Alcohol Use under Control:
Adolescents’ Susceptibility to Parent Attachment based on Ego-Control
Personality Profiles
Masterthesis Orthopedagogiek
Graduate School of Child Development and Education
University of Amsterdam
Renske Verhage - 10198377
Supervisors: Karen Fischer, MSc. & Prof. Drs. Geertjan Overbeek
Abstract
De kwaliteit van een ouder-kind relatie is een belangrijke voorspeller gebleken van problematisch alcoholgebruik in de adolescentie. Toch blijken sommige jongeren gevoeliger te zijn dan anderen voor de invloed van een problematisch ouder-kind relatie. Uit eerder onderzoek blijkt dat persoonlijkheid een belangrijke rol heeft in de mate van van ouderlijke invloeden op probleemgedrag zoals alcohol gebruik. De huidige studie onderzoekt in welke mate persoonlijkheid een modererende rol heeft in de voorspellende relatie van de kwaliteit van ouder-kind relatie op alcoholgebruik in de adolescentie. Onder 774 middelbare scholieren (11 tot 16 jaar oud) zijn over drie verschillende meetmomenten vragenlijsten verspreid. Met de verkregen data zijn multipele regressie analyses en ordinale logistische regressies
uitgevoerd. De resultaten lieten zien dat een lage kwaliteit van de moeder-kind relatie op 12-jarige leeftijd een hogere mate van alcohol gebruik op 15-12-jarige leeftijd voorspelt. Daarnaast bleken adolescenten met het weerbare persoonlijkheidsprofiel minder te drinken wanneer zij een problematische moeder-kind relatie ervaarden, waar adolescenten met het
overgecontroleerde persoonlijkheidsprofiel meer alcohol dronken. Huidig onderzoek toont aan dat alcohol mogelijkerwijs wordt gebruik als een coping mechanism bij het ervaren van een minder goede moeder-kind relatie.
Abstract
Parent-child relationship quality has shown to be an important predictor of problematic alcohol use in adolescence. Yet some youth appear more susceptible to the influence of problematic parent-child relationships than others. Specifically, personality has been found to exacerbate or buffer the effect of parental influences on problem behaviors, such as alcohol use. The present research examined whether personality moderates the
predictive relationship of parent-child relationship quality on adolescent alcohol use. Multiple regressions and ordinal logistic regressions were conducted on data available from a three-wave longitudinal sample of 774 high-schoolers (11-16 years old). Results showed that a low mother-child relationship quality at age 12 predicted higher alcohol use at age 15.
Furthermore, adolescents with a resilient personality profile appeared more resistant against a problematic parent-child relationship, whereas adolescents with the overcontrolling
personality profile were found to drink even more alcohol if they had suffered a problematic relationship with their mothers. This research shows that alcohol may be used as a coping mechanism, which suggests that alcohol prevention programs should focus on overcontrolling adolescents experiencing problematic parent-child relationships.
Alcohol use under control: Adolescents’ susceptibility to parent attachment based on ego control personality profiles.
Alcohol use is highly prevalent among youth in Western countries (Hibell et al., 2012). For some this is considered a healthy form of experimentation. For others, it represents a major problem. Especially when drinking alcohol becomes a habit, adolescents are at risk for developing permanent brain abnormalities, alcohol-related problems such as addiction, and other mental disorders in adulthood (Medina et al., 2008; Pitkänen, Kokko, Lyyra, & Oulkkinen, 2008). Nonetheless, drinking is very common among youth and numerous factors may explain the development of alcohol use. Attachment or parent-child relationship quality, for example, is shown to be an important predictor of problematic alcohol use in adolescence (Branstetter, Low, & Furman, 2011; Hicks et al., 2014; Ryan, Jorm & Lubman, 2010). Yet, not all adolescents are affected by parent attachment in the same way, as some youth appear more susceptible to the influence of the parent-child relationship than others (Mathijssen et al., 2014). Personality has been found to buffer or exacerbate the effect of parent-child relationships on other types of externalizing behavior (Rothbaum & Weisz, 1994; O’Connor & Dvorak, 2001; Klimstra, Akse, Hale, Raaijmakers, & Meeus, 2010). However, clear evidence for personality as a moderator in the specific relationship between parent-child relationship quality and adolescent alcohol use is lacking. Therefore, the current study will examine how adolescents’ personality and their relationship with parents interacts in the development of alcohol use.
