STUDY OF CONFLICT MANAG
E
MEN
T
A
N
D RESOL
UT
IONS
:
A CA
S
E
O
F
MARIKANA IN SOUTH AFRICA
A
ND OGONI I
N N
IG
E
RI
A
0 YEBUKWA CHIJIOKE FRANCIS
Stud nt number: 23695420
o rcid.o rg/0000.0001-6086-0626
T
hes
is submitted in ful
fi
ll
ment of th
e requ
ir
e
men
ts fo
r the de
gree
of Doc
tor of
Philoso
ph
y
in
Inte
rn
ationa
l Re
lati
ons
Department of Politics and Internati
o
nal
Re
lati
0ns
Fac
ulty of Hum
an a
nd
Soc
ia
l Sci
ences
o
rth
-We
st Uni
vers
ity, Mafiken
g Camp
us
So
uth Africa
Promoter: Professor Victor Ojakorotu.
Declaration
I decla
re
th
at
this resea
rch
is
my origina
l
and
unpub
li
s
hed work. ; furt
h
er
d
ecla
re th
at
no
prev
ious
resea
rch has
bee
n do
ne
on
tl1i
s titl
e.
1 the
refo
re
co
nfirm
th
at
thi
s study
has not bee
n
submitted
a
nyw
here
for th
e
purposes of any
h
ighe
r deg
ree or
qu
ali
fica
ti
on.
1 have also du
ly
referenced and acknow
ledged a
ll materia
ls
used
in thi
s
r
esea
rch
in
fulfillme
nt
of
the
req
uirements fo
r
the deg
ree of Doctor
of Phil
osophy,
fn
te
rn
ation
a
l
Relat
io
n
s,
in the Facult
y
of
Human
and Soc
ial Science
,
o
rth-W
est
Un
ive
rsity, Mafikeng Campu
s.
Signatu
re ..
.
...
.
Onyebukwa Chijioke Francis
Supe
rvi
so
r
's
S
ignature
.
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Date
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Dedication
I dedicate this work to the Glory of God Almighty and to the memory of my late father Sir Victor waolisa Onyebukwa who laid the foundation upon which I have built.
Acknowledgements
I
owe grati
tude
to a
hu
ge numb
er
of perso
ns who
made
num
ero
us
co
ntri
butions to the
actua
lizati
on of
thi
s
research
.
1 am pa
rt
icular
ly
ind
ebted
to
my
imm
ed
iate
elder
broth
er,
Dr
Victor Onyeb
ukwa, who gave me
the oppo
rtuni
ty to
unde
rtake th
is study
a
nd provided me with
every
fu
ndamenta
l
support
I
needed
for
my education here
in South Africa. 1
am
equally
a
ppreciative of his wife,
Laura,
for
making su
re
I neve
r we
nt
hungry whi
le I studied.
My
specia
l
thanks a
l
so
gc;
to
my e
ld
est brot
her,
Ba
rri
ste
r Charl
es Onyebu
kwa, and fa
mil
y
for
the
ir untiring
effo
rts and
fina
nc
ia
l co
ntri
buti
ons towa
rds
th
e success of
thi
s stud
y. My profo
un
d gratitu
de
goes
to my
siste
rs and
their fa
mili
es; Mrs. Vivian
wag
u, Mrs. Chin
we
Uba
, Lolo jideka jepuome,
Mrs.
Lili
an Okubor, and Mrs. Ogec
hi
Ngwu
fo
r their financ
ial contributions and fervent
prayers.
To my a
miable mother, Lady Kate Onyebukwa,
l
thank
you
for
your
inest
imable
support.
You
have a
ll
shown me love
fro
m ho
me, thank
yo
u.
To the very
spec
i
al wo
man
in my
li
fe, my best fr
i
end
and
wife
,
Chioma
Cynthia Onyebukwa
,
thank you heartily. Yo
u bel
ieved
in
me
and
suppo
rted me with consistent prayers
and waited for
me fo
r
four long
yea
rs
to
ach
ieve
th
is
feat. You
always fo
und
soothi
ng
vvord
s
to calm
me
wheneve
r thi
s acade
mic
loa
d we
ighed me down.
