“Storytelling in Virtual Worlds: An Exploration of Empathy and Ethics in Immersive Journalism”
New Media and Digital Culture Masters Thesis – 2016/2017 Caroline Nisenson | 11255811 | Caroline.Nisenson@student.uva.nl
Abstract
This paper explores the concept of immersive journalism as a producer of empathy, and the subsequent ethical implications of this emerging medium. Pioneered by journalist and
documentary film maker Nonny de La Pena, immersive journalism is the combination of virtual reality technology and storytelling. To begin, I contextualize the birth of immersive journalism from a historical perspective, examining the series of events that led to online news and the evolution of digital journalism. Additionally, I provide an overview of how web 2.0 technologies influenced journalism, specifically the role that social media plays in the news media space. Lastly, journalism ethics are explored in terms of the development of digital news leading into immersive journalism.
After the literature review, I introduce my case study which explores the emotional reactions and ethical concerns of ten technology journalists in response to the immersive
journalism experience. My research involves analyzing these responses based on the reactions of the subjects after they viewed an immersive journalism piece versus reading the same story in print. Through this research, I am able to identify how immersive journalism techniques evoke empathy in participants as well as highlight the major ethical concerns surrounding it.
Keywords: interactive journalism, immersive journalism, virtual reality, Nonny de la Pena,
Acknowledgments
First, a thank you to Nonny de la Pena for inspiring me to base my thesis around her brilliant innovations in journalism. I would also like to thank Stefania Milan for mentoring me through this thesis process. She added so much value to the experience due to her careful suggestions, reviews and kindness. I feel lucky to have had her as an advisor. Additionally, I would like to thank my colleagues at The Next Web for participating in this research. Moreover, thank you to my fellow students and teachers in the UVA New Media and Digital Culture program. It has been a wild ride and a fantastic one at that.
Thank you to my mom, Karen Nisenson, for constant love and support as well as for putting me through school. I really could not have done any of this without her. Additionally, thanks to my Dutch family Anneke Simons and Kees Tammens for always being there for me.
Lastly, none of this would have been possible without my love, Bas. Thank you for everything.
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT………... ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ……… iii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION………. 1 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK………. 4 2.1 Digitalization of Newsrooms ……….. 4
2.11 Web 2.0 and Interactive Journalism ………..6
2.12 The Gamification of Journalism……….9
2.2 The Birth of Immersive Journalism ……… 11
2.21 Learning through Empathy ………... 13
2.22 Immersive Journalism and the Mainstream ……….. 16
2.3 The Ethics of Digital Journalism ……… 16
2.31 The Ethics of Interactive Journalism………. 19
2.32 From Fake News to Bad Data……… 21
2.4 The Ethics of Immersive Journalism ……….. 22
2.5 Conclusions ……….……… 23
3. METHODS ………... 25
3.1 Research Questions ………. 25
3.2 Data Collection……… 25
3.22 Choice of Immersive Journalism Platform……… 27
3.3 Determine the Virtual Reality Headset for Research………... 27
3.31 Choice of Film………... 28
3.4 Questionnaire Design………... 30
3.41 Self-Completion Questionnaire………. 31
3.5 Two Online Questionnaires via SurveyMonkey……….. 31
3.51 Qualitative and Quantitative Components………. 31
4. FINDINGS………. 32
4.1 Responses to Traditional Journalism Experience……… 34
4.2 Responses to Immersive Journalism Experience……… 36
4.3 Comparison of Results of Questionnaires 1 and 2………. 41
5. DISCUSSION……… 43
5.1 The Empathy Factor………. 44
5.11 360 Degree Immersion………... 44
5.12 Turning Empathy into Action……… 45
5.2 The Ethics of Empathy and Civic Journalism………..45
5.3 The Varying Perspectives on Journalism Ethics……….. 47
5.31 A Call for Transparency……….48
5.4 The Ethics of Empathy and Civic Journalism………. 48
6. CONCLUSION……….. 50
APPENDIX 1………. 52
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1: Timeline of virtual reality headsets………... 2
Figure 2: 2008 study on people’s preferred methods of news consumption……….... 5
Figure 2.1: Article “Is it Better to Rent or Buy” published in April 2016……… 8
Figure 2.2: Article “Is it Better to Rent or Buy” published in April 2016………… ……... 8
Figure 2.3: Mashable Follow platform, 2011………... 9
Figure 2.4: The game “Cutthroat Capitalism” from Wired, 2009………. 10
Figure 2.5: Freeze frame from the film “Hunger in Los Angeles”………... 12
Figure 2.6: Freeze frame from the film “Hunger in Los Angeles”………... 12
Figure 2.7: Freeze frame from the film “Project Syria”………... 14
Figure 2.8: Freeze frame from the film “Project Syria”………... 15
Figure 2.9: Newsweek and TIME magazine covers, 1994………... 18
Figure 2.10: The US electoral map, 2016………. 21
Figure 3: Fortune.com article, 2015……….. 28
Figure 3.1: A freeze frame from “10 Shots Across the Border”…... 29
Figure 3.2 A subject watching the film “10 Shots Across the Border”…... 29 Figures 4 - 4.8: Results of the findings……… 35-39
Chapter 1: Introduction
“Well-crafted journalism always aims to elicit a connection between the audience and the news story.” – Nonny de la Pena (“Immersive Journalism About” n. pag.)
