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Yours, Mine, Ours, Theirs –
The Multidimensionality of Ownership and ‘Public’/‘Private’-Boundaries
in Places of Incessant (Public) Appropriation
Master Thesis
Kristina Habdank
11670797
kristina.habdank@gmail.com
Supervisor: Federico Savini
Second Reader: Maria Kaika
University of Amsterdam
Master of Science: Urban and Regional Planning
Submission Date: August 15, 2018
! ! ! ! Abstract! ! In#light#of#the#blurring#public-private#divide#in#theory#and#practice,#it#is#essential#to#not#only#define#potentially# new#types#of#space,#but#to#also#account#for#the#complexities#of#their#ownership#situation.#This#study#explores# properties#legally#owned#by#socially#motivated#private#actors#with#a#proclaimed#‘public#space’#purpose.#As#a# matter#of#working#definition,#they#are#referred#to#as#‘non-commodified,#privately#owned,#publicly#accessible# space’#(NCPOPAS).#By#grounding#the#research#in#an#intersected#commons#and#public#space#theory#lens,#while# also#drawing#upon#behavioural#psychology#and#property#theory,#a#framework#is#offered#that#acknowledges#the# multidimensionality#of#ownership.#Since#the#question#of#whom#space#‘belongs’#to,#particularly#in#complex#spaces# such# as# NCPOPAS,# cannot# be# rightfully# captured# by# a# one-dimensional# perspective# alone,# the# ‘Space# Ownership# System’# (SOS)# is# devised,# conceptually# entangling# legal# (passive/formal# situation),# operational# (actively# managing)# and# psychological# realms.# Drawing# upon# empirical# research# conducted# in# a# formerly# abandoned# train# station# in# Germany,# this# study# shows# how# sharing# operational# ownership# in# such# legally, privately# owned# properties,# per# default# at# risk# to# appear# somewhat# personalized# or# private,# may# not# only# succeed#in#bringing#about#the#impression#of#publicness.#It#can#also#allow#for#psychological#ownership#to#be# more#widely#shared,#making#users#feel#explicitly#welcome,#or#even#‘at#home’.#
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1## Introducing:!A!New!Kid!on!the!Block! 1# # 2## ! Word!By!Word:!A!Brief!Definition!of!‘NCPOPAS’! #3# # 3## ! Beyond!Dichotomies!of!‘Public’!and!‘Private’:!What!Type!of!Space!are!NCPOPAS?! #4# 3.1# Same#Same,#But#Different:#Private#Actors#For#Publicness#and#Their#Risks################# 4# 3.2# ‘Publicly’#Sharing#Operational#Ownership#As#a#Solution?############################################ 7# # 4# ! Grasping!Complexity!in!a!Triangle:!the!Space!Ownership!System!(SOS)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! #7# 4.1# Overview# 8# 4.2# Multidimensionality#in#Detail#–#Operationalizing#Ownership# 10# 4.2.1# Operational,and,Legal,Ownership,Contrasted,,#!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!############################!!!!!!!!!!!10# 4.2.2# Psychological,Ownership# 14# 4.3## Owning#Back#and#Forth:#Interdimensional#Relations################################################### 17# # 5# Research!Design! 18# 5.1# Methods#of#Data#Collection#and#Analysis#################################################################### 19# 5.2# Challenges#of#Investigating#Psychological#Ownership################################################ 21# # 6# ! Who!Owns!‘Utopiastadt’!–!and!In!Which!Dimension?##############################################! #22# 6.1# Overview:#Utopiastadt#as#NCPOPAS################################################################### 23# 6.2# Privately#Safeguarding#Public#Space:#Past#and#Present#Strategies############################ 26# 6.3# How#to#Become#A#Public#Place#################################################################################### 28# 6.4# (Perceived)#Accessibility#of#Operational#Ownership,#Upward#Mobility#and#Shared# Feelings#of#Ownership# 33# 6.4.1# Between,User,and,Operator:,Fluid,Boundaries,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 33# 6.4.2# Moving,Up,the,Operational,Ladder,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 36# 6.4.3# An,Open,Place,(f)or,Concrete,Identity,and,Belonging?,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 38# # 7# !Concluding!Remarks!!!! ##################################################################################################### # 41# # References! I# # Appendix! XII# # # # ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !List!of!Figures! # # # Figure#1:## Space#Ownership#System# # Author# 8# Figure#2:## Space#Owners,#Users#and#Commoners# # Author# 11# Figure#3:## Permeability#of#Boundaries#between#User#and#Owner#Position# # Author# 12# Figure#4:## # Legal#Owner#Involvement#in#Space#Regulation# Author# 14# Figure#5:# (Individual)#Psychological#Ownership# # Author# 15# Figure#6:## Collective#Psychological#Ownership# # Author# 16# Figure#7:## # Research#Foci# Author# 19#
Figure#8:## Wuppertal#Districts,#Utopiastadt# Immobilienscout24#
(2018)1,#black#indications# by#KH# # 24# Figure#9:## Scheme#of#prospective#Campus#area,#Mirke#station#building,# Nordbahntrasse# #
Utopiastadt,# in#Eickhoff# &# Gräwe#(2016,#p.#69)2#
24# Figure#10:## Legal#Ownership#Structure#Mirke#station#building#
#
Author# 27#
Figure#11:## Scheme# indicating# station# building,# current# Campus# area,# baggage# handling# building,# urban# gardening,# Nordbahntrasse## # Weiland#&#Wunder#(2016,# p.#40)3# # 27# Figure#12:## # Legal#Owner#Involvement#in#Space#Regulation:#Mirke#station#building# # Author# 36# Figure#13:## # Operational#Ownership#Structure#Utopiastadt# Author# 37# # # # # !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1#Available#at#https://www.immobilienscout24.de/wohnen/nordrhein-westfalen,wuppertal/mietwohnungen.html;#last#retrieved# August#14,#2018.### 2#Eickhoff,#A.#&#Gräwe,#C.#(2016).#Utopiastadt#in#Wuppertal,#StadtBauwelt,#107(24),#68-70.## 3#Weiland,#A.#L.#&#Wunder,#M.#(2016).#UtopiaSTADT.,Städtebaulich-freiraumplanerisches,Entwicklungskonzept,für,das, ehemalige,Güterbahnhof-Areal,in,Wuppertal.#Unpublished#Bachelor#Thesis,#Hochschule#Ostwestfalen-Lippe.# #
# # # # # # # # Picture#1:## Station#building#photographed#from#city-facing#side# # Sondermann,#W.#(n.d.) 4# 22#
Picture#2:# Station# building# photographed# from# Campus# area,#
separated#by#Nordbahntrasse## #
Author# 23#
Picture#3:# Aerial# photo# indicating# station# building,# terrace,# urban# gardening,#Nordbahntrasse,#Campus## # Fotoflug.de#(n.d.)5# 24# Picture#4:# Indoor#area#café## # # Pacher,#S.#(2018)6# # 29# Picture#5:# Indoor#area#café# # Author# 29# Picture#6:# Campus#area,#Nordbahntrasse,#terrace# # Author# 31# Picture#7,#8:# Campus#area,#Nordbahntrasse,#terrace# # # 32# Picture#9:## Campus# # Author# 34#
Picture#10:# Nordbahntrasse,#Campus## Author#
# 34# Picture#11:# Nordbahntrasse#and#Campus,#Greenpeace-Giftbox## # Author# 34# Picture#12,#13:## Flyer# # Author# 35# Picture#14,#15:# Utopists#sitting#in#front#of#the#‘bike#repair#cage’# # Author## 39# # # # !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4Available#at#https://www.clownfisch.eu/tag/ausschreibung/#/03/19/die-sanierung-steht-in-den-startloechern/;#last#retrieved# August#14,#2018.### 5#Available#at#https://www.luftbild.de/2016/06/luftbild-wuppertal-mirker-bahnhof/;#last#retrieved#August#14,#2018.#### 6#Available#at#http://need-ful-things.de/nft-12/;#last#retrieved#August#14,#2018.##
1! Introducing:!A!New!Kid!on!the!Block!
