Master’s Thesis
Diana Ewa Adamczuk (10617604) Supervised by dr. P.G.A. van der Rijt Research Master Communication Science Graduate School of Communication Completed on 28th January 2016
Communication Relations in
Virtual and Diverse Settings:
Abstract
Background: Online platforms are freelancing and crowdsourcing marketplaces gathering freelancers and employers from around the world. Because of online and culturally diverse settings of these platforms, new communication patterns between employers and employees emerge. Although theories of interpersonal communication address various communication issues, the issue of online and work-related communication in culturally diverse environment remains understudied. Thus, the aims of the current study are to explore existing
communication and communication relations between freelancers and employers
collaborating via online platforms, and examine the communication relations development between these two parties.
Methods: Semi-structured interviews with freelancers from two online platforms,
Upwork.com and Freelancer.com, were applied as a tool of data collection. Grounded theory techniques based on Strauss and Corbin approach (1990 and 1998) were employed in order to analyse the collected data.
Results: Obtained data was rich and offered several insights with regards to communication and communication relations existing at online platforms. To begin with, freelancers do not consider their clients as their employers but rather members of a team and, thus, prefer to perceive the existing communication interactions exclusively as the relationship between clients and service providers. Next, two types of communication take place between collaborating parties: task-oriented and human-oriented communication. Only when both
types of communication are present, the communication relations are likely to develop after the project is finished. Furthermore, despite observed challenges of intercultural diversity (e.g. language barriers, different work patterns and time differences), freelancers recognise intercultural diversity as a positive element that broadens their horizons and helps them in future wok at culturally diverse online platforms. Intercultural diversity of online platforms does not pose a threat to the success of communication and cooperation because its
disadvantages can be overcome. Two models emerged out of analysed data: the
communication model for online and intercultural settings and the model of communication relations development.
Conclusions: Elements of human-oriented communication and being aware that freelancers expect team-work are essential for the successful development of communication relations at online platforms. This finding could be taken into account by managers planning to outsource their tasks to online platforms and establish there longer-term relationships with freelancers, even those of culturally diverse backgrounds.
Keywords: online communication, communication relations, grounded theory, intercultural
Introduction
The understanding of interpersonal communication and relations in online settings becomes extremely important in the era of developments in information and communication technologies (ICT), expansion of computer-mediated systems (CMS), welcoming “online reality”, “virtual-” or ”e-reality” in newer scopes of human’s life and activity. Online communication remains popular not only among individuals willing to nourish distant relationships with their relatives or friends but also among organisations and professionals willing to cooperate and collaborate with their stakeholders. Organizations recognise benefits of using the ICT and, thus, strive to extend their activities from traditional co-located settings to virtual settings (Cramton et al., 2005; Hertel et al., 2005; Andriessen et al., 2006;
Purvanova et al., 2009).
Organisations decide to relocate their work on various projects to international
workforce using outsourcing or offshoring facilities (e.g. Contractor et al., 2010; Aksin et al., 2008) and facilitate it with the use of the ICT. As a consequence virtual teams (VTs) are progressively used (Mukherjee et al., 2012). VTs presence is visible in a broad range of areas and specialisations but especially in Research and Development and Customer Service (Wakefield et al. 2008; Ebrahim et al. 2010). VTs manage to function despite its members being separated by distance, time zones and differing cultures (Mukherjee et al., 2012).
Researchers from around the world strive to uncover the specificities of virtual communication. Communication in virtual settings is studied within a variety of fields, among others, management and leadership (e.g. Zimmermann et al., 2008; Verburg et al. 2013; Salter et al. 2010), psychology and behaviourism (Wu et al., 2015; Haans et al. 2014; Blanchard, 2004) or education and technology (e.g. Hendrix et al. 2014; Pineteh et al. 2012; Ladyshewsky et al. 2014). Although the phenomenon of communication in virtual and
work-related settings is to some extent addressed by existing literature, there are still some issues that have not been discussed or remain doubtful.
To begin with, surprisingly a vast majority of studies devoted to the theme of work- or project-related communication focuses itself on the managerial and leadership approaches towards communication (e.g. Forward et al. 2011; Gibb, 1961; Czech & Forward, 2013; Lilian, 2014; Grosse, 2002; Berry, 2011; Duarte & Snyder, 2006; Siebdrat et al. 2009). Communication facilitates the work processes and managers having a deep understanding about these processes are more likely to succeed in achieving their managerial objectives. The aim of this study is to contribute to the field of communication sciences by analysing the communication phenomenon from communication sciences perspectives, applying and enriching theories and insights relevant for the field.
Secondly, the topic of virtual cooperation between employers and employees circulates mainly around network theory and virtual teams (e.g. Lilian, 2014; Grosse, 2002; Berry, 2011). Prioritising these two approaches overshadows the person-to-person dimension of communication by taking for the point of reference communication between groups of employees (teams) and the project manager (e.g. Lilian, 2014; Grosse, 2002; Berry, 2011) or focuses on the networking and relationships within teams themselves (Montoya-Weiss et al. 2001; Jarvenpaa et al. 1998; Bosch-Sijtsema, 2007; Tan et al., 2000) but fails to see
communication situations where two individuals, an employer and employee/contractor, communicate and work together. We observe nowadays the appearance of the new ways of working, e.g. working distantly via online platforms. Communication at such platforms takes place between individuals, employers and freelancers, thus, it is important to find out how communication at online platforms is conducted.
There are clusters of different theories and axioms explaining face-to-face
(e.g. Festinger, 1957; Heider, 1958; Jones et al., 1972; Weiner, 1974, 1986; Watzlawick, 1974; Watzlawick et al. 2011; Buck & Van Lear, 2002; Emmert & Brooks, 1970; Burgoon et al., 1975; Burgoon, 1995; Gibb, 1961; Granovetter, 1973) but offering no concrete model of communication relations that would fit online reality, and specifically – working environment of this reality.
Thirdly, parties who work with each other and have to use a computer-mediated communication very often are not only dispersed over time zones and locations but also originate from different cultures. Although workplace-related and real-place diversity issues are broadly studied (e.g. Allen, 1995; Kochan et al., 2003; Henderson, 1994; Loden et al. 1991; Barak, 2013; Ting-Toomey et al., 2012; Wentling et al., 1998), interestingly enough, the number of studies devoted to diversity within e-workplaces remains either dominated by diversity matters but in the scope of virtual teams (Schachaf, 2008; Jarvenpaa et al., 1998; Staples et al. 2006) or is not existing at all. To researcher’s knowledge, this is the first study that analyses virtual communication between culturally diverse parties that cooperate with help of online platforms.