The advent of the internet revolutionized the ways in which human beings communicate and relate to one another. Moreover, it allowed for a new kind of collaborative information sharing that was quicker than ever before, giving users the ability to gain knowledge in different ways. As access to the internet became more consumer friendly, so did the ways in which it was used by the media (Alves 6). In fact, the introduction of the internet to the mainstream media resulted in a shift: “During this transition, the mass media, which came into prominence when
information was scarce, ha[d] lost its power and control to networks of individuals” (ibid). More specifically, journalism began to evolve as this transition drastically changed the way that news was produced and consumed.
Technological innovations continue to shape the trajectory of journalism. As reporting moved from print towards digital in the early 1990s, so did the ways in which journalists tried to connect to their audience. At the turn of the century, Web 2.0 was introduced as a new kind of internet that emphasized the importance of collaboration and user generated content. Moreover, this “2.0” stage allowed for the birth of social media, which gave consumers the ability to participate with their news producers, eventually leading to the term Interactive Journalism. In addition, social networking platforms like Facebook and Twitter encourage even more teamwork among journalists and their readers.
Web 2.0 also brought about innovations in the realm of virtual reality technology. According to Biocca and Delaney, virtual reality is a “medium for the extension of the body and mind” (59). Moreover, “the technology is designed to serve the needs of the users’ sensorimotor channels: our eyes, ears, hands and so forth” (ibid). While the quest for “virtual reality” began in the 1800s with panoramic art, it evolved with the idea of virtual reality goggles, first introduced by science fiction writer Stanley G. Weinbaum in the 1930s (“History of Virtual Reality” n. pag.). Though the concept of these types of headsets dates back nearly a century, the past fifteen
years have seen a rapid growth in virtual reality technology (“History of Virtual Reality” n. pag.). As seen in figure 1, virtual reality headsets have been produced and developed since the early 20th century.
Figure 1: A timeline of virtual reality headsets spanning from the 1930s-2014. Source: (Brown n. pag.).
Web 2.0 technologies acted as a catalyst for the mixing of virtual reality and storytelling due to the emergence of online virtual worlds (Harris and Rea 2). According to Harris and Rea: “A Virtual World is a computer simulated environment that enables users to interact with each other without geographical confines” (1). In these virtual worlds, users are represented as an avatar, and can interact and collaborate with other participants. Second Life, for example, is the largest virtual world on the internet with approximately 15 million registered users (ibid). In Second Life, users are able to experience events in a narrative way through use of an avatar (De la Pena 293). These kind of interactive virtual worlds, afforded to users through web 2.0
technologies, inspired journalist and documentary filmmaker Nonny de la Pena to pioneer a new kind of journalism (“Immersive Journalism n. pag.).
Born out of the synergy between interactive journalism and virtual reality technology, the term Immersive Journalism was coined by Nonny de la Pena in 2012. Through the use of
technology like headsets and motion sensors, De la Pena began creating virtual reality narratives about current “newsworthy” events happening around the world (“Immersive Journalism n.
pag.). She saw virtual reality as an opportunity to tell stories that people could experience first-hand, as it “affords the participant unprecedented access to the sights and sounds, and possibly feelings and emotions, that accompany the news” (De la Pena 1).
According to de la Pena, this kind of virtual immersion has the potential to evoke more empathy in its users, compared to more traditional modes of print journalism (ibid). In a 2016 interview, De la Pena described immersive journalism as a medium that “creates an empathy in people that far surpasses any other medium that we have to tell those type of stories” (Chambliss n. pag.). De la Pena acknowledges that empathy is an important component in journalism, because it “inspires people to care” (ibid). She also realizes, however, that with a new form of journalism like this, there will also be ethical implications that should be addressed (ibid).
While the concept of ethics in journalism dates back the Age of Enlightenment, innovations in technology have brought about changes in how journalists understand these principles. The advent of the internet in particular, has given way to a whole new set of ethical issues for journalists. Moreover, with the rise in popularity of virtual reality technology,
journalists like Nonny de la Pena have struggled to report news in an ethical manner, while also experimenting with new modes of storytelling (“Immersive Journalism n. pag.). According to journalist Raney Aronson-Rath: “Virtual reality is expanding as a medium and becoming increasingly accessible to news consumers on a wide array of storytelling platforms, but no established set of standards and ethics around applying journalism in VR environments currently exists” (Kent n. pag.). Based on Rath’s statement, it is crucial that research is done on immersive journalism to highlight its potential and identify its pitfalls.
This research focuses on virtual reality technology, and the role it plays in today’s digital news space. In this paper, I explore the emotional responses and ethical implications of this emerging form. The following chapters provide a historical perspective on digital journalism and the series of events that ultimately led to immersive journalism. After a literature review on the subject, I present the methodology which involves a group of ten technology journalists
responding to their first-hand experiences with immersive journalism vs traditional journalism. They do this via two separate self-completion and anonymous questionnaires. Following the methods, I present an analysis and subsequent discussion of the findings.
Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework
“You can’t connect the dots looking forward; you can only connect them looking backwards.” – Steve Jobs (“Commencement Address” n. pag.).
It is necessary to examine the historical context of immersive journalism in order to understand how it came to be. This chapter begins will an overview on the evolution of digital news production and then transitions to the birth of immersive journalism. In order to understand the concept of immersive journalism, however, it is first necessary to contextualize it in relation to the history of the internet and its effect on traditional print news.
The first half of the chapter focuses on the timeline leading up to immersive journalism, while the second part examines ethical aspects. A journalistic code of ethics is important in order to promote equality and fight corruption. Having said that, a new mode of journalism has the potential to create an additional set of dilemmas that should be scrutinized in order to uphold a set of ethics. As a result, in this paper, I explore the ethics of immersive journalism, and the implications that this new medium has on the news media community.