! In#present#times#of#neoliberal#austerity#measures#and#entrepreneurial#urban#development,#some#argue#that# within#a#process#of#mounting#spatial#commodification#and#enclosure,#the#existence#of#non-commodified#public# space#is#decreasing#(for#instance#Harvey,#2012;#Cybriwsky,#1999).#While#there#has#recently#been#much#criticism# in#the#media#and#scientific#community#about#trends#of#a#presumed#‘privatization’#of#formerly#‘public’#areas,# especially#regarding#privately#owned#public#spaces#(also#known#as#‘POPS’7)#(Hunt#&#Guardian#Readers,#2017;# Garrett,#2017;#Shenker,#2017;#Németh#&#Schmidt,#2011;#Nemeth,#2009;#Mitchel,#2003;#Cybriswky,#1999),#rather# little#attention#has#been#devoted#to#potential#counter-practices.#The#dominant#discourse#climate#also#helps#to# solidify#a#dichotomous#distinction#between#‘public’#and#‘private’#actors,#which#tends#to#oversimplify#the#latter# category#and#equal#it#with#commercial#market#interest.#Consequently,#the#academic#discussion#on#whether# ‘private’#management#of#public#spaces#will#decrease#the#quality#of#the#latter,#mainly#addresses#cases#of#this# particular#type#of#actor,#overlooking#another#emerging#‘private’,#but#non-commercially#oriented#one.#In#an#already# remarkable#number#of#cases#across#Europe,#often#with#the#help#of#solidarity-based#funding#models,#groups#of# engaged#individuals#legally#acquire#vacant#or#underused#buildings,#aiming#to#permanently#move#them#off#the# speculative#market#and#put#them#to#societally#beneficial#use#(see#for#instance#MSUR,#2018;#Patti#&#Polyák,#2017).# Their# consciousness# about# socio-spatially# unjust# mechanisms# of# ‘accumulation# by# dispossession’# (Harvey,# 2004)#and#their#approach#to#resist#them#by#collectively#creating#and#sustaining#resources#in#a#mode#outside#of# market#forces#and#the#conventional#political#realm#(Harvey,#2012;#Bollier,#2009,#2008;#De#Angelis,#2003)#places# them#at#the#heart#of#contemporary#urban#commons#theory.#While#the#inventory#of#these#kinds#of#places#shows# considerable#variety,#many#of#them#are#characterised#by#rather#clear-cut#purposes#involving#a#limited#group#of# people,#such#as#providing#affordable#spaces#for#community#housing#(i.e.#from#a#commons#perspective:#Enright# &#Rossi,#2018;#Notermann,#2016;#Bunce,#2015;#Hojer#Bruun,#2015;#Huron,#2015;#furthermore#Moore#&#McKee,# 2012)#or#co-working#(Enright#&#Rossi,#2018).## Yet,#one#can#also#witness#an#increasing#number#of#places#that#attempt#to#provide#‘public#space’#(for#instance# MSUR,#2018;#Patti#&#Polyák,#2017),#which,#as#a#matter#of#working#definition,#will#subsequently#be#termed#‘non-commodified,#privately#owned#publicly#accessible#space’#(NCPOPAS).#Public#space#has#occasionally#been# discussed#from#a#commons#perspective,#but#mainly#normatively,#calling#to#appropriate#the#whole#city#as#a# commons#in#a#Lefebvrian#‘right#to#the#city’#perspective#(for#instance#Susser#&#Tonnelat,#2013;#Harvey,#2012).#It# seems#that#contemporary#commons#scholarship#tends#to#generally#occupy#itself#more#with#devising#normative# aspirations#of#open#access#and#all-inclusiveness,#than#probing#‘the#workings#of#actual#practiced#commons’# (Hojer#Bruun,#2015,#p.#154;#similar#Foster#&#Iaione,#2016).#Unquestioningly,#their#aspirations#stand#in#marked# contrast#to#traditional#commons,#which,#due#to#their#principal#interest#for#scarce#natural#resources#(see#Ostrom,# 1990),#were#‘often#highly#exclusionary#and#deeply#concerned#about#boundary-making‘#(Blomley,#2008,#p.#327).# However,#also#contemporary,#or#‘new’#commons#(Ostrom#&#Hess,#2007,#p.#15),#are#by#no#means#inherently# societally#‘good’#or#inclusive#(Kalb,#2017;#Harvey,#2012).## Attention#to#potential#discrepancies#between#self-ascribed#characteristics#and#reality#is#thus#warranted#all#the# more#if#commons#can#be#expected#to#gain#durable#societal#influence8.#Commons#are#characterized#first#and# foremost#by#a#‘doing’-kind#of#understanding#of#ownership#–#space#‘belongs’#to#those#who#use#it#(Bradley,#2015;# !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7#This#term#is#applied#in#the#following#as#a#general#abbreviation#also#when#discussing#sources#which#may#not#make#use#of#it.# 8#Hojer#Bruun#(2015),#for#instance,#finds#in#her#study#on#Danish#housing#cooperatives#–#purportedly#providing#open#access#over# time#to#what#at#one#point#can#only#be#used#by#some#–#that#in#reality#they#operate#more#like#one#of#the#limited-access#commons# advanced#in#traditional#commons#theory,#with#connections#to#like-minded#people#already#living#there#being#indispensable.#Bresnihan#&#Byrne,#2015).#And#while#the#acquisition#of#sustained#legal,ownership#is#relatively#new#for#commons# in#general,#NCPOPAS#still#differ#from#the#above-mentioned#examples.#In#collective#housing,#for#instance,#legal# ownership#rights#are#more#or#less#equally#shared,among#all#commoners.#Similarly,#for#the#majority#of#urban# commons,#which#will#continue#to#operate#entire#‘illegally’,#such#as#many#urban#gardening#cases,#all#participants# are#alike#in#that#respect.#NCPOPAS,#by#contrast,#are#about#providing#urban#‘public’#space#to#a#theoretically# unlimited#amount#of#people,#while#legal#ownership#rights#will#naturally#pertain#on#part#of#only#some.##
According# to# the# researcher’s# impressions,# which# stem# from# an# engagement# with# the# work# of# initiatives# spreading#knowledge#on#cases#of#‘real#estate#for#the#common#good’#(MSUR,#2018;#similar#Patti#&#Polyák,#2017),# as#well#as#personal#observations,#there#are#a#few#more#idiosyncrasies#that#bring#NCPOPAS#under#one#roof.#At# the#same#time,#they#set#them#apart#from#more#‘conventional’#public#spaces9.#First,#NCPOPAS#are#jointly#regulated# –#or,‘operationally’#owned,#as#it#will#be#framed#in#this#paper#–#by#individuals#with#and#without#legal#ownership# rights#to#the#property.#These#operators#are,#second,#frequently#present#in#the#space,#which#is#hence#provided# in#a#quite#direct#and#personal#manner#as,#third,#publicly#accessible.#Fourth,#users#are#encouraged#to#actively# shape#it#too,#be#it#by#means#of#small-scale#acts#of#temporal#physical#appropriation,#or#in#more#impactful#and# institutionalized#ways,#accordingly#gaining#operational#ownership#as#well.## # This#complex#situation#would#allow#for#many#different#research#angles,#and#one#could,#for#instance,#probe# whether#the#situation#of#legal#ownership#rights#pertaining#only#on#part#of#only#some,of#the#operational#owners# may#create#new#or#solidify#already#existing#hierarchies#among#them.#However,#given#this#paper’s#principal# interest#in#publicness/privateness#delineations,#it#is#a#different#kind#of#potential#power#asymmetry#that#will#chiefly# be#explored:#that#between#all#those#of#operational,ownership#–#be#it#legally#backed#or#not#–#and#the#space’s# users10.#
It# seems# reasonable# that# users-turning-operational# owners# could# reduce# the# risk# of# too# much# spatial# personalization#and#dominant#appearance#of#a#specific#group,#provided#that#barriers#to#join#are#low,#and#equally# so#for#a#wide#diversity#of#users.#Yet,#this#participation#might#also#be#relevant#on#another#level,#potentially#creating# a#feeling,of#‘publicly’#shared#ownership#that#emotionally#goes#much#beyond#perceiving#a#place#as#‘public’.#While# research#on#what#is#introduced#as#third#dimension#of#‘psychological#ownership’#suggests#a#close#dependency# on#operational#ownership#(e.g.#Pierce#et#al.,#2001),#one#may#ponder#that#already#knowing,about#possibilities,to# get#involved#could,#if#communicated#effectively#and#perceived#as#honest,#cause#users#to#behave#more#‘homely’.# However,#the#risk#of#a#place#being#treated#less#‘public’#and#more#‘private’#(‘theirs’)#by#some#than#by#others#does# not#only#pertain#to#the#broader#level#between#operational#owners#and#space#users,#but#also#among#more#and# less#audaciously#appropriating#types#of#the#latter#group11.#Given!this!context,!the!overarching!aim!of!this!thesis!
is! to! investigate! the! relationship! between! its! two! main! analytical! concepts,! ownership! –! particularly! in! its! operational!and!psychological!dimensions!–!and!publicness,!in!more!detail.#Special#attention#will#be#devoted#to# the#question#whether#NCPOPAS#may#succeed#in#bringing#about#publicness#by#means#of#the#above-mentioned# strategies,#and#if,#how,#and#on#part#of#whom#feelings#of#ownership#may#emerge.## # !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 9#These#are#understood#here#as#typically#outdoors#with#unrestricted#access#and#entirely#formalized#in#their#regulation,#the#actors#of# which#(be#it#public#or#private#commercial)#are#more#or#less#‘invisible’.#The#term#‘formal’#is#understood#as#‘backed#by#legal#rights’,# and#not#to#be#confused#with#an#institutionalization#of#management#practices.## 10#To#highlight#that#the#space#operators#are#also,frequent#users#(‘direct/personal’#mode#of#space#regulation),#the#term#‘simple#space# users’#is#introduced,#albeit#it#may#not#be#pervasively#applied.## 11#The#study#of#another#potentially#occurring#hierarchy,#that#between#current#and#potential,users#is#beyond#the#scope#of#this#paper.#
To#better#analytically#account#for#the#given#circumstances,#a#three-dimensional#‘space#ownership#system’#(SOS)# will# be# developed.# Just# like# Lefebvre# (1991)# has# argued# that# the# production, of# space# can# only# be# truly# understood#through#the#lens#of#three#interrelated#yet#distinct#dimensions,#it#is#brought#forward#that#also#space# ownership,incorporates#various#dimensions.#While#all#three#of#them,#as#introduced#above#–#legal,#operational# and#psychological#–#,#have#been#more#or#less#explicitly#recognized#and#discussed#before,#they#are#rarely#clearly# delineated,#contrasted#and#at#the#same#time#seen#and#thought#together#in#ways#they#may#influence#each#other# and/or#overlap.## # The#structure#of#this#thesis#is#as#follows:#First,#the#components#of#the#working#definition#‘NCPOPAS’#are#dissected# (chapter#2).#Then,#disputing#recent#reconceptualizations#of#‘publicness’,#light#is#shed#on#spatial#‘hybridizations’# in# terms# of# actors# and# functions.# NCPOPAS# are# situated# in# the# debate,# and# particularities# highlighted# that# potentially#make#it#more#challenging#for#them#to#(durably)#convey#‘publicness’#(chapter#3.1).#Subsequently,# strategies#to#nevertheless#achieve#a#public#character#are#briefly#introduced,#as#well#as#their#connection#to# feelings#of#ownership#(chapter#3.2),#leading#over#to#the#discussion#of#the#SOS#as#an#analytical,concept#(chapter# 4).#After#a#brief#overview#(4.1),#the#dimensions#are#conceptualised#and#operationalized#individually#(4.2.1,#4.2.2)# and# then# debated# in# their# relations# (4.3),# exemplifying# them# along# the# lines# of# NCPOPAS.# Thereupon,# an# explanation#of#the#research#design#and#methodology,#as#well#as#a#specification#of#the#research#questions#is# provided.#Empirically,#the#paper#operates#against#the#backdrop#of#the#case#study#‘Utopiastadt’#in#the#German# town#of#Wuppertal,#a#formerly#abandoned#train#station#that#has#been#widely#acclaimed#for#its#diversity#and# abundant#participatory#features#(chapter#5).#After#a#detailed#discussion#of#its#findings#(chapter#6),#the#paper# concludes#with#a#few#additional#reflections#and#suggestions#for#further#research#(chapter#7).## #
2! Word!by!Word:!A!Brief!Definition!of!‘NCPOPAS’!