Yo
u stood
your
groun
d
in th
e face
of adversity
and
held th
e
ho
me fro
nt in my abse
nce. You have prove
d yo
ur
worth and
I love
yo
u eve
n more
fo
r th
is.
With
out
the suppo
rtive con
tribut
ions of my
indefatigab
le
promoter,
Professor
Victor Ojakorotu,
th
is
research
would
not have been
comple
ted
.
You
r
crit
ica
l
eva
luation and constructive input
consolidated
this
study
.
You have
shown
me
the best pa
rt
of mentorshi
p
thro
ughout my
academ
ic
sojourn
at No
rt
h-West Uni
versi
ty,
Mafikeng campus,
from 20
1
2. I ex
tend
my sincere
grat
itude to
my father and Head of Departme
nt
Po
lit
ics
and
Internationa
l
Relations
,
Professor
Le
re Amu
san.
T
hank
you
for yo
ur
fathe
rl
y advice. Let
me also thank Mr Kebine
and
Mr
Os
hup
eng Mase
ng fo
r be
in
g there for me. To staff of WU who cared fo
r and showed
me
love:
Mrs. Maggy Map
like, Mrs.
Magg
ie Smith, Mr
John
choe, Mr Dingaa
n
Ramats
hego
,
Miss
Gra
nn
y Mogots
i,
Ms Kenil
we Se
leke, Mr Vuyo
gayeke,
Miss Kagiso Mon
tshioa
,
Mr Johanne
s
Sele
bi
, th
ank you.
To my co
ll
eag
ues at Academic
Deve
lopment Center
(ADC)
orth-
W
s
t
Un
iversity
,
Mafike
ng
Campus,
yo
u are wo
nde
rfu
l peop
le
to work w
ith
.
I w
ill neve
r fo
rge
t the best
of times we
spent
working together. You were
a
ll
fu
n to
work
with.
I wish
to th
ank my friehds Mr
Chris
Ezirim,
Pharmacist
Char
l
es Eg
buna, Mr
Marcel lbeh,
elson
Ag
u,
Paul Saah
,
Gabr
ie
l
Kinge,
and
Mrs
Shila:
I am
grateful
for
your
conce
rn
towa
rds
me. Finally
,
I want to
say
thank
you to
th
o
s
e who
were
my brothers in the dia
spora:
Dr Joshua Chukuwu
ere
,
Elder Frank Od
im
egwu
, Ke
lechi
A
ni
,
Justin
Uloho,
Ifean
y
i
Mbukanma,
Emeka
Ezeabiakwa
and
Edmond
Obiaj
ulu
,
Kennet
h
wanu
Ohei and
namdi Dickson Oko
l
o.
Abstract
The
rec
urre
nce
of
conflict
in
the
minin
g
sectors
of So
uth
Africa and
ige
ri
a
has
ra
ised
se
ri
ous
co
nce
rn
s
in
d
iffe
rent
quarters.
The
inab
ili
ty
of minin
g co
mp
ani
es, gove
rnm
ents, wo
rkers and
host communities to come to
a
compromise
on
last
ing so
luti
ons to
this
carnage
deepens
di
saffection
and
fans the embers of
confl
ict in
the
minin
g sector<; of both coun
tr
ies.
The
eno
rmous econom
ic earning capacit
y
of
natural
res
o
urces to the
econom
ies of South Africa
and
ige
ri
a is not
in
doubt.
Ironically, the
conflicts
at
Marikana
in
Sou
th
Africa and Ogoni
in
1geria
are
reflections
of
lack of
susta
inab
l
e
deve
l
opment,
inequa
lity and
inequ
i
table
distribu
tion of
wea
lth
particul
arly
on
the
people
directl
y
affected by the
negative co
nseque
nces
of mining
activ
iti
es. Against
this backdrop, th
is research examines the Marikana
and
Ogoni
conflicts with a
view
to
und
erstandin
g
mining co
mpani
es and
governmen
t invo
lvement
a
nd
conflict
manag
ement
interventio
n
approaches
in
these conflicts.