2.1 Digitalization of Newsrooms
According to Ben Scott: “Both the critics and proponents of the [journalism] status quo saw the internet as a great opportunity” (91). That status quo of the early 1990s meant that newspaper readership was declining in favor of 24-hour cable news outlets like CNN (Musser n. pag.). As a result, newspapers conformed to this new technology in order to remain competitive and stay afloat: “The coherence of the common good entrusted to the press simply falls to pieces when it is parsed, priced, and sold on the commodity market—no matter how conscientiously it is done” (Scott 91). So, with the introduction of the internet, critics of the existing state of journalism saw it as an opportunity for newspapers to reclaim respect, while proponents viewed it as another way to monetize (ibid).
The impact of the internet on journalism was first realized with the introduction of web browsers to news organizations (Palser n. pag.). The first commercial browsers brought into newsrooms were Netscape in 1994 and Microsoft Explorer in 1995 (Scott 93). As newspapers
like the New York Times and the Washington Post started publishing on AOL in the early 1990s, major television networks began to follow suit (Palser n. pag.). The introduction of the internet into newsrooms gave newspapers an entire new set of operational and creative affordances. For instance, by 1996, the majority of national news platforms had separate web businesses and online journalists (ibid).
The rise of web journalism in the early 1990s can be attributed, in part, to an interface that closely resembled the look and feel of an actual newspaper (Kawamoto 52). Mel Stanfill discusses web interface in comparison to French philosopher Michel Foucault’s notions of power (1060). Stanfill notes that Foucault’s concept of governments “fostering certain practices and disallowing others” is similar to the affordances of web interfaces (ibid). According to Stanfill: “A site’s design makes a normative claim about its purpose and appropriate use that both demonstrates an understanding of users and builds a set of possibilities into the object” (ibid). Online newspapers grew at an exponential rate because of their user friendly interfaces (Kawamoto 52). In a 2008 Pew Research study, it was determined that the internet had “surpassed all other media except television as an outlet for national and international news [within the United States]” (Heimlich n. pag.). Figure 2 visualizes the steady incline of internet news consumption and the decline in print news.
Figure 2: A chart from a 2008 Pew Research study on people’s preferred methods of news consumption. The x axis represents the year, beginning with 2001 and ending in 2008. Source: (Heimlich n. pag.).
This Pew study demonstrates that within just a few years, the internet surpassed print as the favorable source of news. So, the design of online newspapers embodies Stanfill’s
conception of interfaces as a producer of power. Unlike print newspapers, the internet allowed for headlines, pictures, text (and eventually video) to be displayed on one scrollable page. Moreover, it was a design that echoed the look of a traditional newspaper without the hassle of flipping through pages (Kawamoto 50).
The popularity of online newspapers in the early 1990s contributed to an overall growth in internet companies (Kawamoto 52). As a result, stocks of online businesses skyrocketed despite a lack of profitability (ibid). The market success of web based companies in the 1990s is now referred to as the “Dot-com Bubble” which eventually “burst” in 2001 when expected profits were never realized. Yet, even towards the end of the Dot-com Bubble when companies were losing money and laying off employees, the number of people using the internet continued to grow. According to the Pew Internet and American Life Project: “The number of American adults with Internet access grew from about 88 million to more than 104 million in the second half of the [first decade of the] 2000s” (Packel and Rainie n. pag.). As a result of this continued growth, newspapers were forced to look for new ways to monetize their online businesses (Kawamoto 52).
2.11 Web 2.0 and Interactive Journalism
In the era of “Web 1.0,” (the first stage of the world wide web) the internet was a place where web masters posted content and users could view it. Web 1.0 refers to all that encompassed the internet up until 2003-04 when new advances to the world wide web were introduced (Cormode and Balanchander 1). First coined by information architecture consultant Darcy DiNucci in 1999, Web 2.0 is what Web 1.0 evolved into. In her book, Dinucci postulated that: “The web we know now, which loads into a browser window in essentially static screenfull, is only an embryo of the web to come” (1). According to Tim O’reilly, Web 2.0 means using the technology to “harness collective intelligence” (22). The term implies that the internet is now a two-way street between provider and consumer, allowing for user generated content, with encyclopedia aggregator, Wikipedia, being a prime example (Goodchild 27). Web 2.0 sites are inherently social by design,
encouraging user participation and communication between web masters and web users (Cormode and Balanchander 1).
The social media revolution of the early 2000s further emphasized Web 2.0 as a new age for the internet. In 2002, the website Friendster was introduced to the world. Advertised as a “circle of friends,” the site was an online community where people could connect to one another through the sharing of information. Shortly after, Linkedin, Myspace and Facebook came onto the scene. The development of these platforms allowed for a new kind of journalism that was more interactive than ever before (Alejandro 44). The emergence of new Web 2.0 technologies coupled with the rise of social media were two important factors that led to an original kind of storytelling known as Interactive Journalism.
Before the internet, traditional journalism offered few opportunities for consumers to interact with stories they read (Shultz n. pag.). Readers could either write letters or call into newspaper companies with questions or concerns (ibid). But with interactive journalism, there are a myriad of ways that the public can communicate with journalists and vice versa like through e-mail, message boards, comment sections, online polling and social platforms like Facebook and Twitter (ibid).
