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Bachelor Thesis

The impact of self-image on brand love

Bachelor Thesis, Academic year 2016-2017

Faculty of Economic and Business

University of Amsterdam

Arden Zwoferink, 10800808

Supervisor: A.C. Meulemans

Handed in on: 27.06.2017

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Statement of Originality

This document is written by Student Arden Zwoferink who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.

I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it.

The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.

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Table of contents Page Executive Summary 4 Introduction 5 Literature review 7 Conceptual framework 13 Method 19 Results 22 Discussion 25 References 30 Appendix 33

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Executive Summary

In this study the following question was researched: What is the impact of self-image on brand love, with brand personality as moderator? To answer this question data were collected and analyzed. The results show that there is a relationship between self-image and brand love. The more extrovert and agreeable a consumer is, the more this consumer will be engaged in brand love. This is supported by hypothesis three and hypothesis four. It was expected that openness and neuroticism would have no influence on brand love. This is proved to be the case, so hypothesis one and hypothesis five were supported as well.

In addition, brand personality does not have a very large influence on this relationship. However, this is in contrast to the prediction that brand personality overall has an influence on the relationship between self-image and brand love. The archetype creator showed a little influence on this relationship, but this was only the case for consumers who are more conscientious. Therefore hypothesis eight is partly supported.

Not all predictions are satisfied. The predictions of this research were that different self-images had different influences on brand love. It was expected that conscientiousness would, just like agreeableness and extroverts, would have an influence on brand love as well. However this was not the case. In addition, it was to be expected that brand personality overall, if it would have been the creator, hero, innocent or everyman, all would have an influence on the relationship between self-image and brand love. However, these predictions were also not satisfied.

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Introduction

There are brands that have customers who are always buying their products. They do not only buy the products, but they also enjoy the culture of the brand. For example, there is a cult of Apple diehards who always want to possess from the beginning every new apple product when it becomes available on the market. Even if there is a big line in front of the Apple stores on the day of introduction, people cannot wait one more day to buy the new product. Apple is therefore number six in the list of best-loved brands in 2016 (adweek.com). This example shows that some people have a determined drive for a certain brand. What makes a brand have this attraction and why do other brands not have this attraction? In addition, why do some customers have more affection to a brand than others?

‘I love Apple’ or ‘I love Coca-Cola’ are phrases you hear in daily life. These sentences are often used loosely. The sentences are used to indicate the character of love, not that they are really falling in love for the brand (Ahuvia, Batra & Bagozzi, 2014). However, research has shown that it is possible for a consumer to love a brand or objects (Fournier, 1998).

Brand love is the attachment consumers can have with a brand (Caroll & Ahuvia, 2006). Brands are a part of the daily life and can be perfectly used to satisfy the consumers’ needs (Curras-Perez, Bigne-Alcaniz, Alvorado-Herrera, 2009). Brands can be used to identify the consumers themselves, but also to represents how the consumer wants to be seen by others. Consumers can create an attachment to a brand when they feel commonalities with the brand and when the brand expresses aspects of the identity of the consumer (Hwang & Kandampully, 2012). In addition, a consumer must have a positive experience and a positive brand attitude to create brand love (Karjaluoto, Munnukka & Kiuru, 2016).

Brand personality can help to create love between the consumer and the brand. The brand personality is an important role in creating a partnership with the consumer (Fournier, 1998). Attachments can only be developed when the consumer feels connected with the brand and the brand can represent their ideal or actual self. That is where the self-image comes in. The self-image is the mental picture someone has about him or herself. This picture helps searching for a brand, which can represent the self-image in the best way.

Brand love is a popular subject nowadays in the research. Not long ago, researchers only studied how consumer could like or dislike a brand. Only for the last few years researchers looked specifically for love. This is because research has shown that brand love can predict behaviors of interest to the firms. Brand love can for example predict brand consideration, intent to purchase, purchase behavior, and brand choice (Park, Maclnnis, Priester , Eisingerich & lacobucci, 2010).

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It is also a matter of fact, that consumers are more loyal when they feel connected, attached and even love something (Hwang & Kandampully, 2012). Intense emotions, such as love, can arise a long-term relationship with a brand. This relationship between the consumer and the brand can create a successful brand. These indicators can be useful information for management, as they can respond to these consumers (Thomson & Park, 2005).

However, there is still less research on brand love specifically. Most of the research is about the consumer-brand relationship in general like Fournier (1998). Brand love goes further than brand loyalty and the superficial relationship between a consumer and a brand (Bergkvist & Bech-Larsen, 2010). Ahuvia, Batra & Bagozzi, (2012), Batra, Bagozzi & Ahuvia, (2014), and Caroll & Ahuvia, (2006) studied specifically brand love.

Despite previous research attempts on brand love in general, there is still limited knowledge. There have been research on the connection between the self and the brand, but none of the existing literature looks at different self-images that might have an influence on brand love. The purpose of this research is to find out if different self-images engage less or more brand love. Therefore the following question will be answered: To what extent can self-image and brand love be related, moderated by different brand personalities?

To answer this question we will first look at the three variables: brand love, self-image and brand personality. When these variables are clear the method will be explained, how is data collected and what does the sample look like? After the method, the results will be explained. The results will be linked back to the literature review in the discussion. At last, the conclusion will give an overall view of the research.

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Literature review Branding

There are so many products to choose nowadays. It is important for a brand to be different, to stand out from its competitors. Branding is an important tool to create this difference. Branding is a psychological process and can be a powerful tool for brands.

The brand name is a fundamental and long-lasting asset (Mark & Pearson, 2001). ‘The meaning of the brand is its most precious and irreplaceable asset’ (Mark & Pearson, 2001, p.10). Powerful brands create certain images in the minds of the consumers. These images can be created through consumers own experiences, other experiences and worth-of-mouth. Consumers have a lot of choice and brand image and reputation enhance differentiation. These differences in brands can positively influence buying behavior. Therefore, this process of branding is important for marketers (Mudambi, 2002).