It
a
lso exam
ines
th
e consequences of the app
li
cation
of
these
conflict management
ap
proaches o
n th
e wo
rk
ers at
Ma
ri
kana and people of Ogoni.
Guided by the:
agg
ression-fru
stration
and
reso
urces
mobili
za
tio
n
th
eories,
the resea
rch
applied
the
co
ntent
ana
lytic
al method
to
draw a compara
ti
ve analys
i
s
of co
nfl
ict
management
approaches
to
assess
the
efficacy
of
minin
g
companies
as
well
as governm
ent
i
ntervention
effo
rts before,
during
and
afte
r th
ese
conflicts.
The study
reveal
s
that th
e
conflict
management
efforts with
in
these
confl
icts were
not
adequate
to
precl
ud
e
recu
rrence of co
nflict in
the
mining
sectors
of
South Afr
ica and
ige
ri
a. Gove
rnm
ent involve
ment and
intervention
strategies
to,,vards these
confl
icts
remain desperately incons
istent. The
resea
rch reco
mm
ends
the creation
of
wage and
conflict
manage
ment
syste
ms. T
he researc
h
argues
that the
effecti
ve
impl
ementatio
n
of these
recommendations
in th
e
mining
sectors
of
South
Africa and
igeria
sho
uld
be able to preclude
conflict
in th
e
ir minin
g
indu
stries.
It would also
be
a
model
for other Afri
can natural
resou
r
ces
rich countries to
adopt
in
order to
prevent
repet
iti
on of
the
experiences
of
Ma
ri
kana
an
d
Ogoni.
Key
Words:South
Afr
ica, Niger
ia,Ma
ri
kana,
Ogoni
, Co
nflict
, Confl
ict
management
,
Lonmin
Company
Pty
, Shell Petroleum Development
Company
Ltd,
Platinum
.
Oil.
Tab
l
e of Con
t
e
n
ts
D
e
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v
Chapter One:Backgro
un
d
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o the s
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dy
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1 I
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R
esearc
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R
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6 R
a
tion
a
l
e
o
f
the St
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1.
7
Sco
p
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1
.8 E
thi
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co
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9 Co
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Chapter Two:Lite
ra
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12
2.
1
Introdu
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2.2 Co
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2
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2
2
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2
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2 Ty
p
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5
2
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2.3 La
t
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m
a
n
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2.3 Caus
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co
nfli
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2.5
Comparati
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2.9 Rev
iew of li
terature on Mar
ika
na
co
nfl
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2.9.
1
Events of 11 August 2012 ...
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... 34
2
.9.2 Eve
nts of 1
2 August 20
12
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2
.9.3 Events of 13 August 20
12 ..
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2.9.4 Events of 14 August 20
12 ...
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2.9.
5 Eve
nts of 15 August 20
1
2 ....
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2.9
.6
Events of 16 August 20
12 ...
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2.9.6.1 Pre-shootin
g eve
nts ..
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2.9.6
.2 The shootin
g incide
nt ..
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... 38
2.
10 Revi
ew of
Ogoni literatures ...
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...
. 50
2.
10.
1
She
ll
and oil
exp
loration
in
ige
ri
a's
ige
r De
lta
...
...
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.
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... 50
2.1
3 T
heo
retica
l framevvo
rk
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2.
14 Summary
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2.
15 Co
nclu
sion ....
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.... 63
Chapter Three: Resea
rch methodo
l
ogy ...
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... 64
3.1
Introduction ...
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... 64
3.2 Qu
alitati
ve
research method ..
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64
3.3 Data co
ll
ection ...
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... 67
3.3
.
1 Prim
ary so
urces
..
.
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3.3
.3 Interviews
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7
1
3.3
.5.