And finally, communication relations are not static but subject to changes such as development or retrogression. As existing studies show, communication relations can grow from weak to strong or may change from positive to negative, and vice versa (Granovetter, 1973). This study will attempt to examine the development of communication relations at culturally diverse online platforms to find out which patterns of development prevail, and under which conditions. Obtained knowledge will help to understand which communication patterns are of the best fit for the online work environment.
This research if of valuable relevance to the society and practice as it investigates communication in the new ways of working. Understanding communication in the new ways of working properly will make the process of cooperation and collaboration more fruitful and
efficient. Organisations and individuals who plan to work via online platforms may find this research extremely useful.
This study strives to address all mentioned issues above and asks a following research question: How do communication relations between freelancers and project managers in virtual and diverse settings evolve? The main objective of this study is to find out characteristics of virtual communication and communication relations between culturally diverse parties that collaborate via online platforms (Upwork.com and Freelancer.com). The research is organised into four parts: theoretical framework, methodology, results and general discussion and conclusion. All important for this study concepts are presented in the
theoretical framework section. Methodology includes all important details regarding the procedures of data collection and analysis. The results section contains the outcomes of data analysis. The last section of this study, general discussion and conclusion, answers the research question, provides elaborations concerning relevance of this study for the science and society; limitations and recommendations for the future research.
Theoretical Framework
The purpose of this section is to provide a theoretical overview related to the most relevant for this study concepts. The first part of this section introduces the concept of interpersonal communication. The second part of this section elaborates on online and work-related communication along with the phenomena of online platform and cultural diversity.
Interpersonal Communication – Communication Relations and their Development
This study focuses on communication relations in one-to-one working environments, where one individual is an employer and the other – a freelancer. In order to properly
to know what the communication relations can be like, and how they develop, if at all. A study on interpersonal ties by Granovetter (1973) seems to be relevant and helpful even in the context of online settings, thus, will be referred to.
Granovetter (1973), who studies dyadic interpersonal ties in face-to-face settings; focuses on absent, strong, and weak ties. Absent interpersonal ties are those that are
negligible, lack any relationship or substantive significance: “Included in "absent" are both the lack of any relationship and ties without substantial significance, such as a "nodding" relationship between people living on the same street, or the "tie" to the vendor from whom one customarily buys a morning newspaper. That two people "know" each other by name need not move their relation out of this category if their interaction is negligible”
(Granovetter, 1973, p. 1361). With reference to communication between employers and freelancers that will mean that the complete lack of any communication relations as well as existing but superficial communication relations will be considered by this study as absent. Moreover, this study argues also that because of the online working environment between employers and freelancers, once a communication relation becomes absent, it will remain as such and never develop into existing (even weak) relationship.
In Granovetter’s view, the strong and weak ties are positive and symmetric. Although Granovetter does not speak about negative ties due to their lack of relevance for his study, he acknowledges their existence. This study will take into consideration all three characteristics of weak and strong ties: positive, negative and symmetric to maintain a more complete picture of interpersonal communication between employers and freelancers. Because of the relative nature of weak and strong ties Granovetter (1973) encourages the intuitive
assessment. To distinguish between weak and strong ties and be grounded in the data this study will rely on the respondents’ perceptions. That means that any communication
relationship indicated and argumented by respondents as strong (or weak) will be received and declared as such.
As far as positive and negative ties are concerned, it is believed in this study that positive communication facilitates the process of cooperation and collaboration between freelancers and employers, and contributes to the development of communication relations in the future. By contrast, negative communication relations are seen as a factor making the working and communication relationships between employers and freelancers deteriorate and even vanish.
Symmetric communication relations are perceived in this study as two-way relations. The two-way symmetric communication was for the first time introduced by Grunig (2013) who characterises it as: honest and open two-way communication and mutual give-and-take; mutual respect and efforts to achieve a common understanding; negotiation, compromises and a willingness to adapt. A simple example of a two-way symmetric communication takes place when a freelancer has a possibility to openly inquire to his or her employer about any issue and the latter is open for and does respond to this inquiry. If next a solution to the problem is needed both parties, with a respect towards each other, will be honestly and mutually involved in finding a solution to the problem and if that appears to be the only outcome – be ready to be the one who goes for compromise.
How to recognise a development of communication relations and who are the contributors? Before this question can be answer, it is essential to understand what is understood by this study as a development. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines
development as the act or process of growing or causing something to growth, become larger or more advanced. This study applies the exact way of thinking and characterises the
development of communication relationships as a process that allows communication relations going one or few steps further, become stronger, and grow.
Communicating parties are those who contribute to the process of communication relations development. In Granovetter’s perception, communicating parties can develop and strengthen communication ties by allocating for their communication: more time, emotional intensity (e.g. the feeling of attachment), intimacy (e.g. mutual confiding) and reciprocal services (e.g. helping each other). Communication relations can develop if employers and freelancers (1) allocate for communication more time so all relevant issues can be discussed, (2) are open for closer communication and attachment, (3) do communicate with the other party freely enough so the mutual confiding can take place, and (4) are involved in
communication and cooperation by being responsive, supportive and informative etc.
Employers or freelancers can create new communication relationships or make existing ones stronger or more positive. Obviously, employers and freelancers can also prevent the
development of communication relations. A freelancer or employer being irresponsive or unavailable for communication, causing others feeling reserved, ignoring requests for participation is likely to make the communication relations negative, slow down their development or even make these relations absent.
Communication in Virtual Settings
Interpersonal ties/ interpersonal communication relations exist also in virtual reality. The online interpersonal communication is mediated by various forms of electronic
communication and computer mediated collaboration technology (Berry 2011; Maznevski & Chudoba, 2000). Online workers are physically and/or temporally separated from their co-workers or their work location some or all of the time (Be´langer et al., 2001; Montoya et al., 2011) but are able to asynchronously communicate, cooperate, and complete their tasks, irrespective of time and space, because they are not bound by temporal and geographical constraints (Berry, 2011).
The amount of time spent while working through computer-mediated communication instead of face-to-face communication determines the level of virtualness and virtuality. The highest degree of virtualness takes place when all members work apart from each other and only communicate and interact through computer-mediated communication or other distance communication technologies (Kirkman, Rosen, Gibson, Tesluk & McPherson, 2002). The lowest degree of virtualness occurs when communicating parties use a computer as a channel of sending information but the face-to-face communication is available whenever they need it (Berry, 2011). Work at online platforms represents the highest level of virtualness.