Coca-Cola for example, has a great brand-image. Coca-Cola is one of the most recognized logo in the world (Mark & Pearson, 2001). Coca-Cola has more brand value than Pepsi, even though it has been tested and confirmed that Pepsi tastes better than Coca-Cola. Why is it that, even when the taste of Pepsi is better according to consumers, they still prefer Coca-Cola instead of Pepsi?

Branding is an overall concept and includes a lot of sub concepts, like brand loyalty, brand personality. In this paper three variables will be discussed briefly: brand love, self-image and brand personality.

Brand love

Brand love is defined as ‘the degree of passionate emotional attachment a satisfied consumer has for a particular trade name’ (Caroll & Ahuvia, p. 81, 2006). Nowadays, it is possible for a consumer to have a relationship with a brand just like a love relationship between two persons (Huber, Meyer & Schmid, 2015). A lot of brands are available and there is a lot to choose, but consumers only have a strong emotional attachment with a few of these brands (Fournier, 1998). Brand love consists of the following five characteristics: Passion for a brand, brand attachment, positive evaluation of the brand, positive emotions to the brand and declarations of love toward the brand (Albert, Merunka & Valette-Florence (2008).

It is important to clarify that there is a difference in love as an emotion and love as a relationship. The love emotion is a specific inner feeling, which is felt a short term, like every other emotion. In contrast, love as a relationship last for a longer amount of time. This love

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relationship involves affection, cognition and behavioral experiences (Batra, Ahuvia & Bagozzi, 2012). In this research we will built upon love as a relationship.

Brand love arises, when a consumer had a positive experience, feeling and attachment with a certain brand (Karjaluoto et al., 2016). Brand love starts with the consumer having a preference for a brand, liking a brand and as a result it may become brand love (Huber et al., 2015). Once, the consumer notices the brand is satisfying for him or her, a connection is made with the brand on personal level. According to Fournier (1998) a relationship between a person and a brand can exist when both parties collectively affect, define and redefine the relationship. In addition, the brand must be active like a real person.

In addition, the consumer will engage in brand love when they categorize the brand as part of their identity. When this connection is present the consumer feels a sense of oneness with the brand. This connection of the brand to the self is also called ‘brand-self connection’ or ‘brand identification’ (Park et al., 2006, Bergkvist & Bech-larsen, 2010). It is the overlap between how the consumer sees his or her own self-image and the image of the brand. This connection with the brand can represent the values and beliefs of the consumer or how they want to be seen by others. Especially hedonic products can create brand love. These products allow the consumer to create fun, pleasure and joy (Caroll & Ahuvia, 2006).

The outcomes of brand love expresses in positive word-of-mouth, willingness to pay a higher price and higher brand loyalty. In addition, it also results in stronger purchase intentions and consumers accept product failures (Karjaluoto et al., 2016, Huber et al., 2014, Langner, Schmidt & Fischer, 2015). Also, these consumers who engage in brand love are often a member of the brands communities, travel long routes and are fully involved with every meeting and event. All of these outcomes will positively influence the brand.

Brand love differs from brand loyalty. Brand loyalty is the degree to which the consumer is committed to repurchase of the brand (Caroll & Ahuvia, 2006). Caroll & Ahuvia (2006) confirmed that satisfied consumers who feel greater brand love are more loyal to a brand. This does not mean that if a consumer is loyal, he or she needs to have brand love for the brand. The consumer can be loyal to a certain brand, but does not have this emotional attachment with the brand. Brand loyalty is a consequence of brand love, but it does not have the same meaning. Emotional bonding drives brand loyalty (Hwang, Kandampully, 2012).

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Self-image

Self-image is the mental picture, which explains the totality of the individual’s thoughts and feelings he or she has about their selves (Sirgy, 1982). What a consumer buys on a regular day, what they eat or what they prefer to wear, this all reflects their preferred identity (Kleine & Kernan, 1993). This preferred identity arises through the consumers’ own beliefs, values, lifestyle and habits, which they want to maintain (Kressmann, Sirgy, Hermann, Huber, Huber, Lee, 2006).

People want to be liked and belong to a group. At that same moment, people also want to do their own thing and go their own way. These two desires drift people in different ways (Mark & Pearson, 2001). In addition, consumers have ideas of what they want to become and what they are at the moment, this concept is called the possible selves (Escalas & Bettman, 2003). These ideas about the future help consumers to create motivation to realize these personal goals.

To express their own self is where the brands will join in (Kressmann et al., 2006). Brands can be used to support and build this mental picture (Karjaluoto, Munnukka, Kiuru, 2016). Brands have their own personality they want to present and maintain (Kressmann et al., 2006). This brand personality is reflected in a stereotype user of the brand and consumers search for brands, which stereotype will be associated with their self-image. (Karjaluoto et al., 2016). Consumers purchase products to present their self-image (Jamal & Goode, 2001). This process of matching the brand-user image and the self-image is called self-congruity (Kressmann et al, 2006).

Self-image is not only used to represent it for the customers themselves, but also to show others the image they have about themselves (Escalas & Bettman, 2003). When consumers have an image they want to show and others like to hold about them is called the ideal social self-image (Jamal & Goode, 2001). Once consumers have an image they want to show, they use products as a way to show this image. For example, when a consumer wants to show off a classic image, he or she might look at Chanel for fashion or Mercedes-Benz for cars (Hwang & Kandampully, 2012).

Self-image can be measured through the ‘big five’, which is a framework that explains five personality traits, namely: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism (Goldberg, 1990). Personality traits are based on beliefs, characteristics, attitudes and demographic characteristics (Aaker, 1997).

Openness to experience can be defined as people who are curious about new products and experiences, curious, broad interests, creative, original imaginative and untraditional.

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Conscientiousness is when people are organized, reliable, hard-working, self-disciplined, ambitious and neat. Agreeableness means that people soft-hearted, trusting, helpful, forgiving and straightforward. When people are extrovert, they are sociable, active, talk active, person-oriented, optimistic and fun-loving. Finally, neurotic people are worrying, nervous, emotional, insecure, inadequate and hypochondriacally (Mulyanegara, Sarenko & Anderson, 2009).