Journalists can create interactive stories through data visualizations as well. For instance, consider the New York Times article “Is it Better to Rent or Buy” that debuted on nytimes.com in April, 2016. The article consists of both text and interactive charts that allow users to gain insight about the price of their home and whether or not renting or buying is a better financial choice. As seen in the figures 2.1 and 2.2 below, the graphs act as a calculator that readers can interact with by scrolling across the horizontal axis of the chart. There are several other interactive elements in the article that ask readers’ questions like, “How long do you plan to stay?” and “What are your mortgage details” in order to get the most accurate results. Once the questions are answered using the respective charts, an outcome is calculated.
Figure 2.1: A screenshot from the New York Times article “Is it Better to Rent or Buy” published in April 2016. Source: (Bostock, Carter and Tse n. pag.).
Figure 2.2: A screenshot from the New York Times article “Is it Better to Rent or Buy” published in April 2016. Source: (Bostock, Carter and Tse n. pag.).
The above figures demonstrate the growing trend towards interactive visualizations in
journalism. Data visualizations in particular, have the potential to enhance storytelling and the effect it has on an audience (Segel and Heer 1). Just as the New York Times used interactive visuals with their story on the housing market, “politicians, activists, and television reporters use interactive visualizations as a backdrop for stories about global health and economics and
they can also “play with it” like a game. Before this interactive technology, traditional newspapers offered consumers games in the form of quizzes or crossword puzzles. Now, however, the actual story becomes game-like, resulting in a more engaging and collaborative journalism experience (Conhill and Karlsson 6).
2.12 The Gamification of Journalism
As the rise of interactive technology allowed journalists to discover contemporary ways of engaging with audiences and increasing readership, gamification became a popular technique adopted by news outlets to garner attention and attract young people (Conhill and Karlsson 356). According to journalist Meghan Peters of Mashable, gamification of news refers to “the use of gameplay mechanics for non-game applications” (n. pag.). Peters points to Mashable Follow as an example of how the site incorporates gamification into its business model. Advertised on the site as seen if figure 2.3, Mashable Follow is a social network within the Mashable community that allows users to comment on articles and share with others. The more that users contribute to the platform, the more they are rewarded with badges. Peters states that: “Knowing what badges friends are earning makes the game more of a friendly competition, which increases readers’ motivation to use the service” (n. pag.).
Figure 2.3: An image from the Mashable Follow platform, published on Mashable.com in February 2011. Source: (Pretti n. pag.).
Reader personalization based on rewards is just a microcosm of the vast news gaming space. Coined by Ian Bogost, Simon Ferrari and Bobby Schweizer in their 2012 book
Newsgames: Journalism at Play, the term “Newsgames” refers to the combination of news and
video games (1). The authors explore this new journalistic style and how it is manifesting in the mainstream (6). One example referred to is the game “Cutthroat Capitalism” produced by Wired Magazine in 2009. The game (as seen in Figure 2.4) is accompanied by a written article by Scott Carney, entitled “Cutthroat Capitalism: An Economic Analysis of the Somali Pirate Business Model” (Bogost, Ferrari & Schweizer 1). The article details the current crisis of Somali pirates and issues surrounding kidnapping and ransoms. Associated with the article is a game that lets readers simulate the experiences that Carney describes in the article: “The game makes the case from the other side — that of the pirates. But it does something more, too: the game forces players to understand piracy by experiencing it in abstraction” (ibid).
Figure 2.4: A screenshot of the game “Cutthroat Capitalism” from Wired.com in 2009. Source: (“Cutthroat Capitalism” n. pag.).
Gamification has become a popular tool in journalism due to its ability to engage readers and drive web traffic (Gangadharbatla and Davis 1). According to a 2008 Pew Research study, 97 percent of American teens play video games regularly on a various different devices (ibid). Gangadharbatla and Davis state that “gaming has become a pervasive form of media
consumption that transcends all layers of the socioeconomic fabric of Western societies” (ibid). In fact, the term “video game journalism” has become a buzzword in the journalism community
throughout the past twenty years (ibid). With the popularity in gaming, incorporating this technology into storytelling is a natural next step for journalists and content creators.
In 2010, journalist and documentary film maker Nonny de la Pena saw opportunity to incorporate virtual reality technology with interactive journalism and became the pioneer of a new kind storytelling known as Immersive Journalism. Inspired by gamification, de la Pena stated that “The sense of presence obtained through an immersive system (whether a Cave or head-tracked head-mounted displays [HMD] and online virtual worlds, such as video games) affords the participant unprecedented access to the sights and sounds, and possibly feelings and emotions, that accompany the news” (1). Specifically, use of an avatar to mimic real life events, inspired de la Pena towards innovation in journalism (ibid). She saw news gaming as the bridge towards a new kind of journalism that combines interactive and gaming aspects of journalism with virtual reality (ibid). The next section will introduce immersive journalism, demonstrating how De la Pena spearheaded this innovative medium.
2.2 The Birth of Immersive Journalism
In a 2012 Ted Talk, Nonny de la Pena stated that throughout her career, she wanted to tell stories “that could make a difference and maybe inspire people to care” (“Nonny De La Peña: The Future of News? Virtual Reality”). She continued by asking the audience, “What if I could present you a story that you remember with your entire body and not just with your mind?” De la Pena stated that it was not until she began experimenting with virtual reality that she “started seeing intense, authentic reactions from people.” She saw the connection between creativity and emotions, viewing immersive journalism as a kind of art (ibid). According to professor Paul J. Silva: “From ancient to modern times, theories of aesthetics have emphasized the role of art in evoking, shaping, and modifying human feelings” (1). With this in mind, De la Pena began her quest to merge virtual reality and journalism into one art form (“Nonny De La Pena: The Future of News? Virtual Reality”).
