices and

opportunity-enhancing HR practices. In the questionnaire, skill-opportunity-enhancing HR practices consist of four items, motivation-enhancing HR practices consist of six items and opportunity-enhancing HR practices consist of five items. A seven point Likert scale was used to assess whether they completely disagree (1) or completely agree (7). Skill-enhancing HR practices consists of statements such as “My organization only takes the best

people” and for motivation-enhancing HR practices “Wage increases for employees are based on work performance”. A sample item measuring opportunity-enhancing

HR practices is “It is allowed for employees to make important employment-related

decisions, such as how the work is done and how new ideas are implemented”.

Based on the correlation matrix, skill-enhancing, motivation-enhancing and opportunity-enhancing HR practices correlated strongly with each other. This means that the variables are seen as the same. There were high correlations between skill-enhancing, motivation-enhancing and opportunity-enhancing HR practices. Also, the Cronbach’s Alpha of skill-enhancing HR practices and opportunity-enhancing HR practices was below 0.7. This can be a problem for further analysis. Therefore, there is chosen to measure HR practices as one scale in further analysis, namely high performance work systems (HPWS).

The control variables used in this study and analyses are age, gender and education. The variables age, gender and education were measured by open questions: “What is your gender?”, “What is your age in years?” and “What is your highest achieved education?”.

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4. Results

4.1 Correlation analysis

A correlation matrix was calculated that gave an overview of the means, standard deviations (SD), correlations between all the variables and the Cronbach’s Alpha .The Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) demonstrates the power of a relationship between variables. When the r value is around 0.3, this means that there is a medium effect between the variables. A value above 0.5 indicates a strong effect (Field, 2013). Meaning that adjustments in one variable are strongly correlated with the other variable.

A correlation matric was computed with HPWS as a variable instead of motivation-enhancing, opportunity-enhancing and skill-enhancing HR practices as individual variables (Table 2). The results in the correlation matrix presented that there are significant correlations between all forms of job crafting and HPWS (increasing structural job resources: r=. 194, p<. 01, increasing social job resources: r=. 215, p<. 01, increasing challenging job demands: r=. 213, p<. 01 and decreasing hindering job demands r=. 156, p<. 05). In addition, all forms of job crafting

correlates significantly with demands-abilities fit (increasing structural job resources: r=. 272, p<. 01, increasing social job resources: r=. 174, p<. 05, increasing

challenging job demands: r=. 235, p<. 01 and decreasing hindering job demands: r=-.144, p<. 05). Needs-supplies fit and all the form of job crafting with the exception of increasing social job resources correlate significantly as well (increasing structural job resources: r=. 182, p<. 01, increasing challenging job demands: r=. 227, p<. 01 and decreasing hindering job demands: r=-.129, p<. 05). Furthermore HPWS correlates significantly with both demands-abilities and needs-supplies fit (demands-abilities fit: r=. 329, p<. 01 and needs-supplies fit: r=. 331, p<. 01. All the forms of job crafting correlate significantly with each other. All the variables correlate with each other meaning that there is a relationship between the variables. But it is not possible to state which variable caused the other variable and what kind of direction those relationships have.

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Table 2: Means, SDs, correlations and reliability coefficients

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Age 33.63 12.07

2. Gender 1.59 0.49 -.077

3. Education 3.01 1.30 .032 .15*

4. Increasing structural job

resources 3.50 0.63 .000 -.011 .14* (.751)

5. Increasing social job resources 2.83 0.74 -.223** .027 .065 .587** (.767) 6. Increasing challenging job

demands 3.08 0.71 -.025 .033 .208** .688** .556** (.758) 7. Decreasing hindering job

demands 2.07 0.77 .161* -.088 .128 .010 -.318** -.021 (.872) 8. Demands-abilities fit 5.45 1.12 .217** .002 .065 .272** .174* .235** -.144* (.867) 9. Needs-supplies fit 4.80 1.34 .221* .055 -.044 .182** .132 .227** -.129* .709** (.937) 10. HPWS 4.41 0.84 .130 .061 .138* .194** .215** .213** .156* .329** .331** (.826)