Brand personality and brand archetypes

Connecting personalities to brands has started in the 1950 and is still a common phenomenon. Celebrities, athletes or other well know persons were used in advertising to create a certain image for the brand. Through these advertising, the brands hoped to differentiate it selves from other brands. They created a symbolic image to get recognized by consumers (Klabi & Debabi, 2011).

Brand personality is a component of brand image and is defined as ‘the set of human characteristics associated with a brand’ (Aaker, p.347, 1997). Brand personality shows the brand’s values and the prototype user and therefore it will help the consumer to express his or her own self to others (Bian & Moutinho, 2009). The characteristics of a brand are also important for the managers, as they can promote brand personality’s that attract consumers’ attention (Mulyanegara, Tsarenko, Anderson, 2009).

Brand personality traits and human personality traits might look the same but they are perceived in different ways. As mentioned above, human personality traits are perceived through individual’s behavior, physical characteristics attitudes, believes and demographic characteristics. However, brand personality van be formed through directs or indirect ways (Aaker, 1997).

The direct way to create a brand personality is through people who are associated with the brand for example, employees or the CEO of the company. Also, contact with the users of the brand who engage in positive WOM is a form of the direct way. The indirect way of personality traits associated with a brand is trough advertising, brand name, logo, price, and distribution channel (Aaker, 1997). It is important to maintain these direct and indirect ways because it helps creating a distinctive and consistent personality and helps to clarify a brand’s personality.

Some brands have typical brand personalities. For example, Coca-Cola is seen as cool, American and real. Through these characters it differentiates itself from Pepsi, which is seen as young, hip and exciting (Aaker, 1997). However, the ideal brand personality does depend

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on the market it is in. For example, Advil, which is a pharmaceutical drug, will not be concerned when consumers experience it as unexciting (Diamantopoulos & Grime, 2005). Therefore, Coca-Cola and Pepsi are brands that will do more about advertising than Advil, because Coca-Cola and Pepsi need to maintain their prototypes.

Brand personality can be defined through the brand archetypes. Archetypes can be defined as: ‘ Forms or images of a collective nature which occur practically all over the earth as constituents of myths and at the same time as individual products of unconscious origin’ (Mark & Pearson, 2001, p. 4). Brand personality is in the research most of the time associated with Aaker. Both brand personality from Aaker and the brand archetypes of Jung match brands with characters of human beings. Brand archetypes are twelve concepts, which define the prototypes of a brand. The twelve concepts consist of: innocent, outlaw, lover, creator, ruler, jester, magician, sage, explorer, hero, everyman and caregiver. These archetypes can be associated with certain brands and consumers can relate themselves to these identities (Tsai, 2006).

Brand archetypes are linked to the unconscious images an individual constructs during life. Humans can link every archetype to the definition even by not knowing the meaning of the archetype at first, for example the hero, the lover or the creator (Tsai, 2006). These unconscious images are locked in the brain and can trigger consumer behavior. Archetypes provide the link between customer motivation and the brands product sale (Mark & Pearson, 2001). Symbolic brand images are therefore used by marketers to transform normal products to exciting and meaningful products. The consumer buys these products to acquire the symbolic archetypes and uses it to show their identity to their selves and others. The twelve symbolic archetypes are the following:

Innocent brands want to show that their products are pure, simple and trustworthy. Examples of innocent brands are innocent smoothies, Dove cosmetics and Coca-Cola.

The hero stands for brands that want to achieve something no matter what is in their way. These brands want to prove they are worth it, promote themselves as good quality and show the customer that they are better than the competitor. Brands which behave as hero’s are Duracell, Nike and Snickers.

The everyman is a brand, which does not want to blink out want to be normal. These brands are down-to-earth and honest their customers want to be part of a group. Examples of the everyman are Ford, Vodafone and IKEA.

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The creator is a brand that wants to perform as the best possible. Their products need to be exceptional, authenticity and artistic. A good example of a creator is Apple. Other examples are Lego, Canon and Adobe.

Explorers are brands that want to discover a journey for them and involve their customers on this journey. These brands stand for freedom and experience. The North Face, Go Pro and Red Bull are examples of the explorer.

The rebel wants to be different. These brands want to start a revolution, want to be alternative and make an effort to stand out. Examples of the rebel are Harley Davidson, Levi’s and Virgin.

The lover brands want to create a fantasy world for their customers. They focus on how a product feels for the customer. Examples of lover brands are Victoria’s Secrets, Herbal Essences and Chanel.

The magician wants to create experience. These brands focus on dreams come true with their products. The customer has the feeling that the brand gives them the opportunity to learn and grow. Examples of the magician are Disney and Lynx.

The ruler, a brand that promises power. They promote themselves as the best of all. Examples are Rolex and Mercedes Benz.

The jester, these brands focus on excitement and fun. Examples of these brands are M&M and Skittles.

Finally the sage, these brands focus on learning and educate their customers. Examples are National Geographic, Google and BBC.

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Conceptual framework and hypothesis

Figure 1. Conceptual framework

Now that the definitions are clear, the relations between these variables can be investigated. In this research not all the archetypes will be discussed. In this research the creator, the hero, the innocent and the everyman will be investigated.

As mentioned above, self-image is the mental picture someone has about himself or herself. Consumers will do anything to keep up with this mental picture. Brands can help build and create this picture. By purchasing a certain brand, consumers try to reflect the characteristics of these brands into their own identity (Huber et al., 2015).

When a consumer has a preference for a brand, it means that this brand will outstand the competitors. From this preference a psychological attachment can be created. A consumer will always choose this preferred brand and can create a certain bond with this brand. When a consumer has a ‘psychological state of perceiving, feeling or valuing his or her belongingness with a brand’ it is called consumer-brand identification (Beccera & Badrinarayanan, 2013, p. 374).

When this perceived value is high, consumers find it easier to reflect themselves through the characteristics of the brand to use it to show their own identity (Curras-Perez, Bigne-Alcaniz, Alvarado-Herrera, 2009). High identification between the brand and the consumer gives the consumer the feeling of confidence and it is part of perceiving a passionate feeling for a brand. The more closely the brand characteristics are associated with

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the self, the closer the relationship between the consumer and the brand will be (Escalas & bettman, 2003).