De la Pena’s first creative venture in the virtual reality space was an interactive
documentary film entitled “Hunger in Los Angeles” that premiered at the 2012 Sundance Film Festival (Huet n. pag.). In order to watch the film, participants had to wear virtual reality
of a food bank at a local church. The audio is real and was captured by de la Pena and her team who were at the actual location at the time. As seen in figures 2.5 and 2.6, the visual aspects of the film were re imagined via computer graphics and motion sensors to mirror the scene of that day. Participants were not only watching a documentary film; they were also fully immersed in the experience of waiting in line at this particular foodbank.
Figure 2.5: The background image is a freeze frame from de la Pena’s Hunger in Los Angeles depicting people waiting in line at a food bank. The image to the right of the background image is of a subject experiencing Hunger in Los Angeles using a virtual reality headset. Source: ("Immersive Journalism About" n. pag.).
Figure 2.6: The background image is a freeze frame from de la Pena’s Hunger in Los Angeles depicting the moment a man collapses in line at a Food Bank. The image to the right of the background image is of a subject experiencing Hunger in Los Angeles using a virtual reality headset. Source: ("Immersive Journalism About" n. pag.).
In the film, amidst the disarray, a man collapses in a diabetic coma due to waiting too long in the line: “By coupling the latest virtual reality goggles with compelling audio, which tricks the mind into feeling like one is actually there, HUNGER provides unprecedented access to the sights, sounds, feelings and emotions that accompany such a terrifying event” (“Immersive Journalism” n. pag.). The film was so powerful; many people were in tears after taking their goggles off when it ended (Huet n. pag.). In fact, after the success of “Hunger in Los Angeles,” de la Pena was proclaimed the “Godmother of Immersive Journalism” by Engadget. (ibid).
De la Pena’s filmmaking skills helped her realize the potential that virtual reality could have on journalism (“Immersive Journalism” n. pag.). For “Hunger in Los Angeles,” she wanted the most immersive experience possible: “To construct her story, De la Pena used
game-development tools, Unity 3-D, a body-tracking system, and a head-mounted google display, along with live recorded audio” (“Hunger in LA” n. pag.). The synergy of these various technologies made for intense reactions from viewers who “tried to touch non-existent characters” throughout the experience (ibid). These emotions brought on by immersive storytelling are what Nonny believes to be crucial to good journalism.
2.21 Learning through Empathy
“Hunger in Los Angeles” was part film, part news story. De la Pena’s goal with the project was to make people aware of the severe hunger crisis plaguing the United States, using this particular Los Angeles food bank as a case study. According to de la Pena, the hunger issue is “invisible to the average American” and often ignored by the mainstream media (“Immersive Journalism” n. pag.). So, with the immersive journalism experience, this film provides context to the hunger crisis through first person participation.
According to de la Pena, the goal of the film was to not only educate people, but also to increase their empathy towards victims (“Nonny De La Peña: The Future of News? Virtual Reality”). Empathy is a crucial part of certain types of journalism because it allows for compassion towards stigmatized groups (Oliver et al 1). Moreover, according to the Poynter Institute of Journalism, an American non-profit journalism school: “Journalism education should incorporate the study of empathy and compassion alongside its study of the objective method”
(Blank-Libra n. pag.). Therefore, empathy can help enforce journalists to remain fair and ethically sound (ibid).
Nonny De la Pena aimed to elicit even more collective empathy with her second film entitled “Project Syria” which was showcased for the first time at the 2014 World Economic Forum. Like “Hunger in Los Angeles,” “Project Syria” was made with the goal of educating the public about newsworthy current events that according to de la Pena, fail to garner enough media attention (“Immersive Journalism” n. pag.). The piece focuses on the refugee crisis in Syria, specifically, how it is affecting Syrian children.
As with “Hunger in Los Angeles,” the Syria piece was created using audio from a real-life event. In this case - first, a bombing in the city of Aleppo and second, within a Syrian refugee camp. This time, De la Pena and her team experimented with using both computer generated graphics and real life 360-degree footage to produce the best and most immersive experience possible. According to De la Pena:
I had this extra added layer of carefully creating a map of every aspect of the street so that every texture, every brick building, every bench, every bit of trash, every sign, everything was created one-to-one in the digital environment from the real source material. The textures, the cloth, all of that came from the imagery in the photographs. Everything was built as exact as possible (Parker n. pag.).
Figures 2.7 and 2.8 show images from the film that incorporated both real footage and computer generated graphics.
Figure 2.7: A freeze frame from de la Pena’s Project Syria depicting a Syrian girl singing on the street moments before a bomb explodes. Source: ("Immersive Journalism About" n. pag.).
Figure 2.8: A freeze frame from de la Pena’s Project Syria depicting a Syrian refugee camp. Source: ("Immersive Journalism About" n. pag.).
The reactions to “Project Syria” were what de la Pena expected: “Over a five-day run we ended up with 54 pages of guest book comments, and we were told by the curators there that they'd never seen such an outpouring” (Nonny De La Peña: The Future of News? Virtual Reality”). According to Caleb Garling at Wired: “If viewers can ‘feel’ the power of gunfire overhead in Syria and ‘stand’ shoulder to shoulder with grieving Syrians in the aftermath, they’ll understand these tragedies from the inside, not as just another headline” (n. pag.). De la Pena’s project was so effective because of the content, but also due to the technology used such as motion sensors and custom made virtual reality goggles (Malmo n. pag.). This allowed for the most immersive participation that technology could afford, giving users the experience of trauma without actually being there (ibid).