Many studies have investigated the influence of parents on adolescent alcohol use, such as setting rules about drinking or communicating the risks of alcohol to their children (Koning et al., 2012). Parents may also have considerable influence through less visible processes, such as the quality of the relationship between parents and children (van der Vorst, Engels, Meeus, Dekovic, & Vermulst, 2006; Visser, de Winter, & Reijneveld, 2012). For
example, attachment theory states that individuals have a need for warmth and support in the relationship with their parents (Bowlby, 1982). Securely attached children feel like they can trust their parents that they will attend their needs of emotional support, protection, and proximity (Ainsworth, 1979). These are the best conditions for developing healthy identity and self-esteem. However, when the relationship lacks warmth and support, children do not feel close to their parents and they cannot talk about personal worries. In order to cope with this negative affect, insecurely attached adolescents are more likely to show deviant behavior, such as harmful drinking (McNally, Palfai, Levine, & Moore, 2003).
Numerous studies underscore the predictive relationship of parent-child relationship quality for later alcohol use. For example, two systematic reviews show support for this association in both directions. First, a higher parent-child relationship quality (e.g. the level of warmth, bonding, and affection) has shown to predict reduced levels of drinking in
adolescence and later age of alcohol-initiation (Ryan et al., 2010). Second, a low parent-child relationship quality predicts greater alcohol use, as for example higher amounts of drinks or drinking more frequently (Visser et al., 2012). However, not all individual studies report similar results as some only find significant associations between attachment and alcohol use for specific groups of adolescents. Consequently, it is believed that the influence of parent-child relationship on adolescent alcohol use may vary for different subgroups of adolescents, explaining the equivocal results between studies (Mathijssen et al., 2014). In other words, some adolescents may be more susceptible to alcohol use than others, depending on the quality of relationship with their parents.
Personality may play a key role in explaining the differences in adolescents’ susceptibility for a problematic parent-child relationship. Personality is described as a consistent set of characteristics, making an individual feel, think, and act in a certain way (Shiner & Caspi, 2003). Many typologies of personality have been described, of which the big
five model is most commonly used. This model holds that each individual’s personality consists of variable levels of the five following traits: neuroticism, which involves the ease with which a person becomes distressed; extraversion, referring to high sociability and outgoingness; conscientiousness, reflecting purposeful striving to a goal, persistence, and impulse control; agreeableness, which indicates the degree of friendliness, warmth, or helpfulness; and openness, describing curiosity and the openness to experience (Carver & Connor-Smith, 2010). However, a trait-centered approach to personality such as the big five model may lack an important aspect of personality, that is, the composition of different traits (Asendorpf, 2002). To illustrate, two individuals with high levels of extraversion are not easily compared if both have contrasting levels of neuroticism. Therefore, the present study will adopt a more holistic approach of personality by focusing on the composition of personality traits and their effect altogether on adolescents’ drinking behavior.
As such, the typology of Block and Block (1980) is based on the big five personality traits, but it defines personality on the dimensions of ego-control and ego-resiliency. Ego-control refers to the degree individuals express their impulses, whereas ego-resiliency is the tendency to respond flexibly to environmental demands (Huey & Weisz, 1997). Three personality profiles are identified based on these constructs. Individuals with the
overcontrolling personality profile possess too high levels of ego-control and low levels of ego-resiliency. They are inhibited and rigid, and display high levels of neuroticism and low levels of extraversion. On the other side of the spectrum, the undercontrolling individual maintains low levels of both ego-control and ego-resiliency. They are highly impulsive and inflexible, and show high levels of extraversion and low levels of agreeableness and
conscientiousness. The individual with the resilient personality profile has a more
advantageous composition of personality traits. They score low on neuroticism and high on openness, extraversion, conscientiousness, and agreeableness (Overbeek, Zeevalkink,
Vermulst, & Scholte, 2010). They are the more well-adjusted and adaptive individuals, making them less vulnerable to stressful encounters (Block & Block, 1980).