When a consumer has a clear self-image, a consumer knows exactly what he or she wants and knows exactly for what kind of characteristics to search for in a brand to show their identity. In addition, when a consumer has found a brand, which helps them express their selves, this will give this the consumer a sense of comfort. The emotional bond will be closer, when the brand becomes part of the consumer’s self-definition. (Huber et al, 2015).

In this paper we will not look at self-image overall but we will define self-image in five main concepts, also called the ‘Big Five’: openness to experience, contentiousness, agreeableness, extrovert and neurotic (McCrea & John, 1992). These five personality traits have been used multiple times in previous research. For example, Zhang (2002) connects the personality traits to thinking styles. Also in the marketing research are the personality traits an interesting subject. The personality traits are for example connected to customer satisfaction by Matzler, Faullant, Renzl & Leiner, (2005), to consumer problem solving models by Mooradian, Matzler & Herbst, (2008) and word of mouth by Mooradian and Swan (2006).

First of all, openness to experience, as mentioned above, these are people who are open for new adventures and new products (Mulyanegara, Tsarenko & Anderson, 2009). These people want to try everything and do not want to have the feeling that they missed out on good things or products. This is why it will be hypothesized that these people will engage less in brand love because they want to give all brands a chance and do not want to focus on one brand in particular.

Therefore, it is hypothesized that:

H1. ‘Openness to experience’ has no influence on brand love.

Secondly, the concept conscientiousness. People who are conscientiousness are well organized, reliable, neat and ambitious (Quintelier, 2014). High conscientiousness people are responsible, hardworking and achievement oriented (Matzler, Renzl, Mooradian & Mueller, 2011). These people want structure in their lives and that is why they might engage in more brand love. They focus on one brand that they prefer and keep loyal to, because they want to have a structured and organized life. In addition, these people are ambitious, which might result in more passion and love for a brand.

Therefore, it is hypothesized that:

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The third concept is agreeableness. These people are softhearted, trusting and straightforward. Agreeable individuals are also sympathetic and very helpful (Matzler, Pichler, Fuller & Mooradian, 2011). These people care strongly about the well being of family and friends (Milfont & Sibley, 2012). Also, they often get involved in pleasant, satisfying relationships (Matzler et al., 2011). These characters are symbolic for loving. If these people care a lot about the people around them, they might also engage in strong emotional bonds with brands. It has also been supported that agreeable individuals show a higher emotional attachment, identification and involvement with an organization (Matzler, Renzl, Mooradian, von Krogh & Müller, 2011)

Therefore, it is hypothesized that:

H3. Agreeableness has a positive influence on brand love.

Extroverts are people who are energetic, sociability and positive emotionality. Extraverts are sociable people with an extensive social circle, they might get in touch with people who are very enthusiastic about a brand (Quintelier, 2014). This positive worth-of-mouth might result in a positive image of the brand. This positive brand image can lead to a connection between the consumer and the brand, because they can identify themselves with the brand.

In Addition, research has shown that extroverts love to be part of a brand community (Matzler, Pichler, Fuller & Mooradian, 2011). This partly shows that these people are loyal to certain brands and therefore they might have a close relationship with the brand.

Therefore, it is hypothesized that:

H4. Extrovert has a positive influence on brand love

At last, neurotic people are people who are insecure, nervous and worrying (Mulyanegara, Tsarenko & Anderson, 2009). These people tend to invest in close relationships (Milfont & Sibley, 2012). Engaging in love for a brand might create less insecurity for these people. However, these people are insecure and anxious, which might result in worrying about the right choices. These people might worry too much about the brand choice they made.

Therefore, it is hypothesized that:

H5. Neurotic has no influence on brand love

The moderated variable, brand personality is the characteristics of a brand, which defines the brand. Consumers often compare human characteristics with brands. For example, Coca-Cola

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is associated with cool, American and fun. These characteristics a brand is associated with, are very long lasting and distinct (Aaker, 1997).

The brand personality is an important role in creating a partnership with the consumer (Fournier, 1998). Brand personality is a symbolic function and enables consumers to identify themselves. Brand personality can help the consumer distinguish different brands. Consumers get attracted to the brand personality, they think fits their self-image the most. This can be their ideal self or their actual self. In addition, the consumer choses also brand personality based on the image they want to show to the social environment (Bian & Moutinho, 2009). This attraction to the brand can lead to a more emotional relationship with the brand.

Also, a brand personality is about the beliefs and values a brand want to expose. Consumers have also beliefs and values and if these match with the brands beliefs and values, they will be attracted more to this brand (Curras-Perez et al., 2009). Consumers will engage more in an emotional relationship with a brand, when the consumer and the brand are in line with values and beliefs.

As already mentioned above, it is hypothesized that agreeableness, extrovert, neurotic, conscientious and openness have a positive influence on brand love, but does brand personality influence this relationship? Does someone who is extrovert have the same feelings for a brand like Apple as for Nike?

These two brands have different brand personalities. Apple is defined with the archetype creator and Nike is defined with Hero. In previous research, brand personality is most of the time associated with Aaker. In this paper we will not use the dimensions of Aaker but 4 dimensions of the twelve archetypes of Yung. These archetypes are: hero, innocent, everyman and the creator.

These four archetypes are chosen because they differ not only in meaning, but also in motivation. The hero is an archetype that motivates risk and mastery. The innocent motivates independence and fulfillment. The everyman motivates belonging and enjoyment. Finally, the creator motivates stability and control (Mark & Pearson, 2001).

As already mentioned above, the hero is a brand personality that shows the consumer that they do everything possible to get to the best position possible. The goal of these brands is to be the best in the market and in a way that it improves the world (Mark & Pearson, 2001). They will do everything possible to come to this point (Tsai, 2006). Therefore, these brands might create very good consumer-brand relationships, because the consumers can help the brand to reach their goal.

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Therefore, it is hypothesized that:

H6. The brand personality hero has a positive influence on the relationship between self-image and brand love.