There has already been a myriad of studies done on experiencing trauma using virtual reality technology, specifically in therapy settings for treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. For instance, in a 2007 study by Beck et al, subjects who experienced trauma via a serious motor vehicle accident were placed in a simulation aimed at replicating their respective crashes. The majority of participants in the virtual reality simulation reported that the experience
demonstrated high levels of realism - subjects perceived it with “high levels of reality” that mirrored the actual accident (1).
Another study done by Rothbaum et al used virtual reality exposure therapy on Vietnam war veterans for treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Using a “virtual jungle clearing,” subjects were exposed to the sights and sounds that they experienced in the war in order to hopefully overcome their trauma. According to the researchers: “The patient[s] appeared to become immersed in the virtual environment”
(Rothbaum et al 4). Scenarios like this demonstrate the effectiveness of virtual reality immersion in mimicking real life events. As a result, immersive journalism is gaining mainstream attention from mass media companies and journalists alike.
2.22 Immersive Journalism in the Mainstream
As virtual reality technology continues to permeate the world of journalism, more companies are willing to invest in immersive platforms (Malmo n. pag.). Publishers like The Guardian and The Financial Times have released virtual reality pieces within this past year that users can
experience using one of many virtual reality headsets available on the market. RYOT, an
immersive media company founded in 2012, believes that the news should inspire action (Carson n. pag.). They have been creating 360-degree virtual reality pieces since their start, beginning with one about solitary confinement inmates at American prisons. According to a company representative, several people that experienced the film subsequently signed a petition with the American Civil Liberties Union (ibid).
While immersive journalism is gaining attention from major publishers in the journalism space, one significant setback is lack of funding (Volpe n. pag). In fact, Nonny de la Pena invested a large portion of her own money into her early projects (n. pag.). In order to create the experience - technology, staff and traveling can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars (Hughes n. pag.). The industry, however, is adapting, as virtual reality headsets for consumers are becoming more affordable (ibid). As more mainstream publishers continue to invest in virtual reality technology, smaller organizations will follow suit (ibid). While funding is a major issue in the creation of immersive journalism pieces, ethical concerns also represent a setback in its
development. The following sections explore journalism principles from a historical perspective, followed by an analysis of the current state of ethics within immersive journalism.
2.3 The Ethics of Digital Journalism
A universal code of ethics lies at the core of journalism, but has evolved since the advent of the internet. The Ethical Journalism Network - a non-profit organization that advocates for ethical standards in media through education – lists five core principles of journalism: truth and
accuracy, independence, fairness and impartiality, humanity and accountability (n. pag.). Despite these principles, however, journalists still face ethical dilemmas in their work. In her book Ethics & Journalism, Karen Sanders notes that: “Deception, invasion of privacy, treatment of suffering, payment of criminals, the use of sexually explicit material are all areas in which controversies [in journalism] have arisen in the last twenty years” (29). As a result, she states that “there is no escaping the question of ethics in journalism” (ibid). So while a concrete code of principals is important to journalists, Sanders would also argue that a discussion about the past, present and future of ethics in journalism is just as important (ibid).
According to Stephen Ward, the notion of ethics in journalism dates back to seventeenth century Europe (1). During the western intellectual and philosophical movement known as the Enlightenment, journalists created a “public ethic” and “claimed to be tribunes of the public, protecting their liberty against government” (Ward 2). Furthermore, in the nineteenth century, Irish statesmen Edmund Burke defined the press as the “Fourth Estate.” This is the continuing notion that the press acts as a symbolic branch of government meant to check and balance to ensure fairness and lack of corruption (ibid). These standards continue to permeate journalism, but take on a new perspective with the evolution of technology. In the digital age, these ethics need to be reexamined due the implications of the internet that did not exist before its invention.
John V. Pavlik analyzes key ethical issues facing journalists in the digital age. When the internet was first introduced in the early 1990s, it was difficult for journalists to use these new tools while also remaining ethically sound (n. pag.) Pavlik notes that digital manipulation is one of the key concerns surrounding ethics in digital journalism. He points to photo editing as one of the key issues with several historical examples (ibid). As journalists are supposed to be fair and impartial, changing how a photo looks could hinder audience perception of the facts, thus creating an ethical dilemma.
One of the most popular examples of photo manipulation is from the 1994 image of OJ Simpson on the cover of Time magazine (Pavlik n. pag.). This American case captured a global audience due to the high profile nature of the accused. At the time, OJ, a former player in the United States National Football League, was tried for the murder of his ex-wife Nicole Brown Simpson and her friend Ron Goldman (whom she allegedly had an affair with). As seen in Figure 2.9, Time editors digitally altered the image of OJ to make him appear darker and thus (according to Time) more menacing. When Newsweek magazine used the same image on their
cover, it became clear that the Time editors had engaged in digital manipulation which
problematized their ethical reputation: “They darkened the top of the photo and made the police lineup numbers smaller. They decided Simpson was guilty so they made him look guilty” (Long 2). In this instance, not only did Time break a journalistic ethical code, they also presumed that dark equals guilty, implicating them as racially insensitive (ibid).
Figure 2.9: Side by side images of Newsweek and TIME magazine covers both originally published on June 17, 1994. Source: ("TIME Magazine - OJ Simpson" n. pag.).