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4.2 Direct effects

In this part the results are presented based on analyzing and testing the hypotheses. The direct and indirect effects that mean the mediation effect were tested. The recommendations of Baron and Kenny (1986) and James and Brett (1984) were used to demonstrate a mediation effect. To support mediation effect four steps need to be conducted and approved. First of all, there need to be significant relationship between the independent (HPWS) and dependent variable (P-J fit) in this study. Secondly it is necessary that there is a positive relationship between the independent (HPWS) and the mediator variable (job crafting). In the third place, the dependent (P-J fit) and mediator variable (job crafting) should be significantly related to each other. In the end it is required that the relationship between the independent (HPWS) and dependent (P-J fit) variable is weaker and/or not significant like before when including the mediator (job crafting) in the analysis.

Hypothesis 1 and 2 suggest that the four dimensions of job crafting are positively related to the two dimensions of P-J fit. A hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to investigate if there is a positive significant relationship between job crafting (four dimensions) and P-J fit (two dimensions). DA fit was the dependent variable and in step one the control variables age, gender and education were entered, in step two increasing structural job resources, increasing social job resources,

increasing challenging job demands and decreasing hindering job demands were

entered (Table 3.1). The same was performed for NS fit (Table 3.2) Model one was statistically significant F (3, 205) = 3.636; p< .05 and

explained 5.1 % of the variance in DA fit. After controlling for age, education and gender model two was also statistically significant F (4, 204) = 7.699; p< .01 and explained 13.1 % of the variance in DA fit. Three out of the five predictors were statistically significant with DA fit. A positive relationship was found between age and DA fit (β = .211, p <. .01). After controlling for age, gender and education a positive relationship was established between increasing structural job resources and DA fit (β = .287, p <. .01) and between decreasing structural job resources and DA fit (β = .191, p <. .01). Based on the analysis hypothesis 1a and 1d are supported and hypothesis 1b and 1c are rejected.

For NS fit as the dependent variable model one was statistically significant F (3, 205) = 4.078; p< .01 and explained 5.6 % of the variance in NS fit. After

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controlling for the control variables model two was also significant F (4, 204) = 5.625; p< .01 and explained 9.9% of the variance in NS fit. In the end three out of the five predictors were statistically significant with NS fit. A positive relationship was found between age and NS fit (β = .230, p <. .01). After controlling for age, gender and education a positive relationship was observed between NS fit and increasing structural job resources (β = .209, p <. .01) and between NS fit and decreasing hindering job demands (β = .175, p <. .05). It can be concluded that hypothesis two is partially supported. Hypothesis 2a and 2d are supported and hypothesis 2b and 2c are rejected.

Hypothesis 3,4 and 5 stated that the four dimensions of job crating and skill, motivation and opportunity-enhancing HR practices will be positively related. Again hierarchical regression analysis is conducted. As said before, skill-enhancing HR practices, motivation-enhancing HR practices and opportunity-enhancing HR practices are measured as one variable namely HPWS. An overview of the results is represented in table 4.1 and table 4.2. The outcome of the hierarchical regression analysis for increasing structural job resources when entering the predictors’ age, gender and education was not significant. In step two HPWS was entered and the variables age, gender and education were controlled F (4, 204) = 3.123; p< .01) and explained 5.8 % of variance in structural job resources. There was a positive

significant relationship between increasing structural job resources and HPWS (β = .204, p <. 01).

Hierarchical regression analysis was also executed to investigate if perceived HPWS will predict increasing social job resources, after controlling for age, gender and education. In step one gender, age and education were entered. This model was statistically significant F (3, 205) = 3.362; p< .05 and explained 4.7 % of variance in increasing social job resources. After entry of HPWS in step two the total variance explained by the model is 12.2 % F (4, 204) = 7.058; p< .01. A negative significant relationship between age and increasing social job resources was found (β = -.208, p <. .01) and a positive significant relationship between HPWS and increasing social job resources observed (β = .279, p <. .01).