Second the innocent, are brands that appear as pure, kind and optimistic. The goal for People who relate to the innocent archetype is to be happy. They long to the perfect house, perfect job, perfect friends and kids, they want the perfect life (Mark & pearson, 2001).

An example of an innocent brand is Coca-Cola. In 2014, Coca-Cola launched a worldwide commercial called ‘It’s Beautiful’. This commercial was all about enjoying the brand and how Coca-Cola brings family and friends together (coca-colacompany.com). Coca-Cola wants to show their consumers that life is beautiful. Brands that have these characteristics might be experienced as pleasant. This can result in re-purchase and loyal behavior and deeper emotions for the brand.

Therefore, it is hypothesized that:

H7. The brand personality innocent has a positive influence on the relationship between self-image and brand love

The creator stands for creative and exceptional. These brands want to create something, which is special. Therefore these products might be wanted, think about the products of Apple. These products have their own design and software, where eventually a consumer cannot live without. Most of the time this results in high loyalty, because consumers got used to these products and will not change to the competitor. In addition, Apple is an example of a hedonic product. Previous research showed that these kinds of products have a positive influence on brand love.

Therefore, it is hypothesized that:

H8. The brand personality creator has a positive influence on the relationship between self-image and brand love.

The everyman represents consumers who like to be a part of a group. These people do not want to blink out and want to connect to others. Customers who can find themselves in the archetype everyman are attracted to these brands that help them to connect with others (Mark & Pearson, 2001). These consumers find it important to be part of something and therefore they might keep loyal to a certain brand because the brand has created its own community

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(Muniz & O’Guinn, 2001). This loyalty can result in deeper feelings between the brand and the consumer.

Therefore, it is hypothesized that:

H9. The brand personality everyman has a positive influence on the relationship between self-image and brand love.

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Method

Sample and design

A cross-sectional survey design was used to collect data to answer the research question. One personal questionnaire was made and was sent by email, social media and an anonymous link to 58 people independent of each other.

All participants were approached through the researcher and all of the participants were Dutch, because the survey was in Dutch formulated. The survey would take about seven minutes to fill in and was divided in three parts. The survey had a total of 105 questions. Measurement

The questionnaire was divided in three parts. For every variable, the extent to how the variable occurs needed to be measured. Therefore, different scales will be used. Self-image was measured on a seven-point scale, which contained the concepts of The Big Five dimensions (McCrea & Costa, 1999). This seven-point scale was chosen, because people often avoid using extreme response categories, especially when the questions are about their own personality. People would not admit some personalities even though they are applicable on them. The Big Five dimensions consist of Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism and Openness. There were 10 questions with characteristics of each dimension. Examples of these questions were: ‘I see myself as: extroverted and enthusiastic’ (extroversion). ‘I see myself as: critical and quarrelsome’ (agreeableness). ‘I see myself as: disorganized and careless’ (conscientiousness). ‘I see myself as: calm and emotionally stable’ (neurotic). ‘I see myself as: open to new experiences and complex’ (openness to experience). The total score of the questions will tell, which dimension fits best to the participants’ personality.

The second part of the questionnaire measured the moderator brand personality. Brand personality was measured through the brand archetypes. Brand personality is usually measured through the brand personality traits of Aaker (1997). In this part I focused on four archetypes only, which were: hero, innocent, everyman and the creator. These archetypes were chosen, as mentioned above, because all four have different meanings and also different motivations. In the survey four brands would be shown which represents these archetypes. Apple would represent the creator, Nike represents the hero, Coca-Cola represented the innocent and IKEA represented the everyman. These brands were chosen because they are well known over the world and they all represent perfect their archetype.

The third part of the questionnaire measured brand love. This part contained 23 questions with a 7-point scale from ‘not at all (1)’ to ‘very much (7)’(Bagozzi, Batra &

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Ahuvia, 2014). These questions were about passion, current identity and desired self-identity. An example of a question about passion driver was: ‘Do you have a sense of desiring the certain brand?’ Example of current self identity was: ‘How far does wearing a certain brand says something ‘true’ and ‘deep’ about who you are as a person?’ Desired self-identity was asked like: ‘How much helps the brand presents yourself to others as the kind of person you want to be?’ The final question was about an explicit statement of love: ‘overall, how much do you ‘love’ the brand? These 23 questions were answered for four different brands, namely: Apple, Nike, Coca-Cola and IKEA.

Procedure

The questionnaire was sent to the respondents by email, was posted on Facebook and was sent by an anonymous link. The respondents were asked by the researcher from the University of Amsterdam to participate. The questionnaire included a little introduction, like the following:

‘Dear respondent, I would like to introduce myself. My name is Arden Zwoferink and I am currently studying Economics and Business, where I am working on my thesis. In this research I will look at the relationship between consumers and brands, and the differences in personality. I thank you for taking your time to participate.’

A program called Qualtrics set up the questionnaire. The questionnaire was in Dutch because all the participants that were asked by the researcher were Dutch speaking. The data was collected promptly over a period of three days. The questionnaire contained 105 questions in total.

Analyses

To answer the hypotheses a few analyses were made. First, the effects of agreeableness, neurotic, conscientious, openness and extroversion on brand love would be tested. In order to do this, a correlation and a regression were executed to find out if each of these independently had an influence on brand love. Also the Chronbach’s alpha will be calculated to see if the scale is reliable. In order to do this, a few questions needed to be reversed.

Second, to test if brand personality had an influence on the relationship between the sub variables of self-image and brand love, another few regressions were made. For every archetype the creator, hero, innocent and the everyman would be tested if these archetypes had an influence on the relationship between self-image and brand love. A regression and a correlation were executed. As a result it would be clear if someone who is for example high in extrovert had more brand love for a certain brand archetype.

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Predictions

For the first few regressions of self-image was expected that conscientiousness, agreeableness and extrovert had an influence on brand love. For openness to experience and neurotic was expected that these variables did not had an influence on brand love.

Furthermore, It was expected that brand personality overall had an influence on the relationship between self-image and brand love. The reason behind this was that in existing literature it had been discussed that brand personality is one important aspect to create deeper feelings for a brand. It was expected that the creator, the hero, the innocent and the everyman therefore all had a positive effect on the relationship between self-image and brand love.