Thus, having a certain personality profile may worsen or buffer the effect of parent-child relationships on adolescent alcohol use. Although no studies have examined the
moderating effect of personality profiles on parent-child relationships and alcohol use before, evidence is found for moderating effects of personality types on other types of deviant
behavior (Rothbaum & Weisz, 1994; O’Connor & Dvorak, 2001). For example, evidence is found for an association between parental rejection and depression or aggression (Akse, Hale, Engels, Raaijmakers, & Meeus, 2010). Results show that adolescents with the overcontrolled personality profile are more at risk for developing depression than their undercontrolling peers as a result of parental rejection. Furthermore, adolescents with the resilient personality profile are less at risk for developing depression. Regarding aggression, it was found that adolescents with the undercontrolled personality profile are more likely to show aggression as a result of parental rejection, whereas overcontrolled adolescents are less inclined to behave aggressively. As such, the three personality profiles were found to moderate the effect of parental influences on deviant behavior (Akse et al., 2010).
So far, no studies to the present author’s knowledge have hypothesized the influence of the three personality types on the association between quality of parent-child relationship and later adolescent alcohol use. Therefore, the current research will examine whether certain personality types moderate the relationship between the parent-child relationship quality and later adolescent alcohol use. In light of the solid body of research supporting the moderating effect of personality types on associations between parental behavior and adolescent problem behavior (Rothbaum & Weisz, 1994; O’Connor & Dvorak, 2001; Akse et al., 2004), it is hypothesized that personality plays a moderating role in the relationship between parent-child relationship quality and later adolescent alcohol use. Specifically, considering that impulsive
behavior has consistently been linked to alcohol use (Fernie et al., 2013; Stautz & Cooper, 2013), it is hypothesized that undercontrollers are more inclined to greater alcohol use. Adolescents with the resilient personality type, considering their adaptive abilities, are
expected to be more resistant against a problematic parent-child relationship, and are therefore hypothesized to be less inclined to drink alcohol.
Method
The present study made use of the SODA (Social Development of Adolescents) questionnaire. Twenty-eight high schools within a 100 kilometer radius of Nijmegen in the Netherlands were approached by letter and a follow-up phone call to participate in the study. From the 28
schools, 23 decided to participate in the study. At T3, 83% of the schools were retained, with
the main reason for drop-out being that most students of a class had graduated from this school. Of the total sample size of 2475 students at T1, 1419 (57 %) still participated at T2, of
which 774 (31 %) were retained at T3. Most adolescents were not able to complete
questionnaires at T2 and T3 due to changing class compositions across the years and many
students being transferred to other classes than the originally selected classes. In order to maximize sample size at T2 and T3, only classes were included in which at least seven
students were present during the assessment at T1.
The three-wave longitudinal sample consisted of 405 girls (52.3%) and 369 boys, aged 11 to 16 years. At T1, adolescents’ average age was 13.6 years (SD=.89). Of all adolescents,
407 students (52.7%) attended pre-vocational secondary education, 189 students 24.5%) attended general secondary education, and 176 students (22.8%) attended pre-university secondary education. About 94 percent of the adolescents had an indigenous Dutch background and about 89 percent came from intact, two-parent families.
Schools were sent a letter and were called for participation in the research. When agreed to participate, the school administration and research team selected classes that would participate in each school. At T1 in 2005, research assistants carried out the questionnaires.
Adolescents and parents were informed regarding the content and purpose of the study. All parents agreed to the participation of their children. Instructions were given to the adolescents, after which they each filled in the questionnaire during a regular lesson at school. Adolescents were explained that they were not allowed to talk about their answers in the questionnaire. Furthermore, adolescents were informed that their answers would be kept confidential. A teacher was also present for supervision in most classes. After data collection, the schools were sent a research report on the social development of all participating pupils, without identification information. For T2 (2006) and T3 (2007), the procedures were identical.
Measures
Parent-adolescent relationship quality. The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987) was used to measure the quality of the relationship between adolescent and parent at each wave. Only the data at T1 was used for analyses. Two
scales were used, one measuring the affective relationship with the mother and the other assessing the affective relationship with the father from the adolescent’s perspective. The 24 items per scale regarded three broad dimensions: degree of mutual trust, quality of
communication, and extent of anger and alienation. The Dutch version of the questionnaire consisted of four selected items of each dimension on a five-point answering scale. For example, ‘I tell my mother about my problems and troubles’, with answers ranging from 1 (almost never or never true) to 5 (almost always or always true). Cronbach’s alpha at T1 for
the scale assessing the relationship with the mother was .80, and .84 for relationship with the father. The Cronbach’s alpha values show a high level of internal consistency (DeVellis, 2003).