# The#term#‘non-commodified,#privately#owned#publicly#accessible#space’#(NCPOPAS)#is,#first,#meant#to#set#it# apart#from#commercially#motivated#owners#or#managers.## It#thus,#second,#connects#to#the#debate#on#POPS,#and#at#the#same#calls#for#reflection#on#the#adequacy#of#terms# such#as#‘common’#or#‘collective’#ownership#and#property.#Particularly#the#commons-typical#antipathy#to#the#term# ‘private’,#as#for#instance#expressed#in#calls#to#‘prevent#the#privatisation#or#appropriation#of#commons#by#either# private#or#public#actors’#(Aernouts#&#Ryckewaert,#2017,#p.#3),#is#challenged.#According#to#Hamill#(2012),#Ostrom# relies#on#the#‘conventional’#property#typology,#in#which#‘common#property’#is#contrasted#from#‘private#property’# (i.e.#‘individual’)#only#by#means#of#owner#group#size.#If#wishing#to#account#for#how#the#‘right#to#exclude#others# has#often#been#cited#as#the#most#important#characteristic#of#private#property'#(Rose,#1968,#p.#711),#one#might# thus#choose#another#classical#typology,#devised#by#Macpherson#(1978),#according#to#which#‘[p]rivate#property# concerns#an#individual's#(or#individual#legal#entity's)#exclusive#rights#to#make#use#of#a#private#good,#such#as#a# parcel#of#land’#(Eidelmann,#2016,#p.#123).#As#will#be#elucidated#in#chapter#4,#‘property’#is#by#no#means#dependent# of#having#formal#rights,#and#traditional#commons#could,#on#these#grounds,#be#qualified#as#private.#For#many# contemporary#commons#of#course,#this#would#be#cynical,#given#that#activists#may#truly#wish,to#be#open#and# inclusionary.## Although#in#line#with#scholars#such#as#Chiodelli#(2015)#and#Blomley#(2008;#2005)#it#is#argued#that#a#simple#public-private#divide#cannot#capture#real-life#complexities#of#ownership,#one#needs#to#remain#attentive#to#what#ultimately# lies#behind#‘third’#categories.#This#has#been#exemplified#for#housing#communities#(Hojer#Bruun,#2015).#But#even# with#‘publicness’#ranging#among#NCPOPAS’#principal#goals,#one#should#recall#that#these#places#are#still#legally#owned#by#private#entities,#for#which#public#access#and#use#may#ultimately#be#less#a#naturalness#than#for#POPS.# This#shall#briefly#be#elucidated#in#more#detail.#For#funding#reasons,#but#also#to#durably#safeguard#buildings#for# societally# beneficial# use# (MSUR,# 2018;# Patti# &# Polyák,# 2017),# NCPOPAS# may# adopt# legal# forms# that# are# embedded#in#wider#frameworks,#such#as#heritable#building#rights#contracts#(Brahm#&#Schliesser,#2014)#or#the# ‘Mietshäusersyndikat’#(‘tenement#syndicate’)#(Balmer#&#Bernet,#2015).#Here,#the#power#to#exclude#certain#groups# or#to#switch#to#an#entirely#private#use#of#the#building#would#typically#be#hampered#by#contract#conditions#and,# in#the#case#of#a#Mietshäusersyndikat,#diversified#decisional#structures.#If#the#legal#ownership#structure#is#more# simple,# purposes# might# as# well# be# inscribed# directly# in# a# corporate# form# –# such# as# that# adopted# by# the# ‘Utopiastadt’#case#study#for#part#of#its#legal#ownership#structure#(gGmbH,#i.e.#‘gemeinnützige#GmbH’,#‘non-profit# limited#liability#company’).#Yet,#in#all#these#cases,#extensive#public#access#and#usage#can#be#expected#to#be# seldom#prescribed,#eventually#making#them#a#privilege#of#potentially#only#temporal#character.# While#it#is#thus#advised#to#not#merely#refer#to#NCPOPAS#as#‘civic’#initiatives,#their#legal#character#may#still#be# done#better#justice#by#subdividing#the#‘private#ownership’#category#a#little#further.#To#elucidate#variations#in# internal#structures,#terms#like#‘private#collective#legal#ownership’#could#be#devised#for#constructs#that#disperse# decision-making#power#–#such#as#cooperatives#(‘If#The#Commons#Is’,#2007),#the#Mietshäusersyndikat,#or#the# gGmbH-association# entanglement# chosen# for# Utopiastadt.# Expressions# such# as# ‘(non-)commercial’,# respectively#‘(non-)commodified’#may#be#added#to#reflect#a#property#owner’s#(non-)economic#motivation#(as#for# instance# engrained# in# the# ‘gGmbH’# form).# NCPOPAS# formal# character# could# then# be# qualified# as# ‘non-commodified#private#collective#legal#ownership’.# Despite#acknowledging#the#multidimensionality#of#ownership,#it#is#the#legal#situation#that#is#accounted#for#in#the# working#definition,#given#that#the#term#‘ownership’#still#most#commonly#is#associated#with#this#dimension#and#its# ultimate#decisiveness#in#Western#societies.#It#is#also#meant#to#highlight#that#for#NCPOPAS,#the#public/private-characterization#of#the#other#two#dimensions#(operational#and#psychological)#yet#precisely#remain#to#be#explored# –#with#the#perceived#permeability#of#the#operational#one#being#expectedly#decisive#for#a#place’s#publicness.# This#directly#connects#to#the#ways#in#which,#third,#the#term#NCPOPAS#does#not#blindly#accept#the#self-ascribed# ‘public#space’#quality,#but#resorts#to#a#more#neutral,#descriptive#term#in#order#to#be#able#to#critically#challenge# this#claimed#purpose#and#allow#for#a#more#open#exploration#of#a#place’s#character.## #
3! Beyond!Dichotomies!of!‘Public’!and!‘Private’:!What!Type!of!Space!are!NCPOPAS?!
! 3.1! Same!Same,!But!Different:!Private!Actors!For!Publicness!and!Their!Risks! ! The#recent#surge#of#private#actor#involvement#in#public#space#provision#was#greeted#with#a#wall#of#criticism# specifically#due#to#their#corporate#nature,#fearing#the#extension#of#commodity#imperatives#into#the#public#realm# (Smithsimon,#2008;#Schmidt,#2004)#and#a#prioritization#of#profit#making#and#cleanliness#(Mitchell,#2003).#These# were#frequently#accused#to#endanger#democratic#values#typically#associated#with#public#spaces#(e.g.#Harvey,# 2012;#Banerjee,#2001;#Cybriwsky,#1999),#which#are#seen#to#involve#all-inclusiveness,#intermingling#of#different# social#groups#(Low#&#Smith,#2006;#Watson,#2006)#and#the#free#expression#of#opinion#(Kohn,#2004).## # Nonetheless,#as#has#been#subsequently#pointed#out#(see#especially#Langstraat#&#Van#Melik,#2013;#Németh#&# Schmidt,# 2011;# De# Magalhães,# 2010;# Varna# &# Tiesdell,# 2010),# this# pessimistic# view# of# non-governmental# involvement#in#public#space#governance#is#flawed#in#several#ways.##First,#seemingly#endangered#functions#of#‘public#space’#have#long#been#criticized#for#being#idealistic,#and#in# reality#often#largely#unattainable.#Particularly#the#idea#of#all#social#groups#feeling#equally#welcome,#respectively# the#sheer#possibility#of#any#space#ever#being#universally#inclusive#has#been#depicted#as#unrealistic#(Mitchell,# 2003;# Young,# 1990),# but# also# the# occurrence# of# intergroup# communication# in# the# first# place,# let# alone# a# harmonious# negotiation# of# differences# (Wiesemann,# 2015;# Amin,# 2008;# Valentine,# 2008;# Hajer# &# Reijndorp,# 2001).#Lofland#(1998),#with#her#concept#of#‘parochial#realm#territories’,#has#for#instance#pointed#out#that#public# space,#rather#than#resembling#a#neutral#meeting#place,#is#likely#to#be#appropriated#by#certain#groups.#In#line# with#Obermaier#(1980,#p.#1,#translated#by#KH),#in#this#paper#‘spatial#appropriation’#is#understood#as#a#'process# aimed#at#self-determinedly#dealing#with#the#physical#environment,#which#means#not#only#adapting#to#the#given# behavioural#possibilities,#but#also,#and#essentially,#an#active#engagement#with#the#environment,#influencing#the# design# of# physical# conditions# and# social# processes'.# The# normative# character# of# these# conventional# conceptualizations#of#public#space#is#also#problematized#in#general#in#that#it#fails#to#account#for#different#opinions# about#which#function(s)#a#space#should#mainly#serve.#Long#lists#of#‘desirable’#functions,#ranging#from#democratic# activity#to#passive#recreation#(Worpole#&#Knox,#2007;#Marcuse,#2005;#Young,#2000;#Banerjee,#2001),#are#almost# impossible#to#be#fulfilled#all#at#once#and#may#in#fact#rather#conflict.#Furthermore,#subjective#viewpoints#on#what# open#and#inclusive#interaction#may#look#like#are#also#likely#to#diverge#(Németh#&#Schmidt,#2011).##