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Results Sample

The survey was sent to a total of 58 people, who were asked by a student of Economics and Business. Of these 58 people 33 responded, which is a response rate of 56.8%. All participants have a Dutch nationality, therefore the survey was in Dutch. Most participants are in the age category of 21-30, namely 48.5%. The ages ranged from 15-70. Of the participants, 42.4% are men and 57.6% are women.

Reliabilities and correlations

As already mentioned, the main variables in this model are openness to experience, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neurotic, extroversion and brand love. In this paragraph the descriptive statistics, the results from the correlation and the reliability tests between these variables, will be discussed and are presented in table 1.

Self-image has been measured with a set of 10 questions, which were about the five concepts: agreeableness, conscientious, openness, extroversion and neurotic. A likert scale was used. This is because self-image is not directly measurable, therefore a multiple-item scale and summated rating are used to quantify the construct of self-image (Gliem & Gliem, 2003).

The internal consistency of this scale is measured by the Cronbach’s Alpha. Overall, a good alpha is > .80, a bad alpha is < .60 and a reasonable alpha is between .60 and .80 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1991). The Cronbach’s Alpha for self-image is 0.630 and therefore is the internal consistency moderately good.

Brand love has been measured with a set of 23 questions for every brand personality. The Cronbach’s Alpha is .963 and is therefore a very good alpha. The internal consistency of the scale brand love is good. As a result, both alpha’s are reliable.

In table 1, the correlations are presented. Agreeableness, r (33) = 0.028, p<0.05 and Extroversion, r (33) = 0.011, p<0.05 are both strong correlated with brand love. This means that brand love increases when someone is more agreeable or extrovert. It is also interesting is that brand love decreases when someone engages in more openness r (33) = 0.566, ns. The correlation is not very strong but it is an interesting relation. Conscientious r (33) = 0.875, ns and neurotic r (33) =0.729, ns are both near zero and therefore there is no linear correlation between brand love and conscientious and neurotic (Pearson, 1896). This means that conscientious and neurotic both have no influence on brand love.

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Results

Two regression tables were made. The first one, in table 2, presents the regression between extraversion, openness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, agreeableness and brand love. Table 3 presents the regression between every self-image and brand love for every different brand archetype.

In the first analyses we wanted to find out which personality engaged more in brand love. A regression analysis was made with extraversion, openness, conscientiousness, neurotic and agreeableness as independent variables and brand love as the dependent variable. This regression showed an R Square of .331, which means that 33.1 percent of brand love is explained by the independent variables.

Of all the independent variables only extraversion and agreeableness are significant (β=. 396 p=. 031; β=. 356 p=. 074). This means that extroversion and agreeableness have a positive effect on brand love. More precise, this means that when someone is more extrovert and more agreeable he or she will engage more in brand love. A positive effect was expected and therefore, H4 and H5 will be supported. For openness (β=-.188 p=.268), conscientiousness (β=.262 p=.150) and neuroticism (β=-.091 p=.594), the analysis showed that these variables are not significant and thus did not explain any changes in brand love. Therefore, it can be concluded that openness, conscientiousness and neuroticism do not have an influence on brand love. It was expected that openness and neuroticism had no influence on brand love, so H2 and H6 are supported. However it was expected that conscientiousness had a positive effect on brand love, the outcome of the regression does not support this expectation and thus does not support H3.

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To find out if brand personality influences the relationship between self-image and brand love another four regressions were made. In table 3 the regression analyses are shown. The R square for Apple is 0.184, for Nike the R=0.158, for Coca-Cola the R=0.198 and for IKEA the R=0.145. This means that 18.5 percent of the change in brand love for Apple is explained by self-image. 15.8 percent of the change in brand love for Nike is explained by self-image. 19.8 percent of the change in brand love for Coca-Cola is explained by self-image. Finally 14.8 percent of the change in brand love for IKEA is explained by self-image.

Overall all the brand personalities do not result in more brand love. Only the creator with conscientiousness is significant (β=.414 p=.043). This means that people who are

conscientiousness engage in more brand love for Apple. Thus, the archetype creator has some influence on the relationship between self-image and brand love. Therefore, H8 is partly supported.

For all the other brand archetypes, the hero, innocent and the everyman do not influence the relationship between self-image and brand love. It was expected that the personalities of brand had an influence on this relationship, however these regression show this is not true. Therefore, H9, H10, H11 are not supported.

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Discussion Summary

In this study the following question was researched: What is the impact of self-image on brand love, with brand personality as moderator? To answer this question data were collected and analyzed. The results showed that there is a relationship between self-image and brand love. When a consumer is high in extrovert and agreeableness, they will engage in more brand love, this is supported by hypothesis three and hypothesis four. It was expected that openness and neuroticism had no influence on brand love and this was also the case, so hypothesis one and hypothesis 5 were also supported.

In addition, brand personality does not have a very big influence on this relationship. However, this is in contrast to the prediction that brand personality overall would have an influence on the relationship between self-image and brand love. The archetype creator did have a little influence on this relationship, but only for consumers who are more conscientious therefore hypothesis eight is partly supported.

Not all predictions are satisfied. The predictions of this research were that different self-images had different influences on brand love. It was thought that conscientiousness would, just like agreeableness and extroverts, had an influence on brand love. However this was not the case. In addition, it was thought that brand personality overall, if it would have been the creator, hero, innocent or everyman, all had an influence on the relationship between self-image and brand love. However, these predictions were also not satisfied.

Previous research and interpretation of the results

Previous researches have looked into brand love in general. Now the question to brand love specific has risen, because it can help the marketing department. It has been shown that brand love can influence brand loyalty and word-of-mouth (Bergkvist & Bech-Larsen, 2010).

The study of Fournier (1998) was one of the first studies, which concluded that intimate relationships with brands are possible. Different other studies have supported this study, that it is possible for a consumer to love a brand. This love for a brand can construct particularly when it mirrors the consumers identity (Huber et al. 2015, Caroll & Ahuvia, 2006, Hwang & Kandampully, 2012).