Alcohol use. Alcohol use was assessed at each wave using three variables. For analyses, only the scales at T3 were used. First, adolescents reported whether they ever had
drank alcohol and at what age they drank their first alcohol beverage. Second, frequency of drinking alcohol was measured. Adolescents answered the question of how often they have drunk alcohol in the past four weeks, using the same scale as a previous Dutch study on adolescent alcohol use (Engels, Knibbe, de Vries, Drop, & van Breukelen, 1999). Answers ranged from ‘none’, to ‘1 to 3 days’, ‘1 to 2 days per week’, ‘3 to 4 days per week’, ‘5 to 6 days per week’ to ‘every day’. Third, quantity of alcohol use was measured. Using the same scale as in the study of Engels and Knibbe (2000), adolescents reported how many glasses of alcohol they have had in the past seven days in two different situations, namely at home and outside of the home. Both questions were divided into subquestions about the amount of glasses of alcohol consumed during the weekend (Friday to Sunday) and glasses of alcohol during the week (Monday to Thursday). Cronbach’s alfa was .895, indicating high internal consistency of the quantity scale.
Personality types. Personality was measured at each wave using a Dutch shortened version measuring the big five personality traits, named the ‘quick big five’ (QBF; Gerris, Houtmans, Kwaaitaal-Roosen, Schipper, Vermulst, & Janssens, 1998). It consists of 30 items with a seven-point answering scale assessing the big five personality dimensions: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Examples of items are ‘withdrawn’ or ‘nervous’, with answers ranging from 1 (does not fit me at all) to 7 (fits me perfectly). The big five personality construct is found to be reliable and valid for adolescent samples (Scholte, Van Aken, & Van Lieshout, 1997; Scholte, van Lieshout, de Wit, & van Aken, 2005). Only the scale at T1 was used. Cronbach’s alpha for the five personality
The three personality types of undercontrolled, overcontrolled and ego-resilient were identified using a K-means cluster analysis with a PAM (Partitioning Around Medoids) algorithm, allowing for variable cluster sizes and more robust clustering results (Kaufman & Rousseeuw, 1987). Undercontrolling adolescents had high scores for neuroticism and
extraversion, but low scores for conscientiousness and average scores for agreeableness and resourcefulness. Their overcontrolling peers reported the highest scores for neuroticism and the lowest scores for extraversion amongst all adolescents. They also reported high scores for agreeableness and conscientiousness, and medium scores for resourcefulness. Lastly, ego resilient adolescents scored low on neuroticism, highest for extraversion, relatively high for agreeableness and average for conscientiousness and resourcefulness.
Sociodemographic variables. Questions about sociodemographic characteristics such as sex, age, educational level, ethnicity and family composition were included in the
questionnaire.
Analysis
To test for the predictive relationship of parent-child relationship quality on later adolescent alcohol use, regression analyses were performed for both mother-child relationship and father-child relationship. For the prediction of quantity of alcohol beverages a multiple regression analysis was performed. Age and gender were implemented as covariates. Because of the categorical nature of the frequency variable, due to non-equally divided values and a finite number of categories, an ordinal regression using the logit link function was performed to test the prediction of frequency of drinking. Age was implemented as covariate.
Because of the categorical nature of the personality variable – which a regression analysis does not allow for – dummy-variables were created for each personality profile. By clustering the five personality-variables, one categorical variable for personality was created
with category 1 representingthe ego resilient profile, category 2 representingthe
undercontrolling profile, and category 3 representing the overcontrolling profile. Three new (dummy-) variables were created by giving the concerning personality type value 1, and all other categories value 0.
For the moderator analysis three hierarchical multiple regression analyses were performed for the model, using quantity as an alcohol variable and each dummy-personality profile variable as a moderator. Interaction effects between parent-child relationship quality and each dummy-personality profile variable were used to detect differences in each
regression. For the frequency variable, an ordinal logistic regression as above was performed for step 1. For step 2, an interaction between each dummy-personality profile variable and parent-adolescent relationship quality was added to test whether this increased the model fit.