Second,# ‘publicness’# in# these# traditional# public# space# conceptualizations,# tends# to# be# mono-dimensionally# interpreted#along#the#lines#of#legal#ownership#only,#as#for#instance#pointed#out#by#Langstraat#&#Van#Melik#(2013),# Németh#&#Schmidt#(2011),#De#Magalhães#(2010)#and#Varna#&#Tiesdell#(2010).#It#is#directly#concluded#from#the# type#of#actor#(‘who?’)#to#a#management#mode#(‘how?’),#without#actually#empirically#testing#this#presumed#causal# connection#(Németh#&#Schmidt,#2011).#The#critical#claims#about#private#actor#involvement#are#thus#largely#based# on#ethical#assumptions#about#public#ownership#and#state#control,#such#as#transparency,#accountability#and#the# aim#and#ability#to#promote#social#equity#and#inclusion,#which#do#not#necessarily#hold#true#(Carmona#et#al.,#2008;# Hajer#&#Reijndorp,#2001;#Zukin,#1995).#Furthermore,#this#dichotomist#perspective#also#tends#to#associate#private# (legal)#ownership#not#only#with#private#access,#but#also#with#activities#of#private#nature#(being#part#of#the#private# life#of#individuals,#De#Magalhães#&#Freire#Trigo,#2017)#on#one#pole#of#a#continuum,#and#public#ownership,#as# inherently#connected#to#‘public’#activities,#on#the#other.#This#however#is#a#conflation#of#various#concepts#that#are# not#necessarily#connected#(Kirby,#2008;#Staeheli#&#Mitchell,#2008;#Blomley,#2005)#and#also#fails#to#capture#the# general#blurring#of#traditional#public-private#boundaries#in#increasingly#occurring#multiform#‘hybridizations’#of# space#(Langstraat#&#Van#Melik,#2013;#Kohn,#2004).# Langstraat#&#Van#Melik#(2013),#Németh#&#Schmidt#(2011),#De#Magalhães#(2010)#and#Varna#&#Tiesdell#(2010)# accordingly#perceive#it#as#pressing#need#to#refocus#the#debate,#about#what#public#space#can#and#should#do,# on#‘publicness’#as#its#central#ontological#attribute,#and#reconceptualise#the#latter#in#ownership-independent# ways.#Consequently,#these#scholars#offer#more#multifaceted#understandings#of#publicness#that#try#to#keep#the# normative#component#to#a#minimum.#Albeit#with#different#foci,#emphasis#and#also#slightly#different#terminology,# they#can#be#seen#to#share#the#two#central#attributes#of#accessibility#and#inclusiveness.#Accessibility#is#about#the# rights#of#access#(De#Magalhães,#2010)#and#a#place’s#physical#configuration#(the#effort#it#takes#to#enter,#a#place’s# ‘macro#design’),#the#latter#of#which#can#be#further#differentiated#into#centrality,#connectivity,#visual#access#and# thresholds/gateways#(Varna#&#Tiesdell,#2010).#Inclusiveness#looks#into#how#open#and#welcoming#a#place#is#to#a# wide#variety#of#users#and#uses,#brought#about#by#management#practices#(‘micro-design’)#(Varna#&#Tiesdell,# 2010).## # Subsequently,#Langstraat#&#Van#Melik#(2013)#and#Németh#&#Schmidt#(2011)#have#set#out#for#a#practice#test.#
Conducting#empirical#studies#in#the#UK#and#the#Netherlands,#respectively#the#US,#the#researchers#find#no#clear-cut#relation#between#private#ownership#and/or#management#and#publicness.#However,#albeit#the#scholars,#in# contrast#to#the#formerly#criticized#studies,#also#study#management#practices,#they#still#refrain#from#analysing#the# places’#actual#usage,#despite#being#perceived#as#vital#by#Németh#&#Schmidt#themselves#(2011).#The#latter#also# advise#future#scholars#to#explore#users’#subjective#viewpoints,#since#also#in#the#case#of#apparently#‘diverse’# groups#present,#some#may#still#feel#less#welcome#than#others.#Upon#assessing#publicness#for#the#case#study,#it# will#thus#briefly#looked#into#both:#the#diversity#of#users#and#their#personal#perception#of#the#place’s#publicness.# What#Németh#&#Schmidt’s#(2011)#US#study#does#however#find#is#that,#although#both#publicly#and#(commercially)# privately#owned#(and#managed)#public#spaces#seem#to#encourage#public#use#and#access#in#an#equally#strong# manner,# managers# of# POPS# tend# to# employ# more# means# to# control# behaviour, within# those# spaces.# While# surveillance,#but#also#more#overt#policing#techniques#would#essentially#contradict#the#open#and#non-hierarchical# atmosphere# conceived# for# NCPOPAS# and# may# thus# not# be# expected,# the# potential# occurrence# of# design# measures#that#‘code'#spaces#as#more#‘personal’,#cannot#be#brushed#away#that#easily.##
#
The# intense# engagement# of# their# operators,# particularly# the# sub-group# that# has# fought# to# acquire# legal# ownership,#will#likely#be#rooted#in#some#personal#or#collective#to-be-realized#vision#for#the#configuration#of#such# an#attempted#open#space.#By#contrast,#in#more#conventional#public#spaces,#the#adoption#of#management#or# ownership#duties#for#squares#or#parks#by#private#parties#is#often#motivated#by#zoning#incentives#for#adjacent# properties#(Huang#&#Franck,#2018;#Németh#&#Schmidt,#2011).#One#may,#accordingly,#ponder#that#a#potential# reason#for#why#the#above-mentioned#studies#found#private#ownership#and/or#management#not#to#be#detrimental# for#‘publicness’,#could#also#be#that#there#was#no#marked#interest#in#the#space#itself.,,
Therefore,# even# if# NCPOPAS’# initiators# may# truly# aim#to# bring# about# publicness,# simply# assuming# they# will# succeed#in#fulfilling#the#criteria#of#accessibility#and#inclusiveness#is#problematic#for#several#reasons.#First,#the# combination#of#an#largely#inside#nature#and#the#‘safety’#brought#about#by#holding#legal#ownership#rights#for#that# property# in# general# may# be# conducive# to# a# degree# of# ‘personal’# space# appropriation# going# beyond# that# presumably#occurring#for#any#other#non-legally#backed#commons#(e.g.#urban#gardening#on#a#plot#temporarily# ‘abandoned’#by#the#legal#owner).#Some#degree#of#personal#design#taste#and#imprint#will#quite#‘naturally’#emerge# in#the#process#of#arranging#objects,#constructing#and#decorating#what#has#previously#been#an#empty#place.## Second,#an#indoor#location#does#not#only#generate#additional#accessibility#boundaries,#but#at#the#same#time# allows#for#the#creation#of#a#relatively#intense#atmosphere.#Hence,#the#emergence#of#what#Allen#(2006,#p.#441)# has#termed#‘ambient#power’#may#not#be#entirely#preventable:#a#particular#atmosphere#‘that#effectively#closes# down#options,#enticing#visitors#to#circulate#and#interact#in#ways#that#they#might#not#otherwise#have#chosen’.## Third,#allowing#for#a#wide#variety#of#users#and#uses#will#also#be#brought#about#by#diversified#offers,#not#primarily# by#giving#access#to#an#blank#room.#And#even#though#these#offers,#as#well#as#the#place’s#physical#design,#as#will# be#exemplified#in#the#case#study,#may#be#somewhat#temporal,#fluid,#and#open#to#the#users’#co-creation,#each# NCPOPAS#will#most#likely#radiate#some#kind#of#‘particularity’.# Fourth,#given#their#motivational#background,#NCPOPAS#can#be#expected#to#at#least#tentatively#express#a#rather# (leftist)#political#stance.##
Lastly,# given# the# direct# mode# of# space# provision# and# management,# NCPOPAS# may# also# entail# the# risk# of# evaporating#some#sort#of#domination#by#a#particular#group.##
#
All#these#aspects#could#contribute#to#making#a#supposedly#‘public’#space#feel#less#inviting#to#some#users#than# others#–#and#also#impact#on#the#likelihood#for#them#to#feel#welcome#in#shaping#the#space#as#well.#However,# NCPOPAS’#operators#may#apply#strategies#to#combat#these#risks,#which#will#be#elaborated#on#in#the#following.##
3.2! ‘Publicly’!Sharing!Operational!Ownership!As!a!Solution?!!
!