Likewise a hierarchical regression analysis was performed for increasing challenging job demands, after controlling for age, gender and education. Again in step one age, gender and education were entered. This model was statistically significant F (3, 205) = 3.269; p< .05 and explained 4,6 % of the variance in

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increasing challenging job demands. Then following HPWS was entered and the total variance by the model is 8.2% F (4, 204) = 4.567; p< .01. A positive significant relationship between education and increasing challenging job demands (β = .211, p <. .01) as well as a positive significant relationship between HPWS and increasing challenging job demands (β = .195, p <. .01) was found.

In the end a hierarchical regression analysis was accomplished for decreasing hindering job demands, after controlling for the control variables. Another time in step one age, gender and education were entered. This model was statistically significant F (3, 205) = 4.006; p< .01 and explained 5.5 % of the variance in decreasing hindering job demands. In step two HPWS was entered and the total variance explained by the model is 9.3 % F (4, 204) = 5.212; p< .01. A positive relationship was found between decreasing hindering job demands and age (β = .154, p <. .05) and between decreasing hindering job demands and education (β = .147, p <. .05). However, a negative significant relationship was found instead of a positive significant relationship between decreasing hindering job demands and HPWS (β = -.198, p <. .01).

Based on the hierarchical regression analysis it can be concluded that hypothesis 3,4 and 5 are partially supported. Increasing structural job resources and increasing social job resources are positively related to HPWS. The same counts for increasing challenging job demands. However a significant negative relationship between decreasing hindering job demands and HPWS was found instead of a

positive significant relationship. Therefore hypothesis 3,4 and 5 about the relationship between the three dimensions of HPWS and job crafting are supported with the exception of decreasing hindering job demands.

According to hypotheses 6 and 7 P-J fit and HPWS (three dimensions: skill-enhancing HR practices, motivation-skill-enhancing HR practices and opportunity-enhancing HR practices) will be positively related. An outline of the results is represented in table 5.1 for DA fit and in table 5.2 for NS fit. The results of the hierarchical regression analysis for DA fit when entering gender, age and education, was statistically significant F (3, 205) = 3.636; p< 0.05 and explained 5,1 % of variance in demands - abilities fit. After entering HPWS in step two and controlling for age, gender and education the total variance by the model for demands-abilities fit was 12.5 % and F (4, 204) = 7.276; p< .01. There was a positive relationship between DA fit and HPWS (β = .279, p <. 01). In addition DA fit and age were positively

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related to each other (β = .211, p < .01). This means that the relationship between DA fit and HPWS is positively significant and therefore hypothesis 6 is supported.

The results of the hierarchical regression analysis for NS fit when entering the predictors age, gender and education was also statistically significant F (3, 205) 4.078; p< 0.01 and explained 5,6 % of variance in NS fit. After entering HPWS in step two and controlling for the control variables the total variance by the model of NS fit was 14,6 % and F (4, 204) =8.709; p< .01. NS fit and HPWS were positively related to each other (β = .306, p <. 01) and age and NS fit (β = .230, p <. 01). This means that DA fit and HPWS have a positive relationship and therefore hypothesis 7 is supported.

Table 3.1: Hierarchical regression analysis for demands-abilities fit

Demands-abilities fit Variables R2 B SE β Step 1 .051* Age .019 .006 .211** Gender .014 .157 .006 Education .060 .059 .070 Step 2 .131** Age .019 .006 .209** Gender .029 .150 .013 Education .027 .057 .032

Increasing structural job resources .506 .116 .287** Increasing social job resources .200 .125 .131 Increasing challenging job demands .076 .148 .049 Decreasing hindering job demands .275 .103 .191**

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Table 3.2: Hierarchical regression analysis for needs-supplies fit Needs-supplies fit Variables R2 B SE β Step 1 .056** Age .025 .008 .230** Gender .218 .187 .080 Education -.044 .070 -.042 Step 2 .131** Age .025 .007 .228** Gender .231 .183 .085 Education -.072 .070 -.071

Increasing structural job resources .443 .142 .209** Increasing social job resources .235 .153 .129 Increasing challenging job demands .354 .179 .188 Decreasing hindering job demands .302 .125 .175*

** Significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

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