Online platforms phenomenon. Online platforms such as Upwork.com or
Freelancer.com are freelance marketplaces gathering independent professionals, agencies and companies from around the globe. Any project that can be done on computer can be done via online platforms, regardless its size and length.
Upwork.com and Freelancer.com, as well as all other online platforms, serve two parties: those who need a job to be done and pay for it, and those who can do it and get paid. Depending on the platform, the first group is called either employers or clients. For the convenience reasons, this study will use the term “employers.” Those who accept job offers and work on awarded projects are called freelancers. Employers and freelancers can
communicate via platform chat. Freelancer.com forbids its users to communicate beyond the platform and share any contact details. Users are advised to communicate in writing, via chat. Upwork.com does not have such restrictions. Upwork.com users chat with each other or have voice and even video conferences both facilitated by the platform. However, the voice and video conferencing was introduced in the end of 2015 and remained in its tests stage until the end of the research.
Before posting a job or reacting to job offers, any user, freelancer or employer, has to register on a given platform. All are recommended to complete their profiles. Employers are
required to verify their payment methods, whereas freelancers their account numbers. Once employers complete their profiles, a job post can be added. Upwork.com and Freelancer.com connect the employer with the best matches, and alternatively, but within a limit, employers can invite candidates by themselves. Interested freelancers respond to job offers by
submitting applications on projects. A typical application normally includes a freelancer’s motivation letter, portfolio and link to the profile.
The best candidate is chosen and invited for an interview. After a successful interview, the employer officially awards the project by assigning the job post to a given candidate on agreed contract and conditions. At Upwork.com and Freelancer.com there are two types of contracts: hourly contracts and fixed price contracts. On hourly projects an hour worked is an hour paid, whereas on fixed price contracts, a pre-funded milestone payment is secured from the employer’s account. Freelancers and employers are protected by the
platform payment protection. By chance of hourly projects, the collaboration is facilitated by the platform monitoring system via which employers can check the progress of the job.
Once a freelancer completes the project, he or she reports it to the employer. Upwork.com platform facilitates the process of project submission by offering the project submission gateway, which is the safest way to submit complete projects. At Freelancer.com projects are submitted in a form of attachments and via the chat. For fixed contracts the employer approves the project and is free to release a previously pre-funded milestone. The hourly projects are approved on the basis of received project and hours worked. After project approvals, within the platform payment conditions and deadlines, a freelancer receives his or her remuneration. Next, if the project is ended, employers and freelancers can leave feedback for each other.
Platform environment is not free from disputes and disagreements. In cases of minor disputes, employers and freelancers can come to terms by themselves, without involving
platform support team. Both, under mutual agreement, can modify the project details or update the contract. If the matter regards a serious disagreement or conflict, users can contact the platform dispute team for help. Within the terms and conditions of the platform, the platform team investigates and solves the issue.
Online platforms are not a new phenomenon. The first online platforms supporting online work were created already in 1999 e.g. Elance.com. However, to the knowledge of the researcher, the literature on the communication relations between collaborating employers and freelancers in the settings of online platforms does not exist. It must be admitted though that a lot of available literature on online collaborations focuses on the communication networks within virtual teams. The literature gap – lack of focus on interpersonal and dyadic communication between collaborating parties – will be addressed by this study.
Work-related communication. Studies analyse virtual and work-related
communication from three perspectives: communication styles, effectiveness of communication and the presence of trust.
Communication in virtual settings is believed to represent two styles: task-oriented and human-oriented (De Vries, 2010; McCartney & Campbell, 2006). Task-oriented
communication regards the managerial-dominant aspect of communication, is more saturated with the content of the information and control than the style of communication, whereas the human-oriented communication revolves around communicative activities in interpersonal relationships such as expressions of interpersonal concerns, friendliness and warmth (De Vries, 2010; McCartney & Campbell, 2006).
The task-oriented communication between employers and freelancers at online platforms may involve the exchange of information exclusively related to the project, e.g. sharing task specificities, giving or requesting instructions, providing feedback. The human-oriented communication will be more focused on introducing the social aspect of
communication and going beyond the project e.g. greeting each other, doing some favour etc. Communication studies, especially results of doctor-patient relations (Buller &Buller 1987; Mast et al. 2007) and classroom studies (Prisbell, 1994) prove that human-oriented
communication is associated with greater satisfaction and more favourable outcomes. Because of the positive effects of human-oriented communication style on the overall communication and the final outcomes, it will be argued in this study that human-oriented communication is likely to facilitate collaboration and communication processes also between freelancers and employers at online platforms.
Online and work-related communication in contrast with face-to-face communication is believed to be equally effective. Studies results on work-related communication within virtual teams (e.g. Burke & Chidambaram, 1996) and on remote leadership (e.g. Neufeld et al. 2010) perceive effective communication as a swift and trouble-free exchange of
information between two parties, and reveal that asynchronous communication and face to face communication are comparable in terms of communication effectiveness. As these studies indicate further, the virtual information exchanges are subject to (1) the speed of information transfer and (2) context and timing (Zack, 1993; Markus, 1994; Parks & Floyd, 1996; Ngwenyama & Lee, 1997) which suggests that the communication effectiveness at online platforms depends on: properly working platforms, familiarity of collaborating parties with time zones of their partners, and giving more attention to formulate messages to be sent and understand received messages.
Trust plays a very important role in the success of online and work-related
communication (e.g. Duarte & Snyder, 2001; Furumo et al., 2008). Only trust can prevent the geographical and organizational distances of global team members from becoming
psychological distances (e.g. O'Hara-Devereaux & Johansen, 1994). Trust allows people to take part in risky activities that they cannot control or monitor and yet where they may be
disappointed by the actions of others (e.g. Deutch 1958; Luhmann, 1988; Lewis & Weigert, 1985; Bradach & Eccles, 1989; Gambetta, 1988). A person trusts when that person believes that the other party "(a) makes a good-faith effort to behave in accordance with any
commitments both explicit or implicit, (b) is honest in whatever negotiations preceded such commitments, and (c) does not take excessive advantage of another even when the
opportunity is available" (Cummings & Bromiley, 1996: 303). In online work settings, trust is influenced by timely responses and open communication (e.g., Henttonen & Blomqvist, 2005). Factors, such as shared social norms, repeated interactions, and shared experiences facilitate the development of trust (Bradach & Eccles, 1988; Mayer et al., 1995; Lewis & Weigert, 1985). However, face-to-face encounters are considered irreplaceable for both building trust and repairing shattered trust (Baker et al., 1992; O'HaraDevereaux & Johansen, 1994). This study will investigate the importance of trust at online platforms and how it develops, if so, during the cooperation and collaboration.