Results
Descriptive results reveal that 78.6 per cent of all adolescents have had their first alcoholic beverage at T1, compared to 90.5 per cent at T3. The amount of alcoholic drinks and
frequency of drinking alcohol have increased over this time of period as well. At T1,
adolescents drank at an average of 1-2 times per four weeks. They reported to consume two drinks on average in the past week (M=2.29, sd=4.44). At T3, this had increased to drinking
once every week with drinking 8 alcohol beverages on average in the past week (M=8.53, sd=11.96). In respect to relationships with the parents, adolescents reported a medium to high maternal relationship quality on average (M=4.48, sd=.066, on a scale from 1 to 6) and a slightly lower paternal relationship quality (M=4.22, sd=.35) at T1. Considering personality profiles, 251 adolescents were identified having the ego resilient personality profile, 358 adolescent matched the undercontrolling personality profile, and 165 adolescents matched the overcontrolling personality profile.
Pearson’s R correlations are presented in table 1 (see appendix). Correlations between maternal and paternal relationship quality, frequency and quantity of drinking, personality, age, gender, and educational level showed mostly small but significant relationships. Most importantly, maternal relationship quality at T1 was related to frequency and quantity of
drinking alcohol at T3, whereas paternal relationship quality at T1 was related to neither.
Furthermore, personality showed significant relations to paternal and maternal relationship quality, whereas no significant relationships were reported between personality profile and both frequency and quantity of drinking at T3.
Preliminary analyses were performed in order to check the data for normality, linearity, outliers, missing data, homoscedasticity, and multicollinearity. The tests indicated that all criteria were met, except that quantity of drinking was not normally distributed since roughly half of all participants have not drunk alcohol in the past week. However, because the homoscedasticity criterium was met, quantity of drinking was still used for regression
analyses. Numbers showed a high amount of missings (41,7%) due to changing class
compositions. Missing values were replaced using the expectation maximization technique in SPSS 24.
Regression analyses were carried out to test whether parental relationship quality predicted later alcohol use. Age, gender, and age of alcohol-initiation were used as covariates, since they have been shown to influence drinking behavior in adolescents (Van der Vorst et al., 2009). Quantity and frequency of drinking both showed small but significant predicting relationships by maternal relationship quality. Paternal relationship quality appeared non-significant for predicting both quantity and frequency of drinking. Multiple regression analysis showed that maternal relationship quality at T1 significantly predicted quantity of
alcohol beverages consumed at T3 (F(4,628)=15.679, p<.001) with an R2 of .085. Simple
quantity (B= -.202, β = -.135, p<.001). An ordinal logit regression showed a significant model
of the prediction of adolescents’ frequency of drinking at T3 (χ2(4)=89.76, p<.001) with a
Nagelkerke pseudo R2 of .136. Maternal relationship quality appeared as a significant
predictor for frequency of drinking with a cumulative odds ratio of -.020 (p=.028). These results indicate that adolescents’ alcohol use is significantly predicted by the quality of the relationship between mother and adolescent. More specifically, adolescents experiencing the relationship with their mothers as more problematic are inclined to drink more frequently and in larger amounts of alcohol beverages than adolescents who experience the relationship with their mother as more affective.
To test whether personality acts as a moderator on the predictive relationship between
maternal relationship quality at T1 and drinking behavior at T3, moderator analyses were
conducted for each personality profile. First, to test whether having a certain personality profile moderated the predictive effect of maternal relationship quality on quantity of
drinking, hierarchical regression analyses were performed. Table 2 shows (see appendix) that both the ego resilient and overcontrolling personality types are moderators. Simple slope analysis revealed a significant negative interaction between maternal relationship x ego control and quantity of alcohol (B= -.305, β=-.113, p<.05) and a significant positive
interaction between maternal relation x overcontrol and quantity of alcohol (B=.340, β=.110, p<.05). No significant interaction was found between maternal relationship x undercontrol and quantity of alcohol. Thus, whereas ego resiliency appears to decrease the negative effect of a bad maternal relationship on quantity of drinking, the overcontrolling personality type appears to increase the negative effect of the maternal relationship on quantity of drinking. However, contradicting the initial hypothesis, the undercontrolling personality type did not significantly moderate the relationship between maternal relationship quality and quantity drinking. For testing the moderating effect of personality type on the relationship between
maternal relationship quality and frequency of drinking, an interaction between the personality variable and maternal relationship quality was added to the ordinal regression. Rejecting the hypothesis, none of the personality profiles were found to moderate the relationship between maternal relationship quality and frequency of drinking.