Recent#reconceptualizations#of#‘publicness’#mainly#demand#accessibility#and#inclusiveness#of#a#place’s#offers.# Occasionally#it#is#emphasized#that#a#place#needs#to#range#outside#of#small#group#control#(Madanipour,#2003),# and#for#instance#De#Magalhães#(2010)#evokes#the#term#‘ownership’#as#a#mode#of#public#accountability#in#which# a# place# is# open# and# responsive# to# its# (potential)# users’# needs# and# demands.# Yet,# possibilities# for# direct# participation#in#its#management,#respectively#the#formation,of#these#offers,#is#not#demanded,#and#shared#control# understood#mainly#as#indirect#feedback,#with#‘public#space’#still#first#and#foremost#being,provided.# # For#NCPOPAS#however,#the#assumption#is#made#that#at#least#to#some#extent#effectively,diversified#control#(i.e.# internal#diversity#of#the#operational#ownership#dimension)#is#necessary#to#generate#the#impression#of#a#place#as# public#–#making#it#overall#less#‘particular’,#and#thereby#also#welcoming#to#a#wide#variety#of#users.### Furthermore,#a#significantly#permeable#second#dimension#(i.e.#accessibility#of#operational#ownership,#by#diverse# user#groups),#and#particularly#the#perception#of#current#operational#owners#being#truly#open#to#user#involvement,# might#even#bring#about#an#informal#‘sense’#of#‘publicly’#shared#ownership.#Psychological#ownership#however#is# a#complex#construct#and#research#suggests,#as#will#be#elaborated#in#detail#in#the#following#chapters,#that#its# emergence#entails#the#risk#of#developing#protective#emotions.#This#particularly#applies#for#strong#ownership# feelings#(Thorpe,#2018;#Blomley,#2005;#Brown#et#al.,#2005).#If#NCPOPAS#thus#encourage#spatial#appropriation,# but#at#the#same#time#aim#for#a#place#to#remain#open#to#the#projections#of#many,#its#operators#might#need#to#be# attentive#to#users#that#could#strive#to#make#areas#more#or#less#permanently#‘theirs’.#Given#that#psychological# ownership#is#assumed#to#fulfil#fundamental#human#needs#of#self-efficacy,#belonging#and#identity#(Pierce#et#al.,# 2001),#and#thereby#also#work#as#relevant#motivator#in#keeping#up#(voluntary)#engagement#(e.g.#Dawkins#et#al.,# 2017),#naturally#this#risk#likewise#applies#for#the#operator#group#–#despite#assumedly#shared#and#markedly# promoted#values#of#openness.#Eventually,#it#needs#to#be#investigated#if#there#will#be#a#trade-off#between#‘public’, extent#of#ownership#feelings#(and#publicness)#on#the#one#hand#and#their#intensity#on#the#other,#or#whether#there# may#be#ways#to#allow#for#a#balanced#emergence#of#both.#### #
4! Grasping!Complexity!in!a!Triangle:!the!Space!Ownership!System!(SOS)!
! The#structure#of#this#chapter#is#as#follows:#First,#the#three#dimensions#are#briefly#contrasted#in#order#to#explain# the#idiosyncratic#value#of#the#Space#Ownership#System#(SOS)#for#analysing#the#multidimensionality#of#space# ownership#in#general,#and#for#cases#of#legally-backed#commons#with#a#designated#‘public’#purpose#in#particular# (4.1).#The#dimensions#will#then#be#laid#out#more#detailed#and#operationalized#with#a#focus#on#aspects#of#particular# relevance# for# NCPOPAS# (4.2).# However,# while# legal# and# operational# ownership# both# essentially# refer# to# organizational#aspects#and#are#constructed#as#contrasting#backdrop#of#each#other#(4.2.1),#the#third#dimension# of# psychological# ownership# already# exists# as# a# distinct# concept# and# is# therefore# discussed# independently# (4.2.2).#The#relations#between#the#dimensions#will#shine#through#this#entire#chapter,#but#they#are#also#briefly# elaborated#on#separately,#with#a#focus#on#the#interplay#of#the#second#and#third#as#being#central#to#this#paper’s# research#interest#(4.3)# # # #4.1! Overview! ! ! # Figure#1:#Space#Ownership#System# ! # Although#the#SOS#logically#separates#the#three#dimensions,#it#is#also#meant#to#show#that#they#naturally#influence# each#other#and#may#overlap.#While#the#latter#aspect#–#individuals#being#part#of#more#than#on#dimension#–#might# be#better#visualized#in#overlapping#circles#(see#p.#14),#the#triangle#particularly#highlights#the#former,#reflecting# both-way#connections#and#feedback#mechanisms.## ! ‘Legal!ownership’!(D1)#is#conceptualized#in#a#very#clear-cut#manner#as#the#‘passive’#world#of#bare#formalities,# respectively#legally#granted#ownership(-like)#rights#to#a#property#(‘owning#on#paper’).## ! ‘Operational!ownership’!(D2)#is#understood#as#‘owning#by#ruling’#and#centrally#refers#to#the#world#of#agency.#It# accounts#for#a#space’s#actual#regulation,#the#enacted#powers#of#which#may#be#backed#by#the#aforementioned# legal#rights#–#in#which#case#D1#and#D2#would#overlap#–,#but#also#may#be#not.## # D2#and#D1#are#summarized#below#the#term#‘organizational#ownership’.## # ‘Psychological!ownership’!(D3),!or#‘owning#by#feeling’,#refers#to#a#sense#that#something#is#‘mine’#or#‘ours’#(see#
for# instance# Pierce# et# al.,# 2003).# Although# empirical# studies# discussed# in# chapter# 4.2.2# suggest# a# causal# dependency#on#operational#ownership,#with#‘control’#purportedly#being#the#most#promising#route#towards#its# emergence,#the#relation#is#not#straightforward#and#clear-cut.#Also#self-investment#and#intimate#knowledge#seem# to#play#a#role,#but#the#concrete#interplay#and#respective#importance#of#these#three#‘routes’#has#not#yet#been# entirely#clarified.#As#will#become#evident,#this#makes#its#operationalization#particularly#challenging#and#leaves# considerable# interpretative# scope# for# an# exploration# of# which# individuals# will# be# able# to# feel# ownership# in# NCPOPAS#in#the#first#place.#
While# the# SOS# can# be# configurated# for# any# kind# of# space,# it# is# especially# apt# to# cast# light# upon# complex# ownership#situations,#characterized#by#only#partial#(in)congruences#of#the#groups#of#individuals#forming#part#of# each#dimension,#in#contrast#to#more#‘coherent’#spaces.#As#typical#examples#of#the#latter#one#may#picture#the# situation# of# private# legal# home# ownership# on# the# one# hand# and# a# publicly# owned# and# managed# publicly# accessible#space#on#the#other.#The#former#shows#a#high#degree#of#congruence#of#all#three#dimensions:#residents# can#be#expected#to#be#part#of#all#of#them,#and#in#rather#corresponding#positions12.#The#latter#is#characterized#by# a#rather#high#degree#of#incongruence#since#the#managing#authorities#are#likely#to#differ#from#the#ultimate#legal# owner,#and#psychological#ownership#may#be#experienced#by#employees#taking#care#of#the#park#or#groups#of# users#that#make#corners#of#the#space#more#or#less#permanently#‘theirs’,#such#as#for#instance#homeless#people,# addicts#or#a#gang#of#youths13.##
NCPOPAS,# by# contrast,# can# be# understood# as# somewhat# ‘incoherent’# spaces.# They# show# complex# partial# (in)congruences,# stemming# from# a# situation# of# joint# space# regulation# by# individuals# with# and# without# legal# ownership#rights#to#a#property,#which#simple#space#users#are#encouraged#to#shape#as#well,#be#it#by#getting# involved#operationally#or#simply#by#conducting#small-scale#acts#of#appropriation.#One#may#further#ponder#that# even#without#them#actually#taking#on#any#of#these#‘offers’,#such#signalling#that#they#are#perceived#as#‘part’#of#a# place#could#evoke#feelings#of#ownership.#Yet,#this#precisely#is#one#of#the#aspects#to#be#tested#in#practice.## # Albeit#the#SOS#zooms#in#on#one#particular#aspect#of#specific#urban#localities#instead#of#urbanities#as#a#whole,#it# shares#considerable#common#ground#with#Lefebvrian#reasoning#not#only#in#its#concern#for#inclusionary#and# equitable#urban#environments,#but#also#in#promoting#the#need#for#conceptual#multidimensionality.## However,#Lefebvre’s#‘trinity’#of#conceived,#perceived#and#lived#space#is#meant#to#highlight#the#simultaneity,of# these#three#‘moments’,#which#‘(a)lthough#[they]#should#not#be#mixed#together,#they#cannot#be#separated.#Each#
implies#and#conceals#the#other,#sets#it#and#presupposes#it’#(Schmid,#2005,#p.#208,#translated#by#KH).#By#contrast,# although#the#SOS-triangle#is#intended#to#express#interactions#between#the#dimensions,#they#may#not#necessarily# all#be#‘activated’#in#the#first#place,#and#the#‘activation’#of#one#may#precede#that#of#another.#This#will#partially# depend#on#the#specific#case#in#question,#but#there#are#also#causal#connections#that#can#be#expected#to#be# specifically#strong#in#general:#as#will#become#evident#in#the#following,#the#emergence#of#psychological#ownership# seems#to#be#considerably#dependent#on#operational#ownership.#Also,#while#in#modern#Western#societies,#there# will#almost#always#be#a#legal#owner#of#a#property#(Chiodelli#&#Moroni,#2014),#there#are#instances#in#which#a#place# has#not#been#actively#regulated#and/or#used#for#some#time,#neither#by#the#legal#owner(s),#not#by#other#non-legally#backed#groups#or#individuals.#Since#personal#engagement#with#the#place#is#expected#to#be#a#central# predicament#for#the#development#of#psychological#ownership,#the#third#dimension#may#thus#also#be#largely# ‘empty’.#This#situation#would#describe#a#case#in#which#the#‘full’#account#of#a#place’s#ownership#structure#would# simply#equal#the#legal#one.# Notwithstanding,#although#there#is#no#conceptual#need,or#automatism#for#all#three#ownership#dimensions#to#be# activated,#such#a#situation#of#operational#(and#psychological)#‘ownership#vacancy’#may#–#at#first#glance#–#be# expected# to# occur# less# in# increasingly# popular# and# overcrowded# cities,# prompting# citizens# to# appropriate# whatever#un(der)used#space#there#may#be.#However,#demand#and#availability#do#not#necessarily#meet,#and# different#kinds,of#‘vacancy’#translate#into#radically#different#chances#for#civic#appropriation.#Scarce#municipal# resources#and#lacking#investor#interest#in#shrinking#cities#make#for#abandoned#buildings,#such#as#in#the#later# !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 12#This#applies#not#only#to#individual#home#ownership,#but#also#housing#cooperatives#and#other#forms#of#legally-secured#‘collective# housing’#recently#discussed#in#commons#theory.# 13#Nonetheless,#one#may#concede#that#also#these#people#are#operational#owners,#albeit#on#a#lower#hierarchical#level,#and#without# legal#backing,#see#D2().##