Another instance of digital manipulation mentioned by Pavlik is the editing of audio recording (n.pag.). In 2012, the arrest of George Zimmerman was highly publicized. This was due to the fact that Zimmerman, who at the time was a member of a neighborhood watch group, shot and killed a 17-year-old unarmed black man, Treyvon Martin. The death of Martin sparked protests and riots globally and was a catalyst for international activist movement known as “Black Lives Matter.” Zimmerman sued NBC News claiming that they edited the audio of a 911 call to police after the shooting that made him appear racist. The lawsuit resulted in NBC firing the producer who did in fact edit the audio recording with the assumption that it would sway public opinion on the case. So while editing audio is common in journalism, it becomes a problem when ethical concerns are involved (Pavlik n. pag.).
The proliferation of smartphones like the iPhone have made the potential for audio manipulation like the Zimmerman example easy and accessible for journalists (Newell 1). Now referred to as “smartphone journalism,” use of these devices allows journalists to tell stories via
text, photo, video and social media seamlessly and efficiently (ibid). The downside, however, is the risk of unethical behavior like audio manipulation. While ethical audio editing is typically taught in journalism schools or other educational programs, many journalists lack awareness or education regarding these issues. According to the American National Public Radio Guide to Audio Journalism and Production, in regards to audio editing: “Even occasional lapses can have serious consequences. The price of good journalism is eternal vigilance” (Kern 9). Just as journalists need to understand the implications and consequences of digital manipulation, interactive journalism also raises a myriad of ethical concerns.
2.31 The Ethics of Interactive Journalism
Social media brought about a whole new set of ethical concerns for journalists. While interactive journalism and gamification can empower consumers and drive traffic due to web 2.0
technology, there are additional ethical issues that arise as a result. Professors in journalism Jane B. Singer and Ian Ashman note that: “The rapid growth of various forms of ‘user-generated content,’ from comments to hosted blogs to ‘hyperlocal’ news stories, means the journalist has far less control over what was once an essentially industrial process of making news” (2). They then go on to ask the question, “If the content space is shared, is responsibility for the content itself also shared? Who decides what is credible, true, or even newsworthy in the first place?” (ibid). With interactive journalism, accuracy can be compromised, since user information sharing among journalist and reader is becoming the norm.
The phenomenon of “fake news” for instance, can be attributed, in part, to the affordances made available via interactive journalism. This term refers to news content deliberately created to spread misinformation. “Fake news” became a buzzword of the 2016 United States presidential elections due to its rise in prominence on social networking sites like Facebook. According to Allcot and Gentzkow: “Recent evidence shows that 62 percent of US adults get news on social media [… and] the most popular fake news stories were more widely shared on Facebook than the most popular mainstream news stories” (212). As a result of this, many people that see “fake news” stories on Facebook believe them to be true (ibid). This not only provides the public with a false narrative, but it also undermines the practice of journalism and undercuts its ethical standards.
Facebook’s news feed can be viewed as Persuasive Technology. B.J. Fogg discusses this phenomenon in his essay entitled: “Persuasive Technology: Using Computers to Change What We Think and Do.” According to Fogg, persuasive technology is an “interactive computing system designed to change people’s attitudes or behaviors.” He goes on to discuss how, at first, computers were not created to persuade – but instead, built for storing and calculating data (1). As the personal computer evolved, however, so did the ways in which its software started to interact with users.
Fogg coined the term Captology and defines it as “computers as persuasive technologies” (5), identifying interactivity as a main factor (6). This is the notion that being persuasive is most effective when interactivity is involved. He goes on to discuss the reasons why computers can be more persuasive then humans. One of these explanations is that software can scale and reach large audiences, as he states that computers have the ability to reach mass amounts of people much easier than human beings (6). Fogg’s theory of captology epitomizes the ethical issues involved with the spread of fake news via the Facebook newsfeed. And in in order to demystify Facebook’s persuasion techniques, one must look to its algorithms.
The spread of fake news was further perpetuated in 2016 when Facebook modified their
news feed algorithm. The result is that users now see more posts shared by friends rather than publishers and advertisers (Kulwin n. pag.). According to Facebook, this will provide users with an even more personal experience (n. pag.) In terms of publishers, users will now see less of a variety of articles and more of what is popular among their own Facebook friend community. This means that a user is most likely to see news that is relevant to their friends. Ultimately, this could lead to users only seeing stories that supports their existing opinions or beliefs (Nejrotti n. pag.). As the number of people who use Facebook as their primary news source continues to grow – the risk of this increases (ibid). According to Aiden White of the Ethical Journalism Network: “A major concern remains that fake or misleading news can spread like wildfire on social networks because of confirmation bias, the use of “likes” and sharing with our friends” (n. pag.).
The phenomenon of fake news contributed to an already polarizing news media, perpetuated by the “filter bubbles” or “echo chambers” created by social platforms like Facebook. This is the notion that people tend to surround themselves with others of similar beliefs and values and exist in social groups that are generally like-minded (Difonzo n. pag.).
Platforms like Facebook and their newsfeed algorithm allow people to maintain these groups online, which could lead to users only seeing news that supports their existing opinions or beliefs (Nejrotti n. pag.) In fact, in July of 2016, Facebook studied information from 10.1 million US accounts and confirmed that users’ news feeds usually reflect their own ideologies (Alba n. pag.).
As Facebook’s newsfeed algorithm encourages so-called echo chambers, the spreading of misinformation coupled with increasing polarization presents an ethical dilemma for news media organizations. In a 2015 study conducted by the Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of America, researchers examined how information (and misinformation) is spread online. Their study focused on Facebook - the data they used came directly from Facebook pages and their corresponding posts. In the study (2010-2014), they found that users tend to stay in ‘homogenous clusters:’ “Our findings show that users mostly tend to select and share content related to a specific narrative and to ignore the rest” (558). They go on to state that: “Most of the times the information is taken by a friend having the same profile (polarization)––i.e., belonging to the same echo chamber” (558). This begs the question, if Facebook users are stuck in thse echo chambers, will they ever see news reflecting ideologies and opinions other than their own? Moreover, how do publishers compete with a giant like Facebook with nearly 2 billion registered users? These are some of the key ethical dilemmas journalists must face in light of the affordances brought about through interactive journalism.