Discussion
This study examined the longitudinal relationship between parent-child relationship quality and alcohol use and whether personality moderates this relationship. The hypotheses were partly confirmed. Firstly, low mother-child relationship quality significantly predicted higher alcohol use. In other words, when adolescents experience a lack of mutual trust, positive communication, and positive affect in the relationship with their mothers at age 12, they were inclined to drink alcohol more frequently and consume 13,5 percent more alcoholic beverages per occasion at age 15, compared to their peers who experienced a positive mother-child relationship. However, father-child relationship was not predictive for later alcohol use. In line with the second hypothesis, personality was found to be a moderator for the relationship between mother-child relationship quality and alcohol use, but only for the quantity of consumed alcohol beverages and not for frequency of drinking. Confirming the hypothesis that ego resilient adolescents are more resistant against adverse environmental influences, results show that having the ego resilient personality profile decreases the negative effect of a problematic relationship with the mother on later alcohol use. Adolescents with an
overcontrolling personality on the other hand were found to drink even more alcohol if they had suffered a problematic relationship with their mothers.
The present study’s findings are in line with attachment theory, which holds that a parent-child relationship lacking in warmth and support may lead to deviant behavior in adolescents, such as alcohol use. Many studies have supported the longitudinal relationship between quality parent-child relationship and adolescent alcohol use (Foxcroft & Lowe, 1991;
Vakalahi, 2001; Ryan et al., 2010), and the present study corroborates this research. The results of the present study are also in line with other research suggesting that personality plays a key role in explaining why certain adolescents are more susceptible to parental influences than others. For example, adolescents with the resilient personality profile are found less susceptible to negative parental influences such as parental rejection or
maltreatment, as they are less inclined to develop, for example, depression (Akse et al., 2004; Flores, Cicchetti, & Rogosch, 2005).
However, not all of the initial expectations were completely confirmed. Firstly, as it was hypothesized that personality moderates the relationship between parent-child
relationship quality and both frequency and quantity of adolescent drinking, the results only demonstrated a moderation of personality when quantity of drinking was included as an outcome variable, and not frequency of drinking. This suggests that personality only acts as a risk or protective factor when consuming large quantities of alcohol on a single occasion, often called ‘binge drinking’ (Miller, Naimi, Brewer, & Jones, 2007). Secondly, it was
hypothesized that the relationship with both father and mothers are predictive for later alcohol use. However, the results of the present study only suggest the effect of the mother-child relationship on adolescent alcohol use. Although it was initially expected that fathers and mothers would have similar influences on adolescent alcohol use through their affective relationship, other studies have also found evidence for the absence of a paternal influence (Kelly et al., 2011; Smorti & Guarnieri, 2015). This might suggest an absence of paternal influence through the affective relationship on adolescent drinking.
Another unexpected outcome is that only the overcontrolled personality type appears to be a vulnerability factor for increased alcohol use. It was hypothesized that the
undercontrolling adolescents would be more vulnerable, because their character traits, such as impulsivity, have been related to alcohol use more often than character traits of
overcontrolling adolescents such as inhibition and internalizing characteristics (Colder et al., 2012). Therefore this outcome may be better explained in terms of coping, e.g. the ways different types of adolescents try to deal with the negative affect in the parent-child
relationship. For instance, it was found that high levels of neuroticism is related to coping in response to unpleasant emotions. Thereby, high levels of extraversion and low levels of are more often linked to drinking motives such as enhancement and feelings of euphoria
(Lammers et al., 2011; Stewart & Devine, 2000). In the current sample, the undercontrolling adolescents are characterized by high levels of extraversion and low levels of
conscientiousness, making it a plausible suggestion that this type of adolescent drinks to feel more euphoric. Whereas the overcontrolling adolescents are characterized by high levels of neuroticism, which possibly explains that these individuals use alcohol as a coping
mechanism in response to having unpleasant emotions and therefore drink more alcohol in response to a problematic parent-child relationship.