Second
ary ourc
es
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.
..
. 74
ChapterFour:
Histo
rica
l
backgro
un
d to two Case Stu
d
i
es
(S
hell
Petro
leum
Development
Company
1
11
Ogon
i,
1
geria
and
Lo
nm
in
Pt
y
Compan
y
111
Marikana,
South
Afri
ca) .
..
.
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774.1
ln
trroducti
on ..
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77
4.1.2
Oi I and the
igeri
an economy ...
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... 78
4.1.4
The Ogo
ni ques
t ..
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.
.
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... 81
4.1.5 Move
me
nt
fo
r th
e Surviva
l of
Ogo
ni
Peo
p
l
e (MO
SOP) and
th
e Ogon
i s
tru
gg
l
e ... 82
4.1.6
Root causes of Ogo
ni
confl
ic
t
...
...
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... 83
4.1.6.1
Exploitation by colonial
masters ...
..
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...
...
. 83
4.1.6.2
Adapta
ti
on and violatio
n of
the reven
ue sharing fo
rmul
a by the
Government ...
...
844.
J .6.3 Federa
l Gove
rnm
ent dec
rees ...
..
..
..
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... 87
4.1.6.4
She
l I's non-cooperative att
itu
de ...
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884.1.6.5 Effects of o
i
I
exploration ...
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... 9
1 4.1.6.6 Failure ofgove
rn
ment to
develop the regi
o
n ...
....
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... 95
4.1.6.7
Co
rru
pti
on ...
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... 98
4.1.6.8
Unem
pl
oyment
...
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IO I 4.2.1M
ining and So
uth Afri
can eco
nomy ....
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1044.2.3
Lo
nmin P
l
at
inu
m Pt
y in
the No
rth West Pro
v
ince
...
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.
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1084.2.4. l
Social
iss
ues ...
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09 4.2.4.2.Labo
ur matters ...
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1134.2.4.3.
Eco
nom
ic issues ...
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1144.2.5
Sun1111ary ..
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1 16 4.3.1Introd
uction ...
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I
17 4.3.2Lo
nmin min
ing
Company
Pty conflict prevention
effo
rts before
Marikana conflic
t ...
..
1174.3.3
Lonmin
co
nfl
ict management
strategy du
rin
g
the conflict ...
..
...
..
...
1244
.
3.4 South African government
and its
conflict prevention
strategie
s
...
.
...
...
125
4.3.4.2
The
South Africa
n Police
Serv
i
ces
and Tactical Response
Team opt
i
on
in
Marika
na
... 130
4.3.5
Lonmin
and
South
African Govern111e
nt
post Marikana 111itigarion
effo
rts
...
...
..
.
...
..
131
4.3.5.2
Marikana Comm
i
ssion of
Inquiry (Farlam
Com111iss
ion) ...
.
....
...
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...
...
.. 135
4.3.5.3
Findings and
r
eco
mm
endat
ions
of
the
Fa
rl
am Co111
mi
ss
i
o
n
...
...
..
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..
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....
..
. 136
4.3.6
Summary
...
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...
. 136
4.4
Case Study
I:
She
ll
a
n
d Government confl
i
ct
man
age
ment strategies
...
....
..
...
137
4.4.1
Introdu
ctio
n
...
..
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.
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.
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...
... 137
4.4
.2
S
h
e
ll
confl
ict
preve
nti
on strategy
in
the Niger
Delta
a
n
d Ogoni
...
...
....
.
... 137
4.4.3
She
ll
post
-
conflic
t m
anageme
nt
strategy
...
....
..
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..
...
...
...
...
.
... 139
4.4.4
igerian
government conflict
man
ageme
nt
strategy
in Ogoni
iger
De
l
ta ...
...
...
139
4.4.4.
l The
Federa
l
Min
i
stry of N
i
ge
r Delta
Affa
ir
s ..
...
...
...
....
... 146
4.4.4
.
2
T
h
e
Military
strategy and op
ti
on
in
the
Ogoni
co
nflict
...