In the study of Kressman et al. (2006) a positive relation between brand identification and brand love was shown. This means that if a consumer can relate to the characteristics of the brand he or she would engage in brand love. As the results in this study show, some consumers do engage in brand love when they feel they their personality overlaps with the

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brand personality. However, it is notable that there is a difference between what kind of person you are. As this research shows, individuals who are agreeable and extrovert, do engage in brand love, but individuals who are conscientious, neurotic and open engage less in brand love.

In the previous study of Matzler, Renzl, Mooradian, von Krogh & Mueller, (2011) it was supported that individuals who are agreeable show a higher emotional attachment, identification and involvement with an organization. This research built further on this statement, as the results show that individuals who are high in agreeableness engage more in brand love. Thus, this corresponds to the previous study as individuals who are agreeable are more attached. These attachments expresses in brand love.

It was also expected that individuals who are high in extroverts engage more in brand love. Previous research discussed that these individuals love to be part of a brand community (Matzler et al., 2011). This research builds upon this as they not only love to be part of a community but they also, as a result, engage in brand love.

The other variable of self-image, conscientious, was also expected to have a positive influence on brand love. According to previous research these people are structured and well organized and therefore it was thought they preferred one brand to keep this structure (Matzler et al., 2011). However, the results of this study show that overall brand love does not increase when someone is high in conscientiousness. But, the brand love for Apple specific does increase when someone is high in conscientiousness. The explanation for this result might be that the products of Apple have an organized structure and software and help people to get structure and conscientiousness people prefer that. As discussed by Mark and Pearson, (2001) the creator motivates consumers to be stable and in control, this is very much in line with and individual who is conscientiousness.

Openness to experience was expected to not have an influence on brand love. Previous research discussed that these people are interested in new adventures and do not want to be stuck on something (Mulyanegara, Tsarenko & Anderson, 2009). These people do not want to get the feeling that they missed out on good products. This reasoning is confirmed by the findings of this research. Openness to experience does not have an influence on brand love. People who are openness to experience also do not engage in brand love for the four specific brans in this research.

The last variable of self-image that was tested was neurotic. Research explained that neurotic people are insecure, nervous and worrying (Mulyanegara, Tsarenko & Anderson, 2009). It was expected that neurotic people did not engage in brand love this is supported in

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this research. The explanation for this might be as previously discussed, that these people worry too much to chose a brand and therefore they might not be satisfied with their choice. This worrying behavior leads to no relationship with any brand and therefore deeper feelings cannot be created.

It can be the case that certain brand personalities are not characteristics a consumer want to show to others, independent of which self-image they are and therefore the consumer does not have any interest in a deep relation with the brand. It may also occur that some brand personalities are just not exciting to show and therefore a consumer cannot build a deep relationship with a brand. For example, if IKEA is compared with Apple, IKEA is not exciting where as Apple is exciting (Maehle & Supphellen, 2011). Otherwise, some brand personalities can create a feeling of relevance, because they do show the actual or desired values for the consumer (Hoeffler & Keller, 2002). As the results show, this is the case for the creator, Apple.

In previous research it has been said that brand personality has an important role in perceiving brand love (Fournier, 1998). However the results of this study show that brand personality does not influence the relationship between self-image and brand love. Only the creator, Apple, had a little influence on this relation. The reason for this, as mentioned above, might be that Apple is an exciting brand whereas for Nike, IKEA and Coca-Cola this might be experienced as less exciting.

Positive points

The aim of this research was to find out if different self-images would engage differently in brand love. Results show there is indeed a difference in how people’s personalities behave regarding to brand love. Individuals who are high in agreeableness and high in extrovert engage more in brand love. Neurotic, openness and conscientiousness do not have an influence on brand love overall. However, it is shown that individuals who are high in conscientious engage in brand love for the archetype creator.

Second, the Cronbach alpha for brand love is very good, which indicates that the scale used in the research valid.

The outcome of this research is interesting to know for marketers. Brands can responds more to people who are agreeable and extrovert. Brands can maybe get more out of this deep relationship between the brand and the customer. They also can use this research as an indication for consumer behavior. It can help the marketers to understand the way consumers make choices in context with different brands.

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Points of critique

In this research the variables self-image, brand personality and brand love were tested. This study shows a few methodological points of critique. First, this study is unable to encompass the entire personality traits, for this the survey was too short. It is difficult to draw a conclusion about how a person really is, based on only ten questions. In addition, it is also hard to conclude if someone for example is extrovert, when this person may have a little of every characteristic. It is therefore a shortcut to say that someone is only extrovert.

Secondly, all the questions for brand love were weighed the same. The total questions were taken together as a mean for brand love. However, it could be the case that some questions are more important than others for brand love. These different factors have not been included in this research.

Another point of critique is that the survey might have been too long in total. In the last part of the survey brand love was tested for four brands. However, at the last brands the participant might not have been as concentrated as for the first brands. This could result in the fact that, the participant does not think out enough if they could love a certain brand.

Finally, the total number of respondents was small. Furthermore, most participants were between the 21 and 30 years old. In previous research it has been said that a relationship between a consumer and a brand takes time and can change over time. It can be concluded that the sample was a bit too young to engage in brand love.

Contribution to existing literature

Existing literature has been focused on consumer-brand relationships in general and little on brand love specific. It has already been researched if brand-identification has an influence on brand love. They looked for an overlap of self-image with brands and if this could have an influence on brand love. However, until now there has not yet been researched if there is a difference in self-images on brand love. This research shows that different personalities engage differently in brand love. This can be interesting for brands as they can more respond to people who do engage in brand love like individuals who are high in agreeableness and high in extrovert. This research is also interesting for brands with the creator as archetype. For these brands individuals who are high in conscientiousness are interesting, because these individuals do engage in brand love only if the brand is a creator.

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Future research

For future research a few methodological improvements are suggested. First of all, it is suggested to use a bigger sample. Secondly, future research needs to ask more questions about self-images, the characteristics of conscientious, agreeableness, extrovert, openness and neurotic to conclude how a person really is.