discussed#case#study,#which#fundamentally#contrasts#the#dynamics#in#‘global#cities’#and#the#ways#in#which# luxurious#properties#allegedly#built#for#housing#are#of#pure#exchange#value#(Sassen#in#De#Balie,#2017;#2005)14.## # Summing#up,#the#SOS#can,#first,#serve#to#highlight#dimensions#of#ownership#that#may#not#be#‘lived’#yet,#although# this#may#occur#for#fundamentally#different#reasons:#lacking#financial#and/or#civic#resources#in#shrinking#cities#or# extractivism#in#extremely#popular#urbanities.#Particularly#the#latter,#secondly,#also#serves#to#highlight#the#ultimate# decisiveness#of#legal#ownership,#often#attainable#only#for#the#rich#and#privileged.#Thirdly,#for#complex#case#such# as#NCPOPAS,#in#which#all#three#dimensions#are#activated#with#partially#evident#and#partially#expected#overlaps,# their#interplay#deserves#a#closer#look.## # While#an#overall#empirical#account#of#whom#NCPOPAS#are#ultimately#‘owned’#by#would#demand#a#separate# paper,#in#this#thesis#the#SOS#particularly#serves#as#analytical#lens#to#study#how#operational,and#psychological, ownership#relate#to#each#other.#This#interest#stems#from#the#assumption#that#the#second#dimension#is#of#crucial# importance# for# the# ‘activation’# of# the# third,# and# that# a# feeling# of# publicly# shared# ownership# resembles# the# assumed#ultimate#goal#of#NCPOPAS,#going#beyond#that#of#mere#‘publicness’.#As#nevertheless#other#routes# towards#shared#psychological#ownership#may#be#possible,#the#(inclusive)#accessibility,#or#what#may#be#termed# the#‘publicness.of.ownership’,#of#these#two#dimensions#needs#to#be#empirically#probed.#The#focus#is#thus#not# only#on#their#interdimensional#interplay,#but#also#on#their#‘openings’,#given#that#the#SOS#for#NCPOPAS,#qua# aspiration,#is#meant#to#be#a#permeable#system.## # # 4.2! Multidimensionality!In!Detail!–!Operationalizing!Ownership! ! 4.2.1! Operational#and#Legal#Ownership#Contrasted## ! It#seem#that#positioning#commons#first#and#foremost#in#opposition#to#presumed#encroachments#of#the#neoliberal# state#and#economy#(see#for#instance#Harvey,#2012;#Hardt#&#Negri,#2009;#Bollier,#2003,#2002)#somewhat#diverts# attention#from#potential#exclusionary#mechanisms#on#the#one#hand,#and#internal#power#hierarchies#on#the#other.# Particularly#with#regards#to#the#latter,#there#could#be#a#similar#effect#in#the#contemporary#commons-typical# understanding#of#‘ownership’.#While#it#shares#commonalities#with#the#second#SOS-dimension,#as#‘operational’#or# ‘the#world#of#practice’,#it#is#still#different#in#that#in#commons#theory,#‘spaces#(…)#belong#to#those#who,participate, in,and,make,use#of#them’#(Bresnihan#&#Byrne,#2015,#p.#44,#emphasis#KH).#Similarly,#Bradley#understands#urban#
commons# as# ‘not# primarily# defined# by# their# formal# ownership# but# by# how# citizens# use# them’# (2015,# p.# 91,# emphasis#KH).#Surely,#subsuming#all#into#one#category#of#‘commoners’#might#be#functional#in#acknowledging# each# participant’s# contribution# and# support# the# emergence# of# shared# ownership# feelings.# However,# no# commons#will#be#without#power#hierarchies,#and#a#generalized#understanding#of#‘owning#by#doing’#may#rather# compound#accounting#for#them.##
#
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
################ # # # Figure#2:#Space#Owners,#Users#and#Commoners# # # Assuming#that#they#will#be#of#central#importance#for#questions#around#psychological#ownership,#this#thesis# somewhat#fusions#the#normative#calls#for#open#access#and#inclusivity#central#to#contemporary#commons#theory# with#the#analytical#perspective#of#traditional#commons#scholarship.#As#mentioned#initially,#traditional#commons# theory#principally#engaged#with#actual#management#practices#for#natural#resources,#institutionalized#in#property# rights#regimes,#which#specify#all#potentially#relevant#rights#individuals#may#hold#to#a#property.#Typically,#these# were#ordered#hierarchically#in#a#‘bundle#of#rights’#–#defining#the#relationship#between#a#resource#and#one#or# more#titleholders#–,#ranging#from#access#(1)#and#use#(2)#rights#over#management#(3)#and#exclusion#(4)#rights#to# the#right#to#alienation#(5),#the#latter#of#which#describes#the#right#to#sell#one’s#management#and#exclusion#rights# (for#instance#Schlager#&#Ostrom,#1992).#The#rights#are#cumulative#in#nature,#i.e.#a#higher-level#one#entails#all# lower-level#ones,#with#a#person#(or#a#legal#entity)#holding#all#of#them#being#the#‘owner’#of#the#property#(see#also# Fennell,#2011;#Hamill,#2012)15.#Although#Ostrom#&#Hess#(2007)#do#not#make#explicit#why#they#frame#this#position# as#‘full#owner’,#it#presumably#accounts#for#the#fact#that#the#second#highest#position,#termed#‘proprietor’,#still# comes#with#extensive#rights#(1-4).#Furthermore,#one#can#assume#that#the#act#of#selling#a#property#(one’s#property# rights),#most#likely#is#a#contractual#one,#respectively#may#naturally#occur#in#a#de#jure#form#only.# It#becomes#evident#in#reflections#like#these#that#property#rights#regimes#can#account#for#de#jure#as#much#as#de# facto#‘rights’.#This#is#a#fundamentally#important#distinction#for#estimating#a#commons’#vulnerability#since#the# introduction#of#modern#capitalism#did#away#with#customs#having#the#force#of#law,#such#as#on#the#Old#English# open#fields#(Hojer#Bruun,#2015,#p.#161;#similar#Cheung,#2016).#Commons#scholars#usually#apply#the#term#‘rights’# in#general,#tending#to#remain#rather#blurry#(for#instance#Ostrom#&#Hess,#2007;#Schlager#&#Ostrom,#1992)#on# whether#the#extensively#discussed#‘common#property#regimes’#are#constructed#of#rights#‘authorized’#by#a#group# of#commoners#self-devised#rules#only,#or#whether#they#are#also,backed#in#some#de#jure#way.#Typically,#most# commons#(still)#only#dispose#of#de#facto#rights.#For#instance,#a#group#of#(technically#‘illegal’)#urban#gardeners# !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 15#It#becomes#evident#here#that#‘property’#is#not#an#‘all-or-nothing#concept’#(Fennell,#2011,#p.#14)#and#that#legal#ownership#does#not# refer#to#‘ownership#of#a#physical#good,#but#ownership#of#a#bundle#of#enforceable#rights’#(Eidelmann,#2016,#p.#122).#
exerting# power# over# a# plot# of# land# could# thus# be# categorized# as# ‘de# facto# proprietors’.# Yet,# while# largely# disregarding#the#question#of#legal#ownership#may#be#valuable#in#promoting#alternative#understandings#of#whom# resources#(should)#belong#to,#lacking#a#‘protective#legal#shell’#makes#commons#‘vulnerable#to#invasion#and# expropriation’#(‘If#The#Commons#Is’,#2007).## Market#co-optation#or#political#institutionalization#(Bresnihan#&#Byrne,#2015;#similar#see#Desimini,#2015,#Rosol,# 2012)#might#be#circumvented#with#the#help#of#solidarity-based#funding#models#that#enable#such#bottom-up# initiatives#to#acquire#full,legal#ownership#rights.#In#the#rather#recent#commons#cases#of#collective#housing,#a# resident#cooperative#could,#accordingly,#hold#‘de#jure#full#ownership’.#However,#as#explicated#in#chapter#2,#legal# forms#are#not#seldom#embedded#in#wider#frameworks.#In#this#context,#it#might#be#for#instance#a#non-speculative# foundation# that# occupies# the# ‘full# owner’# position# but# entrusts# those# populating# the# building# as# ‘de# jure# proprietors’#with#considerable#powers#for#extensive#periods#of#time#(e.g.#up#to#99#years#in#heritable#building#right# contracts,#Brahm#&#Schliesser,#2014).#Despite#their#differences#in#legal#safety,#both#this#latter#example#and#the# urban#gardening#one#share#two#central#features:#all#commoners#on#site#can#be#expected#to#hold#similar#bundles# of#rights,#and#these#will#either#all#be#of#de#jure#or#all#of#de#facto#character.## # NCPOPAS#deviate#in#both#these#aspects.#Firstly,#while#they#may#aim,to#allow#for#all#commoners#to#smoothly# move#upwards#in#the#bundle#of#rights#hierarchy,#it#remains#to#be#tested#whether#boundaries#between#simple# space#users#and#operational(-psychological)#owners#will#be#fluid#in#practice,#as#indicated#by#the#dotted#arrows# below16.## # # # Figure#3:#Permeability#of#Boundaries#between#User#and#Owner#Position# # !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 16#While#it#may#neither#be#the#norm,#nor#is#it#understood#as#a#necessary#criterion#for#a#place’s#overall#publicness,#the#case#study# ‘Utopiastadt’#also#serves#as#an#example#of#how#even#legal#ownership#rights#can#be#accessible#to#the#public.# #
The#most#important#distinction#in#the#light#of#this#paper’s#research#focus#is#thus#that#between#simple#space#users# and#operational#owners,#which#can#be#seen#to#parallel#Schlager#&#Ostrom’s#(1992)#differentiation#between#the# position#of#‘authorized#users’#on#the# one#hand,#entailing# only#access# and#use#rights,#and#the#three#higher# positions#of#the#bundle#on#the#other.#The#latter#have#been#grouped#together#already#by#Kiser#&#Ostrom#(1982)# as#‘collective-choice#rights’,#understood#as#such#that#ultimately#determine#access#and#use#rights.## ‘Operational!ownership’!is!hence!operationalized!as!incorporating!all!those!eventually!‘ruling’!over!how!space! can!be!accessed!and!used!–!by!themselves!and!others.#This#can#happen#by#means#of#setting#up#and#publicly# communicating#rules,#but#also#‘indirectly’,#simply#by#bringing#larger#physical#changes#to#the#environment.#For# NCPOPAS,!as#will#become#evident#in#the#case#study,#the#enactment#of#such#operational#powers#will#typically# occur#in#somewhat#planned#and#organized#ways#by#individuals#already#integrated#into#and#acknowledged#as# ‘part’#of#the#operational#owner#group.#Yet,#boundaries#to#the#category#of#simple#space#users#may#not#always#be# easy#to#draw.#While#the#latter#are#here#understood#as#involving#small-scale#acts#of#temporary#appropriation#(such# as#moving#around#a#chair),#some#more#audacious#individual#may#as#well#‘independently’#try#to#manoeuvre# themselves#into#the#operator#category.#Whether#this#entirely#self-devised#power#position#will#however#endure#or# just# pertain# for# a# fugitive# moment,# will# depend# on# the# reaction# of# the# already# institutionalized# and# overall# respected#operational#owners.#Naturally,#there#will#also#be#hierarchies#within#the#group#of#operational#owners,# but,#for#NCPOPAS,#differences#between#the#positions#of#‘claimant’#and#‘proprietor’#may#not#become#apparent#in# day-to-day#regulation.#Given#that#enacting#exclusionary#rights#is#contrary#to#their#central#purpose,#particularly#in# terms#of#directed#acts,of#removal#or#denying#access,#they#are#not#expected#to#play#any#role#apart#from#devising# a#building’s#opening#hours.## It#is#at#the#latest#when#pondering#about#the#right#to#alienation#that,#secondly,#it#becomes#evident#how#operational# ‘rights’#may,#but#also#may#not,#be#supported#legally.#And#it#is#also#rather#here#where#differences#between#the# three#collective-choice#rights#positions#may#play#out.#‘Legal! ownership’,! in! this! paper,! foremost! comprises!