....
... 149
4.4
.
5 Government
med
i
ation
efforts
..
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..
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.
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.
... 152
4.4.5.
l
The Oputa
Panel ...
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...
153
4.4.5.2
T
h
e
Bishop Mathew Hassa
n
Kuka
r
eco
n
ci
li
at
i
o
n process ....
..
...
...
155
4.4.6.1
The Federal Government
's
Niger Delta Amnesty Programme
...
....
....
... 157
4.4
.6.2
The
Un
it
ed Nat
io
ns
Env
ironm
ental Protect
i
on
assess
ment
...
....
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...
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... 159
4.4.6.3
UNEP
recommendations ...
.
...
..
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.
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..
.
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...
.
... 160
4.4.6.4
Sh
e
ll
a
nd
UNE
r
ecomme
nd
ations
impl
e
m
entat
i
o
n
efforts ...
... 163
4.4.0.5
Nige
ri
a
n Government
and UNEP
report
im
p
l
eme
nt
at
i
on effo11s
...
..
...
163
4.4.7
S
um1n
ary ...
.
....
...
...
..
.
...
...
...
....
166
Chapter Five: Co
m
par
at
i
ve
data
pr
esentat
ion
a
n
d
ana
lys
i
s
.
..
...
..
...
....
..
...
...
...
.. 169
5.1
I
ntroduction ...
..
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...
168
5.3
.
1
Perspectives on co
nfli
ct ...
.
...
...
..
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...
..
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...
...
...
....
....
..
.
.. 170
5.
3.2 Perspectives on
tri
ggers of
confli
ct:
The root cau
ses
of Ma
ri
kana confl
ict ..
.
...
...
. 170
5.3.3
Reaso
ns and re
liability of
po
lice interventi
on strategy
in
the
Marika
na conflict..
...
...
171
5.3.4 Effectiveness a
nd
efficiency of
other conflict management a
pproaches
in
the co
nflict 173
5.4
Views
from
Ogoni
: Nigeria
..
...
....
...
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...
176
5.4.
1 Perspectives on conflict..
...
...
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...
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...
....
... 176
5.4.2
Perspective
s on
triggers
of conflict ...
..
...
...
...
..
...
..
.... 178
5.4.3
Reasons
and reliability of
military intervention
strategy
in the Ogo
ni
conflict ...
.
...
180
5.4.4 Effect
iveness and efficiency of other co
nfli
ct management approaches in the co
n
flict 185
5.5 S
imilarities and
d
i
ss
imil
ariti
es
of
th
e two
case
studi
es ...
...
....
...
..
...
...
...
...
.. 188
5.5.
1
Befo
retheconflicts ...
...
...
..
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..
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..
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....
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...
...
... 188
5.5.2
During the confl
icts ...
...
...
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....
...
.
...
..
...
...
...
. 191
5.5.3 After
the
conflicts
...
...
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...
195
5.6
Sun1111ary ...
...
....
...
...
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...
....
199
Chapter Six:Summary,
Recommendat
ions and
Co
nclu
sion .
.
.
..
..
.
..
..
..
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..
....
...
....
.. 207
6.1 Sun1111ary ...
..
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..
...
..
...
...
...
...
...
...
... 206
6
.2 Recommendations
fo
r South
Afr
ica
and
ige
ri
a ...
... 207
6.3 The
research
contribution
s to know
l
edge ...
...
...
..
..
... 215
6.3.1 Creation of wage
man
agement syste
m
...
...
...
...
... 215
6.3
.2 Estab
li
shment of a conflict ma
nage
ment syste
m ....
...
...
...
..
...
...
...
.
.
.
..
... 216
6.4 Pro
spective areas for
furth
er research ..
...
...
...
...
...
..
....
... 219
Appendix
I Marikana
interv
iew que
stion
s
...
..
....
...
.
..
...
..
.
.
..
....
...
.
..
.
.... 257
Appendix 2 Ogoni
inte
rv
iew ques
tion
s
...