In this research four different brands from different branches were chosen. They were all four well known and had different brand personalities. For future research it might be interesting to choose brands from the same branch.

This research focused on four brand archetypes, only the hero, creator, innocent and the everyman. It can be interesting for marketers to find out if the other eight brand personalities have an influence on the relationship of self-image on brand love.

It may also be interesting for brands to know if there is a difference in gender and nationality. Maybe men do engage more in brand love than women or otherwise. It can also be the case that in different countries, with different cultures a difference can occur in personalities who engage in brand love.

Finally, as mentioned above, it can be interesting to find out why certain personalities engage more in brand love than others. This research made clear, which personalities would engage more in brand love, but it is still not sure why these people engage more in brand love exactly. Why does someone who is extrovert engage in more brand love?

Conclusion

In this research the central question was: To what extent can self-image and brand love be related, moderated by different brand personalities? Quantitative research has been done to collect data to answer this question.

The results show that there is a difference in the self-images on brand love. Individuals who are high in agreeableness and high in extrovert are more engaging in brand love. Individuals who are conscientious engage only in brand love, when the brand has a personality of a creator. The hero, innocent and the everyman do not seem to have an influence on the relationship between self-image and brand love. The results of this research are very promising and should be followed up to find out the reason why some people do engage in brand love and why others do not.

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Appendix Enquête bachelor scriptie Q35 Algemene vragen. Wat is uw geslacht? m Man (1) m Vrouw (2) Q36 Wat is uw leeftijd? m 10-20 (1) m 21-30 (2) m 31-40 (3) m 41-50 (4) m 51-60 (5) m 61-70 (6) m >70 (7) Q1 De volgende vragen gaan over het beeld wat je over jezelf hebt. De keuze loopt van 1: helemaal oneens tot 7: helemaal mee eens. Vul het zo eerlijk mogelijk in. Ik zie mezelf als: Extrovert en enthousiast. m Helemaal oneens (1) (1) m Oneens (2) (2) m Klein beetje oneens (3) (3) m Neutraal (4) (4) m Klein beetje eens (5) (5) m Eens (6) (6) m Helemaal mee eens (7) (7) Q2 Ik zie mezelf als: kritisch en pietje precies. m Helemaal oneens (1) (1) m Oneens (2) (2) m Klein beetje oneens (3) (3) m Neutraal (4) (4) m Klein beetje eens (5) (5) m Eens (6) (6) m Helemaal mee eens (7) (7)

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Q3 Ik zie mezelf als: betrouwbaar en gedisciplineerd. m Helemaal mee oneens (1) (1) m Oneens (2) (2) m Klein beetje oneens (3) (3) m Neutraal (4) (4) m Klein beetje eens (5) (5) m Eens (6) (6) m Helemaal mee eens (7) (7) Q4 Ik zie mezelf als: bezorgd en snel van streek. m Helemaal mee oneens (1) (1) m Oneens (2) (2) m Klein beetje oneens (3) (3) m Neutraal (4) (4) m Klein beetje eens (5) (5) m Eens (6) (6) m Helemaal mee eens (7) (7) Q5 Ik zie mezelf als: openstaan voor nieuwe ervaringen. m Helemaal mee oneens (1) (1) m Oneens (2) (2) m Klein beetje oneens (3) (3) m Neutraal (4) (4) m Klein beetje eens (5) (5) m Eens (6) (6) m Helemaal mee eens (7) (7) Q6 Ik zie mezelf als: rustig en terughoudend m Helemaal mee oneens (1) (1) m Oneens (2) (2) m Klein beetje oneens (3) (3) m Neutraal (4) (4) m Klein beetje eens (5) (5) m Eens (6) (6) m Helemaal mee eens (7) (7)

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Q7 Ik zie mezelf als: sympathiek en warm m Helemaal mee oneens (1) (1) m Oneens (2) (2) m Klein beetje oneens (3) (3) m Neutraal (4) (4) m Klein beetje eens (5) (5) m Eens (6) (6) m Helemaal mee eens (7) (7) Q8 Ik zie mezelf als: rommelig en zorgeloos m Helemaal mee oneens (1) (1) m Oneens (2) (2) m Klein beetje oneens (3) (3) m Neutraal (4) (4) m Klein beetje eens (5) (5) m Eens (6) (6) m Helemaal mee eens (7) (7) Q9 Ik zie mezelf als: kalm en emotioneel stabiel m Helemaal mee oneens (1) (1) m Oneens (2) (2) m Klein beetje oneens (3) (3) m Neutraal (4) (4) m Klein beetje eens (5) (5) m Eens (6) (6) m Helemaal mee eens (7) (7) Q10 Ik zie mezelf als: Normaal en niet zo creatief m Helemaal mee oneens (1) (1) m Oneens (2) (2) m Klein beetje oneens (3) (3) m Neutraal (4) (4) m Klein beetje eens (5) (5) m Eens (6) (6) m Helemaal mee eens (7) (7) Q15 Hoe zou je jezelf omschrijven? Kies de beste keuze. m Ik wil altijd de beste zijn, hard werkend. (1) m Puur, betrouwbaar, helpend. (2) m Ik wil niet graag uitblinken, down-to-earth. (3) m Ik wil graag artistiek, creatief zijn. (4)

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Q20 De volgende vragen gaan over AppleBij het gebruik van de producten van dit merk, in hoeverre voel je jezelf... Helemaal niet (1) (1) 2 (2) (2) 3 (3) (3) Gemiddeld (4) (4) 5 (5) (5) 6 (6) (6) Heel erg (7) (7) verlangen om dit merk te hebben? (1) m m m m m m m verlangen om bij dit merk te winkelen? (2) m m m m m m m Q21 In hoeverre beschrijven de volgende woorden jouw gevoelens over dit merk: Helemaal niet (1) (1) 2 (2) (2) 3 (3) (3) Gemiddeld (4) (4) 5 (5) (5) 6 (6) (6) Heel erg (7) (7) Gevoel van willen hebben (1) m m m m m m m Gevoel van verlangen (2) m m m m m m m

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