Representatives of some cultures display more trust than others while remaining in online reality (Jarvenpaa, 1999) and trust development among some individuals is determined by previous cultural exposure (Wiseman et al. 1989). Online platforms offer a pool of
professionals originating from different cultural backgrounds. It remains a question whether professionals at online platforms pay any attention to the different cultural origin of the party they cooperate with, or maybe on the contrary, do not find it at all relevant for the
cooperation. This study shares the opinion that cultural-diversity in virtual workplaces can be twofold: it can be considered as an advantages but also disadvantage.
Cultural diversity. According to this exemplary definition cultural diversity means
“the representation, in one social system, of people with distinctly different group affiliations of cultural significance” (Cox, 1994, p.6). Online platforms are cultural melting pots where people of diverse cultures meet and work together, thus, there is no common social system
with a dominant cultural representation but a mixture of different representations. Freelancers and employers, at their own discretion, draw (or do not draw) their attention to the cultural background of the party they work with.
In face-to-face settings “culture and communication reciprocally influence each other. The culture in which individuals are socialised influences the way they communicate” (Gudykunst, 1997, p. 327). Because persons of different cultures represent different
communication behaviours (Hofstede, 1984; Gudykunst, 1997), making sense of another’s beliefs and actions can be challenging. The difficulty can be exacerbated in the virtual environment because virtual partners are sociological and social systems having their own perceptions as any real team or individual (Berry 2011), and the work processes depend on technological systems (Maznevski & Athanassiou, 2003).
As literature on working environments and cultural diversity shows, cultural diversity can become an issue that has positive but also negative sides. On one hand, cultural diversity creates competitive advantage at organisations where it is present so e.g. higher quality of ideas and solutions are produced (e.g. Cox et al. 1991). On the other hand, organisations that implement multiculturalism at their premises are faced with difficulties of preparing tailored management and leadership practices that cost time and money (e.g. Cox et al. 1991,
Richardson, 2005).
The purpose of this research is to explain how collaborating parties perceive and respond to partners of different culture and how these responses affect their collaboration.
Methodology
A following research question is addressed by this study: How do communication relations between freelancers and project managers in virtual and diverse settings evolve? The main objective of this research question was to lead the exploration of virtual
interpersonal communication and communication relations development between freelancers and employers of diverse cultures that use online platforms, Upwork and Freelancer, for work related purposes. In particular, this study will try to extract types of communication relations existing between employers and freelancers and explore the communication processes taking place. This section is divided into two parts: data collection, where methods of data
collection are presented, and data analysis which focuses on the methodological choices of data analysis.
Data Collection
Semi-structured interviews were used as a tool of data collection. Interviews were conducted in November 2015. All interviews were conducted in English and via Skype. Each interview was tape recorded, and verbatim responses to each question were next transcribed by the researcher using a standardized transcription protocol (McLellan, MacQueen, and Niedig, 2003).
Semi-structured interviews allow obtaining richer data than structured interviews (Bjornholt & Farstad, 2012). An interview guide contained the framework of themes. Both the interview guide and the themes framework helped to organise the interview and ensured that all major themes were asked about.
In the interview guide there are five major themes motivated by the existing literature mentioned in the theoretical framework of this study: starting work on a new project and for a new employer, new project for the same employer, miscommunication versus effective and enjoyable communication, trust, and the development of communication relations. Each theme focused on a number of focal points. Theme one, starting work on a new project and for a new employer, and theme number two, new project for the same employer, included two focal points: task-oriented versus human-oriented communication (e.g. de Vries, 2010),
and differences between stages of cooperation (Granovetter, 1973), where the latter one helped to examine the development of communication relations per different stages of cooperation. The third theme, miscommunication versus effective and enjoyable communication, focused on advantages and disadvantages of intercultural and virtual communication but also on the freedom of expression (Cox et al. 1991). Questions from the fourth theme asked respondents about trust importance, trust development, and the influence of cultural diversity and the effects of virtuality on trust development (e.g. Deutch 1958; Luhmann, 1988; Lewis & Weigert, 1985; Bradach & Eccles, 1989; Henttonen & Blomqvist, 2005). The final theme, development of communication relations, tried to investigate the strength of communication relations and their variance across different stages of cooperation and collaboration, and the importance of communication relations development. The last focal point in this theme asked respondents to advise other freelancers and employers. Interviewees were requested to complete a demographic questionnaire. This questionnaire contained questions about age, gender, nationality, experience as a virtual freelancer, virtual work experience with employers of different cultural backgrounds, number of employers worked with so far and on a regular basis. Data collection materials are presented in Appendix A and B.
It is assumed that a minimum of twelve interviews should be conducted in order to achieve theoretical saturation (Guest et al., 2006). Glaser and Strauss (1967) define
theoretical saturation as the point at which “no additional data are being found whereby the (researcher) can develop properties of the category. As he sees similar instances over and over again, the researcher becomes empirically confident that a category is saturated . . . when one category is saturated, nothing remains but to go on to new groups for data on other categories, and attempt to saturate these categories also (p.65).” In this study, theoretical saturation was achieved at the twelfth interview.
Demographic characteristics. Because this study analysed elements of intercultural
diversity, it was essential to choose individuals of different origin. Twelve freelancers working either at Freelancer.com or Upwork.com, nine women and three men, aged between 21 and 40, participated in the interview process. Freelancer.com and Upwork.com are
considered as the biggest freelance platforms, thus, were selected for this study. Selected freelancers were original nationals of: Ukraine, Madagascar, Italy, Romania, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Suriname, Egypt, Pakistan, United States, Jamaica and Portugal. Appendix A includes characteristics of all respondents.
Only those freelancers were selected whose profiles displayed previous collaborations with employers. Freelancers with previous communication and collaboration experience were a more reliable source of information than those without. The purpose of this selection was connected with the need to obtain data on communication relations development. The longest online freelance experience was 12 years and the shortest – around 1 year. Respondents are registered users at various online platforms but Upwork.com or Freelancer.com remain the platforms of the most frequent use. Profiles of all users at Upwork and Freelancer were accessible via the platforms for registered users. The researcher had to register in order to gain access to this information and freelancer’s contact details. All freelancers were informed about the study purpose and interview procedure by a factsheet. All agreed on and signed the informed consent.