.
....
.
.
...
..
..
..
.
...
..
.
...
...
.
..
.
...
..
.
26
1
Appendix
3 Ethics approva
l Ce
rtificate of Project. ..
...
..
.
...
...
.
...
.
...
..
..
...
265
Append
i
x 5 Certfication
letter
fro
m
Moveme
n
t for the Surviva
l
of Ogoni
Peopl
e
.
...
...
267
Appe
ndi
x 6 C
rtific
ation l
etter from The new Age Newspape
r
...
....
..
.. 268
List of tables
Table
3
.
l:
Number of inhabitants
by
Local Government Areas (LGA)
according to 2006 Nigeria
census figures ...
...
....
...
...
....
...
...
...
..
...
...
...
....
....
...
80
Table 3. 2: Various
revenue allocat
ion
commiss
ions and
their
recommendations
...
..
...
85
Table
3. 3:
Summary of some oi
l spi
ll
s in
the
iger Delta
,
1979
-
2005 ...
92
Table
3. 4:
Ranking of major environmental
prob
lems in the Niger Delta
...
...
....
...
..
94
Table
3. 5:
Contributions of oil
revenue
to
igeria Government between
I
970-2003 ...
.
..
.
.
.
96
Table
3. 6:
Summary of ND DC
projects executed
in
Niger Delta as
at
2013 ...
..
... 97
Table 3. 7: Oil revenue precentage to producing states ...
...
...
...
....
...
...
...
.... 98
Table
3. 8:
Nigeria curruption perception index
(CPI)
1998-20 l2 ....
...
....
..
..
...
...
.
..
....
.
..
...
I
00
Table 3.
9:
The South African mining sector contribution to
inv
estment and GDP 2007
-
2014
I
05
Table 3.
I
0:
Commodity summary for
so
me of So
uth
Afr
ica's core
minera
ls for
2011-2014 ...
I
06
Table
4.
l:
Part of
2008
Lonmin
stakeh
olders
engagements ..
...
...
...
...
...
119
Tab
le
4
.
2:
Some of Lo
nmi
n
's risk
manageme
nt processes
for
2008 .
.
...
...
...
...
...
.
122
Table
5.
1:
DOC comp
leted projects
in
iger De
lta
200
1-
2005 ...
.
...
...
...
...
145
Table 5. 2: Table
representation
of MNDA completed consultancy capital projects in
iger Delta
2009
-
2015 ·
··
·
···
·
·
·
····
··
·
·
···
··
···
·
····
··
···
·
·
·
···
·
·
·
···
···
···
··
··
··
···
···
····
···
·
··
···
·
····
···
··
···
··
··
1
47
Figures
F
i
g
ur
e
2.
1:0utlin
e o
f
C
onflict
s
ource
s
. Ag
g
ravator
s a
nd
.
Medi
at
i
o
n
. a
n
d
B
e
h
a
vi
o
ur ....
.
..
.
.
.
...
.
..
22
Fig
u
re 2
. 2:Tw
o
d
imens
iona
l
co
n
fl
ict m
anage
ment
a
pp
roa
ch
es/
m
odels
...
....
.
.
..
...
...
.
..
..
.
.
.
...
...
24
F
igure
4
.
1:
Map show
i
ng Ni
g
er Delta States of N
igeria
i
n co
lour ...
.
...
..
....
....
...
..
...
...
...
..
76
F
igu
r
e 4
.
2
:
M
a
p showi
ng fo
ur
Loca
l
Govern
ment
s of Qgoni
la
nd
...
.
...
...
....
...
..
...
...
.... 79
Figure 4
.
3
:
Ma
p of So
uth
Afr
ica sho
wing all the prov
i
nces in the co
untrv
..
..
....
..
..
.
....
..
....
....
..
.
I
03
F
igure 4
.
4
:
Ma
p of No
rth
West Province showin
g Ma
ri
ka
na
..
..
..
....
.
.
..
..
..
...
..
...
..
...
..
..
I
07
A C