individuals!in!the!highest!position!of!a!‘full!owner’!–!the!only!position!which!is!legally-backed!by!default!–!as! well!as!the!second-highest!of!a!de!jure!proprietor!(typically!a!tenant).!It#however#has#to#be#acknowledged#that#
there# are# variations# in# the# latter’s# degree# of# ‘safety’# (e.g.# high# for# Mietshäusersyndikates,# middle/low# for# conventional#apartment#tenancy).#Furthermore,#although#the#claimant#position#is#perceived#to#be#too#far#away# from#one#that#can#be#qualified#as#‘owner’(-like),#leaving#it#entirely#out#of#the#first#dimension#would#hamper#probing# the#impact#of#formally#contracted-out#management#of#parts#of#a#space.#For#NCPOPAS,#this#could#for#instance# be#a#local#community#initiative,#albeit,#as#will#be#shown#in#the#case#study,#a#more#likely#case#might#be#informally# allowing#them#to#use#that#space.#The#first#dimension#could,#accordingly,#also#be#read#as#‘legal#ownership#
structure’,# comprising# all# three# collective-choice# rights# positions,# although# only# the# two# highest# ones# are#
perceived#as#‘ownership-like’#in#a#narrower#sense.## # Contrasting#merely#operational#and#also#legally-backed#powers#thus#not#only#sheds#light#on#the#vulnerability#of# de#facto#forms#of#‘autonomy’,#but#also#enables#to#dissect#how#individuals#with#and#without#legal#ownership#rights# might#regulate#space#together#in#complex#ways.#The#SOS#logically#separates#these#two#dimensions,#the#latter# of#which#can#be#further#differentiated#into#D2()#and#D2(1):#operational#ownership#of#only#de#facto#or#of#(also)#de# jure#character.#D2(1)#would#reflect#the#overlap#of#both#these#dimensions#considered#as#typical#for#NCPOPAS,# albeit#the#degree#of#their#congruence#will#vary#depending#on#how#many#of#the#legal#owners#get#involved,#and# on#the#magnitude#of#the#group#of#non-legally#backed#volunteers,#which#can#theoretically#assume#an#unlimited# size.#In#an#exemplary#manner,#the#expectedly#typical#situation#for#NCPOPAS#is#visualized#below.# ! #
# # # Figure#4:#Legal#Owner#Involvement#in#Space#Regulation# ! ! However,#to#what#extent#the#individual#hierarchical#positions,of#these#two#dimensions#correspond,#respectively# whether#those#legal#owners#engaged#operationally#will#also#adopt#the#most#powerful#positions#in#the#actual# management,#share#them,#or#even#take#a#step#back,#in#what#may#be#termed#the#‘degree#of#(in)formality#of#space# regulation’,#is#another#aspect#that#would#require#to#be#visualized#separately.## # 4.2.2! Psychological#Ownership## !
As# mentioned# initially,# ‘psychological# ownership’# (PO)# has# many# alternative# labels.# This# term# is# chosen# accordingly# to# its# application# in# behavioural# sciences,# personal# psychology# and# work# studies,# where# its# origination#is#most#comprehensively#studied.#Since#very#general#working#mechanisms#of#the#human#mind#are# explored,#sourcing#the#information#largely#from#these#disciplines#is#not#expected#to#cause#any#limitations#for#an# application#to#the#given#context.## # PO!accounts!for!a!state!‘in!which!individuals!feel!as!though!the!target!of!ownership!or!a!piece!of!that!target!is! ‘theirs’’!(Pierce#et#al.,#2003,#p.#86).#It#becomes#clear#that#this#sense#directly#contrasts#the#first#dimension,#being# ‘more#a#question#of#a#state#of#mind#than#of#any#legal#formula’#(Weil,#1952,#p.#34).## In#their#widely#acknowledged#work,#Pierce#et#al.#(2001)#have#not#only#addressed#the#question#on#why#there#is#a# human#desire#to#develop#psychological#ownership#–#it#assumedly#satisfies#important#psychological#needs#of# self-identity,,belonging,and,(self-)efficacy#–,#but#they#also#engaged#with#the#‘how’#question,#carving#out#three#
routes# towards# its# emergence:# self-investment,, intimate, knowledge, and, control.# As# these# will# become# particularly#relevant#for#exploring#the#occurrence#of#PO#in#the#empirical#part#of#this#paper,#they#will#be#elaborated# on#more#in#detail#in#the#following.#
# #
#
Figure#5:#(Individual)#Psychological#Ownership# #
First,# different# forms# of# self-investment,# such# as# time,# labour,# effort,# attention# or# financial# resources,# are# perceived#to#create#an#intimate#connection#between#the#person#and#its#target#(Essig,#2017;#Pierce#&#Jussila,# 2011),#which#can#take#the#form#of#a#wide#range#of#material#(e.g.#cubicles#at#work,#products)#and#non-material# objects#(e.g.#ideas,#roles,#projects,#an#organization)#(Brown#&#Robinson,#2011;#Pierce#&#Jussila,#2011).#Through# such#acts#of#appropriation,#the#target#is#experienced#as#being#part#of#an#extended#self,#helping#to#construct#and# express#a#person’s#identity#and#belonging#(see#Dittmar,#1992;#Belk,#1988).#Csikszentmihalyi#&#Rochberg-Halton# (1981)#have#explained#the#emergence#of#this#connection#via#the#invested#‘psychic#energy’:#since#it#is#considered# as#part#of#the#self,#also#its#products#are.#While#the#‘idea#that#we#make#things#a#part#of#self#by#creating#or#altering# them#appears#to#be#a#universal#human#belief’#(Belk,#1988,#p.#144),#in#traditional#Lockean#labour-based#property# theory#it#does#not#halt#at#the#psychological#level.#Instead,#it#functions#as#central#–#and#contested#–#argument#for# the#justification#of#private#(typically#individual)#legal#property#ownership#(Thorpe,#2018;#Belk,#1988).## Second,#developing#intimate,knowledge#is#closely#connected#to#self-investment,#particularly#in#terms#of#invested# time#and#attention.#In#evoking#Beaglehole#(1932),#Pierce#et#al.#(2001)#describe#how#being#extremely#familiar#with# a#target#through#long#association#or#strong#personal#interest#can#bring#about#an#experienced#‘fusion’,#making#it# part#of#their#identity#(Belk,#1988).#As#Essig#(2017)#points#out#in#reference#to#works#of#Aron#and#colleagues#(Aron# &#Aron,#1986;#Aron#et.#al,#1992),#individuals#may#also#establish#close#relations#with#certain#groups,#thereby# incorporating#the#latter#in#the#self.##
Third,# PO# seems# to# be# difficult# to# achieve# without# control,# making# it# a# somewhat# necessary# –# albeit# not# necessarily#sufficient#–#variable.#Control#does#not#only#fulfil#the#need#for#efficacy,#as#the#ability#to#successfully# produce#a#result,#but#also#makes#perceiving#something#as#part#of#the#‘self’#much#more#likely#(see#for#instance# Pickford#et#al.,#2016;#Baer#&#Brown,#2012;#Pierce#et#al.,#2003,#2001;#Csikszentmihalyi#&#Rochberg-Halton,#1981)., , Psychological,Ownership,in,Urban,Environments,and,NCPOPAS,–,Individual,or,Collective?, Building#on#Lefebvre’s#understanding#of#space#as#socially#produced#(1991)#and#civic#engagement#as#essential# to#the#right#to#the#city#claims,#one#may#conclude#that#particularly#self-investment#and#control#are#causally#linked# to# an# interconnected# experience# of# self-efficacy# and# place-identity,# respectively# some# sort# of# physical# belonging.#This#also#becomes#evident#in#Speer#asking#(1992,#p.#80,#translation#by#KH):#‘How#can#one#expect#