Data Analysis
Grounded theory approach was used to analyse the obtained data (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). This approach helped the researcher to stay as close to the data as possible. All data were coded with help of ATLAS.ti and in three coding steps: open coding, axial coding and selective coding. Sensitizing concepts leading through the entire coding process involved:
communication, communication relations, communication relations development, online and intercultural environment.
Open and axial coding was performed as advised by Strauss and Corbin (1998). During open coding, data fragments were coded in much detail, and with consideration to all sensitizing concepts. Next, in axial coding, the researcher tried to identify and classify links between concepts. Because the relations between codes were elaborated, a concept indicator-model for each recognised concept was prepared. All together there were ten expected concept-indicator models: first communication before the first cooperation, communication during the first cooperation, communication during continuous cooperation,
miscommunication, trust, maintenance of communication relations throughout the project, maintenance of communication relations after project completion, effective and enjoyable communication, intercultural online communication, freelancers’ advice to employers and other freelancers; and one unexpected model: freelancer phenomenon and communication relations. All concept-indicator models are available in Appendix C.
Selective coding was the last stage of the coding process and focused on finding the core by weaving fractured concept-indicator models into categories. Two theoretical models emerged as the last elements of the selective coding: a communication model, and the model of communication relations development between employers and freelancers in online and intercultural settings.
During all coding stages, memos were written to include important quotations or explanations to recognised codes, concepts and categories. Quotations and names of their authors were also provided – the researcher kept original messages, exactly the way these were pronounced by their authors.
Results
This section is the outcome of the data analysis procedure; it contains all findings with relation to the communication relations, and their development, between employers and freelancers at culturally diverse online platforms: Freelacer.com and Upwork.com.
All results are presented in an order that naturally emerges from the obtained data. There are four themes that can be recognised and a number of relevant models fitting each theme. The first theme, context, contains models of: freelancer phenomenon and intercultural online communication. This theme contains information about who freelancers at online platforms are and how they perceive communication relations with their employers. The topic of intercultural diversity at online platforms is also elaborated here.
The second theme regards communication relations development. In a nutshell, this theme summarises all stages of communication relations development, involved processes, parties and their contribution in the development process of communication relations. Four models are recognized in this theme: first communication, communication during the first cooperation, communication during the continuous cooperation, maintenance of
communication relations after project completion. Communication during the first
cooperation and communication during the continuous cooperation are in addition related to maintenance of communication relations throughout the project model.
Theme three is a theme that contains underlying processes that seem to have some connection to the communication relations development. Following models are present in the theme: trust, miscommunication, effective & enjoyable communication. Because these
processes seem to either influence or be influenced by communication and the development of communication relations, these will be referred to as influencing & influenced by.
The fourth and last theme, outcomes, contains communication but also cooperation and collaboration advice offered by freelancers to other freelancers and employers. Figure 1
summarises all themes and their assisting models. The final part of this section presents two models: communication model and the model of communication relations development between employers and freelancers in online and intercultural settings.
Figure 1
Themes and models emerging from analysed data – the structure of results section
Freelancer Phenomenon and Communication Relations
Online platforms officially distinguish between two parties: freelancers and
employers. However, as freelancers argue, there are freelancers and clients only. Freelancers are self-aware, disciplined and independently thinking individuals who are confident in their skills and not afraid to take their career in their own hands, as Katrina explains: “A freelancer in my opinion is someone who has decided to take their business into their own hands. They don’t want to answer to anything corporate owned, they don’t wanna answer to any
own. They are self-disciplined because trust me, when a good TV show is on, I am a, I am a big football fun. I love football and if I got a project going on, it’s really hard for me to sit in here when I can hear football game going on in the living room on the tv. So you have to really, really disciplined person to be a freelancer.”
Being an employer means something more than only offering a project and paying for the job done. First of all, off-line employers have broader financial and social responsibilities than online employers and these responsibilities make them employers. Next, employer versus employee relationship is impossible in a freelancer environment because freelancers do not consider employers-employees hierarchy where employers are those who are bosses and employees – subordinates. Katrina explains: “Clients, I would say clients, a lot of them have this misinterpretation that they are your boss. They are not your boss. An employer consists of somebody who has given you your benefits as interests plan, paid vacation and stuff like that. When you are in a freelance environment, you are a freelancer and a client. If they were a boss, you would be in a company; you would be done paying your benefits or either paying your interest. That’s a boss.”
Because of the above, working or communication relationships between freelancers and employers are not equal to typical hierarchical communication relationships between employees and employers. For instance, Katrina reflects on freelancers versus clients
relationships in such a manner: “Well to be honest with you, most freelancers don’t consider their clients as employers. We are actually a team working together to get a project done. So it’s not really an employer employee relationship, it’s more two people on the same level, communicating with each other.”
Intercultural Online Communication
Communication at online platforms – advantages and disadvantages. Freelancers
communication is more authentic” (Ahmed). They get the feeling that virtual communication must be instant and always available: “It is faster, it is immediately available” (Alexandra). At the same time, virtual and written messages – before being sent – demand time and attention to be formulated and those messages that are received need their meaning to have decoded: “Online, I think you have to think twice about what you are saying. Online I find that I can actually write my thoughts down, refine it and then communicate” (Melissa).
Freelancers agree that virtual workplaces such as online platforms suffer from technical issues and, thus, are not always reliable: “I have had a lot of problems. One of my messages wouldn’t go through, or a message from a client didn’t come to me” (Katrina). Moreover, full payment security cannot be guaranteed: “On the communication there was a question about a payment… and only that kind of problems so far arise” (Arcaurcia). These freelancers believe also at online platforms it is far more difficult to establish trust than in face to face situations: “In a virtual setting it is harder to establish trust. You’re looking at the screen, you do not know that person, who is he or she in real life” (Alexandra).
Besides a number of disadvantages, the virtual work environment offers some
benefits: learning new cultures: “For me it is interesting to get to know people from different countries” (Marillia); and immediate communication and access to freelancers and
employers: “In case there are circumstances, they can be eliminated immediately, as long as you asked about them. So I don’t have to wait from… for a certain period of time to confirm whether it is correct or not” (Alexandra).