The results of this study should be approached with precaution due to some limitations of the study. For example, effect sizes were relatively small, suggesting that other
non-examined variables, such as peer alcohol use and parental alcoholism (Martens et al., 2010; Gerris et al., 1998), also play an important role in the prediction of adolescent alcohol use. Secondly, the present study only examined parent-child relationship quality at age 12. However, adolescence is a long-term transitional phase, and parent-child relationships may grow less close and become more conflictual (Marceau, Ram, & Susman, 2014). Therefore, it would give an extensive insight if changes in the parent-child relationship quality would be included in the predicting model for adolescent alcohol use. One way to accomplish this is with annual measures of the parent-child relationship quality, using a cross-lagged design.
Further suggestions for future research include the age of participants, as the legal drinking age in the Netherlands has been increased from 16 to 18 years old in 2014. Due to
the new drinking laws, adolescent drinking has been reduced in the Netherlands (ESPAD, 2015) and future studies should therefore consider including participants older than 18 years. However, more cases of high-risk binge drinking have been reported for minors, making the results of the present study nonetheless relevant. It is therefore recommended that future studies include a measurement of binge drinking.
Furthermore, it is important for future studies to consider the use of personality types as it has been a successful addition to the present research. Researchers have argued that a trait-centered approach may lack an important aspect of personality – that is, the configuration of traits and the interplay between traits in regard to problem behavior (Asendorpf, 2002). As an individual is most likely characterized by the interplay of multiple personality traits, the use of personality profiles is especially useful for capturing these configurations and shed light onto practical implications. The use of personality profiles would therefore be a meaningful addition to the solid body of trait-centered personality research.
Despite the present study’s limitations, this research has brought us new insights. Given the longitudinal nature of the study, strong evidence is provided that a lack of warmth and trust in the parent-child relationship is a predictor for adolescent alcohol use. And, although findings should be replicated, one can precautiously state that ego resilient
adolescents are indeed more resilient against adverse parental influences, but overcontrolling adolescents may be more at risk when experiencing a lack of warmth and trust from their parents. Implicating these results in practice, alcohol prevention programs could focus on overcontrolling adolescents experiencing problematic parent-child relationships. Because it is suggested that overcontrolling adolescents use alcohol as a coping mechanism, prevention programs could reduce alcohol use or addiction by tailoring interventions to the initial motive of why adolescents start drinking, such as the specific coping mechanisms unique to each
personality type. This is especially important for adolescents when they learn to cope with the increasing responsibilities on their path to becoming an adult.
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APPENDIX
Table 1. Means, SDs, and Intercorrelation Between Age, Gender, Educational level, Maternal Relationship Quality, Paternal Relationship Quality, Frequency of Drinking, Quantity of
Drinking, and Personality Profile.
a 1 = boy, 2 = girl
b 1 = low, 2 = middle, 3 = high
c Maternal relationship quality, measured at T 1. d Paternal relationship quality, measured at T
1.
e 1 = undercontrolling, 2 = ego control, 3 = overcontrolling, measured at T 1. f Frequency of drinking in the past 4 weeks, measured at T
3. g Quantity of alcoholic beverages in de past week, measured at T
3. * p < .05. ** p < .01. M SD 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 1. Gendera 1.48 .50 - 2. Age 13.63 .89 .039 - 3. Educational levelb 1.69 .82 .020 .212** - 4. M.R.Qc 53.98 7.74 -.043 -.012 .103** - 5. P.R.Qd 50.64 8.48 .068 .019 .057 .580** - 6. Personalitye 1.83 .84 -.071 .013 -.049 -.116** -.075* - 7. Frequencyf 2.56 1.11 .058 .174** .014 -.106** -.065 .002 - 8. Quantityg 8.71 10.94 .136** .132** -.059 -.132** -.038 .004 .539** -
Table 2. Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Quantity of Alcohol Consumption (N =757).
Model 1 Model 2a Model 2b
Variable B(SE) β B(SE) β B(SE) β
Age 2.758(.55) .200** 2.747(.55) .199** 2.712(.55) .196** Gender -2.516(.92) -.105** -2.462(.92) -.103** -2.630(.92) -.110** Age of initiation -1.034(.23) -.177** -1.037(.23) -.178** -1.001(.23) -.171** M.R.Q (T1) -.206(.06) -.137** -.112(.07) -.074 -.281(.07) -.187** M.R.Q x ego control (2a) -.305(.12) -.113* M.R.Q x overcontrol (2b) .340(.13) .110* R2 .085 .097 .093 F for change in R2 15.679** 6.150* 6.448*
Note: All variables were centralized. * p < .05. ** p<.01.