citizens#to#identify#with#their#city#if#they#are#not#decisively#involved#in#its#development#(…)?’#On#a#city#scale,#but# also#on#lower#geographical#levels,#if#a#place’s#characteristics#allow#for#appropriation#and#can#meet#the#needs#of# (local)#citizens,#a#‘place#identity’#may#emerge#as#interwovenness#of#personal#values,#desires,#ideas#and#feelings# with#the#complex#physical#environment#(Proshansky#et#al.,#1983).#The#development#of#such#is#favoured#by# familiarity#with#local#conditions#and#strong#place-based#social#ties#(WBGU,#2016),#and#in#the#case#of#NCPOPAS,# intimate#social#relations#among#operators#and#potentially#even#frequent#users#may#emerge.#This#shares#much# common#ground#with#the#literature#on#place-making#(Blokland,#2008,#2001)#and#related#concepts#(i.a.#‘person-to-place#relations’,#Lofland,#1998;#‘identity#of#place’,#Massey,#1994;#‘place#attachment’,#Altman#&#Low,#1992).# According#to#Blokland#(2001),#it#is#only#social#interaction#and#active#appropriation#that#gives#meaning#to#the#built# environment#and#‘makes’#it#a#‘place’,#which#a#particular#group#of#people#can#identify#with#and#feel#attached#to.## # Given#their#proclaimed#mindset#of#joint#spatial#creation,#one#may#assume#that#NCPOPAS#will#less#markedly#offer# individual# psychological# ownership-generating# ways,# but# rather# promote# forms# of# more# recently# devised# ‘collective#psychological#ownership’#(Pierce#&#Jussila,#2010).#While#this#construct#presently#lacks#empirical#study# (see#Dawkins#et#al.,#2017),#in#theory#it#is#conceptualized#as#perceiving#something,#for#example#an#organization,# as#‘ours’#(Mayhew#et#al.,#2007).#Its#development#expectedly#requires#a#person#to#feel#part#of#a#group,#whose# other# members# also# sense# ownership# of# the# target,# making# this# experience# a# fundamentally# shared# one# (Wiggins,#2018;#Dawkins#et#al.,#2017).#Albeit#always#in#connection#with#at#least#one#of#the#three#above-mentioned# reasons#why#humans#strive#for#PO,#it#is#assumed#to#be#additionally#motivated#by#a#need#for#‘social#identity’,# which#demands#the#ability#of#a#group#to#develop#a#shared#mindset#on#rights#and#responsibilities#(Pierce#&# Jussila,#2011).#This#connects#to#place-based#commons,#where#‘[b]y#re-working#the#environment#the#community# shape[s]#itself#as#a#sociomaterial#entity#through#collective#institutions,#shared#territorial#practices#and#languages’# (Sevilla-Buitrago,#2015,#p.#1003),#cultivating#collective#forms#of#belonging#(Blomley,#2008).# # # # # # # Figure#6:#Collective#Psychological#Ownership# # #
The# term# ‘collective’# serves# to# contrast# the# typically# studied# ‘individual’# psychological# ownership,# thus# not# necessarily#prohibiting#the#thought#of#such#an#experience#to#be#shared#by#a#considerably#large#group#in#which# individuals# do# not# know# most# of# their# fellow# members# personally.# However,# it# is# evident# that# this# kind# of# collectivism#will#profit#from#some#degree#of#boundary-making#and#also#a#certain#distinctiveness.#Not#only#will#
agreeing#upon#rules#be#easier#in#a#smaller#group,#all#the#more#with#individuals#of#a#similar#‘membership#tenure’# (Pickford#et#al.,#2016),#but#the#ability#for#‘outsiders’#to#recognize#certain#targets#as#part#of#the#groups’#collective# identity#is#also#considered#as#favourable#in#developing#CPO#(Pierce#&#Jussila,#2010).#Likewise,#identity#and# belonging#do#not#float#free#in#space,#but#are#directed#towards#and#further#elaborated#against#the#backdrop#of# personal#interests#and#values#that#will#always#unite#some#more#likely#than#others.## While#these#aspects#do#not#necessarily#mean#that#a#considerable#extension#of#this#feeling#may#not#be#possible# per#se,#they#indicate#that#it#would#rather#operate#on#a#lower#intensity#level.#However,#one#can#expect#it#to#be#a# challenging#task#for#NCPOPAS#to#balance#such#potentially#‘publicly#shared#collective#psychological#ownership’# with#fundamental#human#desires#for#something#more#concrete#to#‘grasp’#and#closely#relate#to.# ! 4.3! Owning!Back!and!Forth:!Interdimensional!Relations!! ! Space#does#not#permit#to#elaborate#in#detail#about#the#relations#between#all#dimensions,#and#in#both#ways.#The# focus#will#thus#be#on#those#between#operational#and#psychological#ownership,#only#briefly#shining#light#on#the# others.# # As#has#been#pointed#out,#PO#is#‘self-derived’,#'[w]hile#legal#ownership#is#recognised#or#even#conferred#by#others’# (Pickford#et#al.,#2016,#p.#7,#ref.#Dawkins,#2015).#Therefore,#PO#‘is#most#commonly#defined#in#contrast,to#legal# ownership‘#(ibid.,#emphasis#KH).#Also#in#Urban#Studies,#a#‘sense’#of#ownership#is#conventionally#discussed#for# situations#marked#by#an#absence#of#legal#ownership#rights#(for#instance#Thorpe,#2018;#Alexander#&#Hamilton,# 2015;#Lachapelle,#2008).#Scholars#find#that#legal#ownership#rights#alone#have#no#effect#on#a#potential#emergence# of#PO#(Essig,#2017;#Pickford#et#al.,#2016).#Actual#participation#in#organizational#decision-making#seems#to#be# key#(Pierce#&#Rodgers,#2004),#again#pointing#to#a#mediation#via#operational#ownership.#Inversely,#one#may# ponder#that#PO#could#spark#the#motivation#to#acquire#legal#ownership,#for#instance#when#squatting#a#house.#This# would#echo#Lockean#reasoning,#but#also#connect#to#wishes#to#protect#–#though#not#necessarily#by#law#–#the# objects#to#which#individuals#develop#PO,#as#discussed#below.#One#may#further#assume#that#legal#owners#will# more#likely#get#involved#operationally#if#experiencing#some#personal#connection#to#the#property,#its#purposes# and/or#the#(other)#people#on#site,#albeit#this#may#not#necessarily#take#the#intense#form#of#PO.# # Zooming,In:,The,Interplay,of,Psychological,and,Operational,Ownership,, As#mentioned#previously,#given#that#many#scholars#perceive#control#as#the#main#route#towards#PO#(e.g.#Pierce# &#Jussila,#2011;#Csikszentmihalyi#&#Rochberg-Halton,#1981),#one#can#assume#operational#ownership#to#be#a# promising#outset,#and#more#so#if#adopting#a#relevant#power#position.#Furthermore,#since#the#second#dimension# is#conceptualized#as#personally#enacted,,lived,form#of#control,#it#fundamentally#entails#self-investment#and#not# only#requires,#but#also#increases#knowledge.#For#NCPOPAS,#self-investment#and#intimate#knowledge#can#be# expected#to#be#more#prominent#on#part#of#those#operational#owners#engaging#with#high#degrees#of#frequency# and/or#intensity.#However,#these#two#routes#may#also#emerge#in#more#control-independent#ways#and#although# research#seems#not#to#be#clear#yet#on#this#aspect,#according#to#Essig#(2017)#there#may#be#occasions#in#which# they#suffer#to#bring#about#PO.#For#NCPOPAS,#one#could#assume#that,#for#instance,#a#frequent#user#whom#the# project’s#goals#appeal#to#may#grow#very#familiar#with#the#project#and#mentally#support#and#engage#with#its# visions,#without#becoming#involved#in#any#kind#of#volunteer#activities.## The#other#way#around,#strong#psychological#bonds#can#lead#to#a#sense#of#responsibility#and#the#need#to#care# for# and# cultivate# the# respective# object# (Baer# &# Brown,# 2012).# Many# studies# on# workplace# behaviour# and# organizational#psychology#(see#Dawkins#et#al.#2017#for#an#overview;#O’driscoll#et#al.,#2006;#van#Dyne#&#Pierce,#
2004)#focus#on#this#aspect,#investigating#how#the#availability#of#touching#points#for#organizational#identification# positively#impacts#upon#(further)#organizational#commitment.#Projected#onto#the#SOS,#this#is#indicative#of#a# strong,#mutually#reinforcing#connection#between#these#two#dimensions.##
#
However,#while#PO#is#usually#celebrated#for#its#beneficial#impacts,#there#are#also#potential#effects#which#may# limit# the# second# dimension’s# inclusive# accessibility.# As# Thorpe# (2018)# and# Blomley# (2005)# have# found,# individuals#may#display#protective#behaviours#and#strive#to#retain#exclusive#control,#hence#also#hamper#change# (Choi#&#Levine,#2004).#Baer#&#Brown#(2012)#found#such#particularly#on#part#of#individuals#with#strong#ownership# feelings,#which#might#however#be#lessened#when#fostering#‘a#culture#in#which#ideas#are#not#considered#to#be# individual#properties#but#rather#collective#possessions’#(p.#70).#Since#shared#creation#and#inclusiveness#are# central#goals#of#NCPOPAS,#this#can#be#expected#to#somewhat#‘stabilize’#the#openness#of#a#place.#However,#for# NCPOPAS,#the#distinction#to#be#made#will#expectedly#lie#less#with#individual#versus#collective,#but#with#collective# versus#public#–#respectively#the#scope#of#this#collectivism.## #