Freelancers believe that virtual settings make shy people feel free to express
themselves: “As I am very shy, virtual communication is perfect to express myself” (Giusy). As long as working relations are concerned, freelancers do not observe any limitations in saying what they feel right to say to their employers: “On a few occasions, I told the employer <<I do not want to have anything to do with you>>” (Giusy). In their view, the
same holds true for their employers: “Some employers do express themselves” (Arcaurcia). If freelancers want to say something, they will do it at the first available occasion. It can happen during a conversation or by chance of leaving a public feedback: “My opinions only on the feedbacks” (Arcaurcia). Freelancers agree that they will not feel as free talking to their face to face employer: “For my part I prefer to talk on platform to my employer than to discuss face to face with him. I prefer to talk on online platform” (Arcaurcia). Freelancers add also that this is the inborn freedom and not the online environment that causes it: “I think there is no such a big difference between the virtual communication and the real one. Personally, I act exactly in the same way” (Giusy).
Intercultural communication at online platforms – advantages and
disadvantages. Intercultural differences do exist and collaborating parties have their own
perceptions about people from different backgrounds. Freelancers working online are
diversity aware and associate intercultural diversity with language: “Sometimes I will explain something that I think is normal for me and then they will ask me what I mean and I end up realizing that it is a Jamaican term and not something they are familiar with” (Melissa); time zones: “long term contract are sometimes more difficult to collaborate due to time
differences” (Melissa); tradition and differences in perceptions: “I think, culture has small effect on design, especially religious cultures. If there comes a client, he wants a website, but if their religion, like some religions don’t promote girls to be showing their body or showing their faces, some do. So that’s kind of challenge. I can’t put a picture of a man”
(Muhammad); differences in approach towards work and contacts with others: “Because I do work with people from my country, from Romania and it is easier… clearly easier to
establish more efficient communication and stronger… speak the same language and they understand each other not necessarily because of the language, but because of the project” (Alexandra).
Freelancers, who are diversity aware or come from diverse backgrounds, do not feel bothered by the fact that others are of different origin, speak a different language or represent different values. They are ready to communicate and work with others; they do not see intercultural differences as an obstacle for successful cooperation and collaboration:
“Regarding intercultural communication, for me that is not a problem, because I myself live in a diverse community, I myself have the diverse cultural and religious background, I come from mixed parents, mixed ethnical origin. For me, that’s no problem” (Marcian). They admit that bad phenomena that happen at online platforms are not a consequence of difference in culture but a character of specific person, and unsocial behaviours can happen regardless the origin and race of a freelancer or employer: “For me, I repeat, this is not a specific person or country, it’s specific people. If they want to disappoint you, doesn’t matter from where they’re coming” (Alexandra).
Freelancers believe that communication before the start of cooperation is likely to eliminate a confusion whether employers and freelancers of two different cultural
backgrounds can go along together: “But still prior to the job offer I would like to have an interview with my employer just to understand that I would be able to work with this person or not. Before starting the project it’s always important to recognize the type of employer that you are going to work for” (Melissa).
Some freelancers and employers, especially when previously disappointed by cooperation with some representatives of specific cultures, argue that intercultural
characteristics affect communication to such an extent that they tend to overgeneralise their bad experiences on other people from these cultures and even avoid these cultures: “The intercultural differences for me it’s not a problem, but I have talked to many people and they avoid some of the cultures, some of the people, who belong to certain cultures, because they had bad experiences with people belonging to similar cultures. So, when they say I do not
work… I do not want to work with someone from another country… from I don’t know from which country and say: <<I used to work with someone from there and they disappointed me>>. This is a big trap, because if you have a bad experience with someone, you tend to generalize” (Alexandra).
Freelancer.com and Upwork.com freelancers are fond of cultural diversity as it allows them learning new cultures or professional practices applied elsewhere without going abroad: “I get to learn a lot about different cultures, travel virtually from my room. They get to learn about different practices in different countries. Like if I work for a client whose video is talking about different foods, like maybe foods in London in a café, maybe talking about beverages, it helps to learn about different practices in different cultures and as well if you have an intercultural relationship, they also help to expose the employer to our country Kenya and they learn about our different tourist attractions and I have seen some who are interested even in travelling to our country just to come and experience” (Esther). Freelancers from developing countries believe in addition that presence of different cultures at online platforms makes people learn about each other’s values and help to abolish harmful stereotypes and even reduce racism: “And they have even been able to appreciate the third world because I am a freelancer in the third world but I am able to deliver quality transcripts as someone who has gone through the first world. So I think it has really helped also to bridge the gap and even reduce racism because I do not find it in my clients” (Esther).
First Communication before the First Cooperation
Job posts and employers’ profiles as first messages. Based on the obtained results
we may assume that first communication between freelancers and their clients takes place before the task in question is discussed. In the freelancers’ view employers manifest who they are and what their jobs stand for by the way they present their profiles and job posts.
Before applying for jobs, freelancers check profiles and job history of potential employers, and read feedbacks left by previous freelancers. Employers’ profiles that are incomplete or lack job history make freelancers doubt about the genuineness of such employers and discourage them from applying for advertised jobs and undertaking
cooperation. Freelancers are more inclined to apply for jobs and start cooperation with those employers who have their profile complete. The most important indication that employer's profile is complete is the payment method verification. Payment security is of the greatest importance to freelancers because none of them wants to deal with so called “fake
employers” who cheat by taking the job but not paying. Nirmala explains that careful
investigation of employers’ profiles and job posts prevents freelancers from falling into a trap of fake employers: “But if always a freelancer goes through the project description well and reads about the employers profile and reviews and everything, then I think there is a less chance of getting caught to that kind of fake employers.”
Job posts added by employers say much about those who publish them. Job posts do not only allow freelancers to judge employers on their honesty but also signal employer’s attitudes towards certain job and their true expectations regarding price. As Katrina observes, sometimes employers are unsure about the rate so they do not include it in the job
description. The absence of factual price in job posts makes the process of job application more time consuming for both employers and freelancers: “Normally, a client would know what they want to pay for their project, and that way, I don’t waste my time and they don’t waste their time, if they are not paying, you know my rate, and I see that in their budget then I move on. The tricky part of that is, it is kind of hard to read sometimes, because sometimes the client would put five dollars as a budget. But that’s really because they don’t know what to charge.”
Freelancers and employers use the platform chat to discuss advertised job posts with potential cooperation partners: “If I see a project that I am interested in I have time to think, I would apply for it. If the client likes my profile or whatever, they would send me a message and it would be them to call an interview. And then that is when we start exchanging details on the, what the client is looking for” (Katrina). The content of such discussions is
exclusively job-oriented since freelancers and employers focus on price, deadlines, contract details, project specifications, the way the work will be performed or the communication channels: “As usual, I, as a freelancer, communicate with employers across, via Upwork private messages and our information is about some details of the project, terms, conditions, some, all information about the project, about our work and then our channels between Skype and e-mails” (Helen).
Communication during the First Cooperation
At the very beginning of the cooperation, the first communication between employer and freelancer regards project specificities and contract details. Both parties confirm
cooperation conditions e.g. price, and deadline and the type of employment: “Ok, so when I start working on a new project we first talk about the requirements of the project the desired deadline, the number of milestone that we’re going to make for the respected project and the payment” (Alexandra). Instructions are requested and provided: “They used to send me the project description and I need a letter to file and documents and any other links and the guidelines” (Nirmala). Employer and freelancer introduce each other: “Yes, the first
information that we that exchange is about knowing each other, then you tell someone about your working speed and the nature of the job that you are getting into” (Esther). Very often, before awarding the job to a freelancer, employers request samples: “Most of the times what they do is they ask to send like samples” (Marcian). Freelancers negotiate their rate if the
deadline is urgent. In Katrina’s experience prices for projects will often be negotiated against deadlines until which the job must be complete: “I negotiate. Like a project I just got
finished. I was like; I had to negotiate the price up, because she needed such a quick
turnaround time. So I did negotiate it up for hundred dollars. Sometimes if they don’t need a quick turnaround time and they are lenient on it, I would actually go down in my price.”
If the conditions are agreed and met by both parties, the employer awards the job and makes necessary payment arrangements in a form of a milestone. Freelancers state that the communication before the project award is usually more reserved because freelancers and employers get to know each other. Once the project is awarded they can feel at ease. Giusy, for example, summarises a typical and first communication with a new employer by calling it formal: “Typically, but not always, there is more distance and formality before the
assignment of the project. I think it is quite normal, that is, both employer and freelancer test the water before the project award. Then, they can relax; they let themselves go, if they want!”
After starting work on a certain task, freelancers ask for clarifications and additional instructions and provide updates about the work progress: “You might chat a little bit about any clarification that you want during the project” (Esther), “In the middle of project, maybe the employer ask me about updates” (Ahmed). At the end of the project, freelancers submit the work for approval; they may announce problems if there are any and offer improvements: “We just discuss if there is any problem with my project or anything that I should re-do again” (Ahmed). Employers review the job and provide feedback and, if satisfied, release agreed milestone. Both parties thank each other: “At the end of the project, you appreciate the employer for the opportunity to work for them” (Esther). Freelancers request feedbacks: “After we finish the project, I ask him to write his feedback about, about my work.” (Ahmed).
As agreed by freelancers, at this stage, human-oriented communication does not take place: “We, as usual communicate only about projects, without some private information” (Helen).
Channels. The first and most commonly used communication channel involves
platform chat. Via the platform chat parties in question chat about their projects. Freelancers who meet new employers prefer this channel for two major reasons. First of all, as Katrina explains: “It protects all purpose, everything is documented.” As Nirmala continues further, platform chat is safer and more secure than other channels: “I prefer always through
Freelancer because like Freelancer is the intermediate between the worker and employer. So actually that is the only security we have because we don’t know exactly who the employer is, because we have not worked with them before. So therefore they are the first ones, so it’s very, it’s very tricky to go on the other line.” Other freelancers prefer to stay at online platforms and use their chat facilities because of time efficiency and clarity of written word: “The one that I like most I feel is just typing because sometimes when you get on Skype calls or conversation it takes much longer. When its text you know exactly what you need to say and they know exactly what they need from me so it’s a much faster exchange I figure” (Melissa).
When the cooperation or collaboration is ongoing, freelancers use other channels of communication. It happens especially during system failures that disturb or prevent online communication. After experiencing technical issues, freelancers share other contact details such as Skype ID, email, telephone number, or WhatsApp ID. Skype chatting and
conferencing is considered among freelancers as the second medium, after platform chat, to communicate with employers, as Esther summarizes: “I prefer skype, because at times, Upwork nowadays is very unreliable; it is a bit limited. If my skype is always on, on my
computer, I just write a message and then it keeps me going but if Upwork fails, I cannot find any message. So I prefer skype.”
Skype is seen not only as an emergency communication channel but a useful tool to discuss complex and detailed projects. Skype voice conferencing together with the feature of screens sharing help freelancers and employers understand each other in terms of project details. Melissa appreciates screen sharing during Skype conversations as these help her to do her job: “With the screen share on his camera, it shows you exactly what we need to do sometimes I get tutorials on screen shares. So that definitely is very helpful in getting work done.“ Some other freelancers go one step further than voice calls and opt for face to face communication via Skype video conferencing. They prefer Skype videos over all other media of information exchange as Skype conferencing helps them to clarify things and avoid
misunderstandings that are language related: “I prefer using Skype, so that… you know… you can discuss a subject face to face; it’s kinda more fluent that I think answers on the keyboard, because sometimes they get confusing and especially with those that many people using their language. Most of the people knew English language, like I am, so if you’re typing answers that becomes kind of an issue sometimes. This communication might freeze a lot if you read them, but if you’re talking to that person, it makes things easier”
(Muhammad).
There are also freelancers who see Skype conversations as strictly private and reserved only for their family and friends but recognise Skype functionality and its usefulness. In their opinion online platforms offer everything needed to do their job, thus, there is no need to share private contact details such as Skype ID. “For me Skype is only for family and my friends. I receive notification on my IPhone same way messages in my email account if I use Upwork platform” (Marilia).
Communication during Continuous Cooperation
When the employer and freelancer already know each other from a previous collaboration and start a new project, they discuss project and contract details, request or offer instructions: “I’m going to ask about the timeline, rate, projects instructions, because new project could be different from the previous projects” (Marilia). Freelancers keep employers posted about any updates: “What I do is that I just give him updates and just let him now that I have a progress in the project and I have done some of the project and that I’m going to work, just give him updates, so that he feels like, yes, this employee is working on the project and he knew he is going to finish it on time” (Ahmed). Next the project is submitted. If there are no issues, freelancers and employers thank each other.
Channels of the communication remain the same as during the communication during the first cooperation. However, freelancers who are familiar with their employers feel
comfortable enough to be available for their employers also via social media: “I joined Facebook just recently for work and I have not closed my account yet for the relationship I have established with an employer who rarely uses the freelancers’ website for work” (Giusy).
Communication with employers, during continuous cooperation on the short-term basis is still project-oriented but less frequent because employers and freelancers already know each other and there is no real need to communicate so often. Freelancers assume that some most important elements of cooperation and communication between them and their employers are and should be clear to both parties: “At the very initial stage we talked all the time. We emailed back and forth all the time because I was worried of what he wanted and he was worried about what I could do and we were learning about each other. And once all that was established, then we didn’t need to email each other anymore” (Katrina).
Longer-term projects allow freelancers and employers more space to introduce also human-oriented communication, or at least its elements: “So one time I had to write a travel book and we were discussing the topics, the potential topics for the book… the employer asked me where I travelled on my free time and then we extended the discussion a bit about the subject, even though it wasn’t necessary to the book” (Alexandra).
Maintenance of Communication Relations throughout the Project
During the cooperation, freelancers make all efforts to avoid conflicts: “I try to avoid stressing employer’s errors or incoherence” (Giusy).
Socialising aspect of communication. Both types of communication are present:
task-oriented and human-oriented. Human oriented communication introduces aspects of socialising. A very basic socialising, e.g. using polite and kind words is welcome on virtual work platforms. Freelancers admit that employers who do not greet and thank are seen as impolite: “There is another behaviour that annoys me: many employers contact the freelancer without even saying <<Hi/Good morning!>>” (Giusy). As freelancers explain further, going off-topic and discussing non-project related matters is welcome provided it is initiated by the known employer whom they feel comfortable with and only until a certain limit. The limit marked by freelancers does not involve sharing or requesting personal information: “Yes, I will say happy birthday. But, yes, we won’t go into more personal details, like I won’t ask that person what did he do on his birthday. I would say happy birthday and that would be it” (Alexandra).
Some others add that participation in informal discussions and getting closer with their employers may lead to situations when the employer takes advantage of their work, thus, they avoid and are reluctant to go social: “There is also a risk that employers will take advantage of me so I don’t like to take in this direction” (Alexandra). Furthermore, as noted,
socialising too much or discussing personal affairs makes the project and the employer look unserious. This group of freelancers concludes that even if socialising builds trust and makes freelancers and employers feel more attached to each other, it definitely slows down the work progress: “I prefer to keep it business because a lot of clients tend to stray and it just slows down the work process at times” (Melissa).
Maintenance of Communication Relations after Project Completion
Freelancers agree that most of communication relations last until the end of the project or the cooperation with a given employer. It rarely happens that communication relations are prolonged after the project completion: “I strongly believe that once the job is done most of the communication relations also end” (Melissa). Freelancers believe that the human-oriented elements of communication relations between employers and freelancers during the first cooperation are likely to increase the likelihood of future cooperation: “People that do socialize with will always come back even if it’s not about the same kind of work, they will actually want you to probably try something new or try something else that they have on the table because that has happened because of how I socialized with several clients. When you are rigid, clients kind of get scared, they feel that you are a bit too serious, so they probably don’t want to work with somebody that is as serious as that. So I found out that it works when I socialize, even a little bit, to let them know that, listen am here and I can do all that stuff and its fine if you want to test those waters” (Melissa).
Maintaining communication relations by freelancers after the project is complete is not difficult but it costs some efforts and time. Some freelancers believe that it is important to maintain relationships with already known employers, are open and interested in continuing their communication relations because either they care about the earnt friendship or acquaintanceship or simply because if offers them further collaboration with employers:
“Communication should continue, when it is possible, even after the project is completed, delivered and paid. In this way, the employer could recommend me to other employers or hire me again for other projects. From a more personal point of view, I find it nice to meet people and talk with them, stay in touch with them. It is always a good thing to have exchange with people, especially if you like those people and their way to act” (Giusy).
Trust
Importance and development. Trust is recognized by freelancers as essential in
online cooperation. It is mostly associated with the payment security.
Even though freelancers agree that trust is important at all stages of cooperation, they admit that they are suspicious and have no trust towards newly met employers. The suspicion is even greater if the freelancer was a victim of fraud before. Some freelancers become suspicious towards employers to such an extent that the lack of trust makes given freelancer reject the job offer: “I am suspicious and prejudiced because of bad experiences so sometimes I get nervous and I decide not to accept the job” (Giusy). Employers who do not trust their freelancers also undertake rapid measures e.g. they stop the cooperation.
Due to the work need freelancers take the risk and accept job offers from unknown employers: “Personally I have no trust but I do the job because I have no choice” (Arcaurcia). Freelancers having stable projects and regular clients select new employers carefully. They make sure that employers have verified their payment methods and reserved for them a milestone – only then they start their work.
Suspicion is replaced by the first signs of trust slowly, across the cooperation. Freelancers start trusting their employers when the employer pays them for the job done. Longer-term cooperation offers the most optimal environment for trust development as there is some space to maintain stronger and more frequent communication. Because of the time
pressure short-term projects are more project-oriented and do not offer much place for frequent and more intensive communication. Then, when other projects from the same employer start, the freelancer is free from suspicions and has no doubts about the trustworthiness of the employer.
Factors strengthening and weakening trust. Employers, freelancers but also
platform’s functioning can contribute to the trust development between cooperating parties. Employers who announce their availability and communicate about the project on a regular basis are seen as more trustworthy. Freelancers wish to see employers keeping track with the progress of the project: “What employer do is ask me about how the project is going and if I’m facing any troubles with the project. Like following up with me” (Ahmed) but not delaying the job: “If that person is hard to reach, or he says: <<we will talk tomorrow>> and <<not now>> or <<I have another appointment>> and he keeps delaying this start of the project, that for me it’s a… it’s not a good sign” (Alexandra); and helping and supporting freelancer when needed: “When they cooperated with me, like if I face any problems, he try to help me with them and when they are honest and helpful with me” (Ahmed). Answering questions, giving clear and detailed instructions are also mentioned as essential elements to trust strengthening: “When the employer is giving clear instructions and answers to all the questions of the freelancer, it means he want to have a good result and a collaboration” (Arcaurcia). In freelancers’ view, the employers should performing administrative tasks such as milestone arrangements or release if he or she wants to be perceived as trustworthy: “The employer must create a milestone so that the freelancer starts working: in this way, the employer proves that he/she has the money to pay you” (Giusy).
Freelancers asking questions and demanding instructions and clarifications regarding the project: “To develop the trust as a freelancer can ask more explanations about the task, it means she or he is ready to go until the end of the project” (Ahmed), and communicating