2.32 From Fake News to Bad Data
Similar to fake news, interactive journalism can also lead to bad data visualizations. Journalist Nikki Usher of CNN discusses the potentials and the pitfalls of data overload and journalism. Using the 2016 United States presidential elections as a case study, Usher outlines the dangers of misinforming the public with inaccurate data visualizations: “This post-election electoral map is full of opportunities to misinterpret visual data, and to miss insights that might come from if it were done more successfully” (n. pag.) (See Figure 2.10).
Figure 2.10: Image of the US electoral map in the days leading up to the 2016 US presidential elections. Source: (Usher n. pag.).
According to Usher, electoral maps in the days leading up to the election (like the one seen above) were not detailed enough, giving readers opportunity to misinterpret the data. As she explained: “The reality is much more complicated than the neat red, blue and slightly shaded
varieties of the color” (ibid).Usher urges consumers to be cautious when it comes to interactive
data in journalism as it can sometimes lead to misinformation (ibid).
Unfortunately, inaccurate data visualizations permeate online journalism (Cairo n. pag.). When discussing bad data in news, journalist Alberto Cairo states that: “Many in our profession still stick to flawed practices, such as asking the same questions to two or more sources and then just reporting their answers, without weighing the evidence and then pointing out which opinion is better grounded” (ibid). Similar to fake news, incorrect data visualizations can easily be shared on Facebook, thus continuing the cycle of misinformation. These ethical dilemmas involving the spreading of misinformation are crucial for journalists to understand when entering the
2.4 The Ethics of Immersive Journalism
Just as the web brought about new kinds of ethical concerns, so does immersive journalism. One of the main ethical debates within immersive journalism is the notion of potential bias through the construction of stories: “Under the realism of VR experiences, it is easy to forget as the viewer that the story is being told and constructed with intention” (Kool 7). As immersive journalism experiences like Nonny de la Pena’s have a clear objective and narrative, there is the fear that this could lead to propaganda or exploitation: “The creative liberties available in [virtual reality] insidiously make [virtual reality] persuasive and change the consumption of the story” (ibid). Unlike traditional written journalism, virtual reality journalism can incorporate sound and directional scenes that have the potential to hinder the accuracy of the story due to people’s perception or emotional response to the experience.
Another ethical concern is how to capture a natural environment without affecting it. For instance, immersive journalism techniques typically require the use of a 360-degree camera, which journalists must set up before recording takes place: “That extra bit of choreography — which often requires coordination between journalist and subject — can make virtual reality less spontaneous than photography and videography” (Mullin n. pag.). Moreover, since the camera captures 360 degrees of footage, certain subjects may appear within the frame of the camera without their consent (ibid). This could cause problems in terms of privacy laws and trespassing which varies among nations and territories.
According to The Center for Journalism Ethics, the question “who owns a reality?” also arises up when addressing the ethics of immersive journalism (Culver n. pag.). In an immersive journalism piece, the question of copyright must be addressed. For instance, what kind of permission do journalists need to obtain to recreate a scene? Additionally, how do journalists capture the essence of a real-life event without infringing on a trademarked design or idea? Since the medium is so new, these kinds of ethical questions are only recently being addressed and brought to the public discourse. The ethical implications of immersive journalism will be further elaborated on within the research findings and discussion of this paper.
2.5 Conclusions
Journalism has evolved dramatically within the past 30 years, as the internet brought about a myriad of new ways to create, consume and share content. As newsrooms began adapting to the digital age, journalism slowly shifted from print to online. Today, online journalism is the new normal, as print news is slowly becoming obsolete. Moreover, web 2.0 gave way to interactive journalism, allowing for a contemporary relationship between journalist and consumer.
These innovations in journalism prompted Nonny de la Pena to experiment with
technology like virtual reality and eventually pioneer a new kind of journalism that is still in its infancy. De la Pena’s quest to tell stories that could evoke empathy in people and inspire them to care is what ultimately led to the birth of immersive journalism. After seeing the intense
reactions to her first immersive journalism film, “Hunger in Los Angeles,” De la Pena knew that this new art form was something special (“(“Nonny De La Peña: The Future of News? Virtual Reality”).
As with any new form of journalism, virtual reality brought about a whole new set of ethical dilemmas. Moreover, according to professor Hollis Kool: “The influence and impact this new medium may have are important to examine for its impact on the way that subjects portray, journalists capture, and consumers learn about news” (1). While mixing virtual reality with journalism is a relatively new concept, it is becoming more mainstream as large publishers like the New York Times create new platforms for it. As Kool states, “skepticism for and awareness about these believable new mediums should be encouraged” (9). So, empathy and ethics of immersive journalism will be further investigated based on the methodology outlined in chapter 3.
Chapter 3: Methods
“Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose.” - Zora Neale Hurston (“Zora Neale Hurston Quotes” n. pag.).
3.1 Research Questions
Based on my research, I found that the emotional responses to storytelling are an important part of the news industry. Moreover, empathy is a crucial emotion in journalism, because according to Nonny de la Pena, it forces people to care (“Nonny De La Peña: The Future of News? Virtual Reality”). De la Pena stresses the importance of empathy in her work, which in turn, creates a new set of ethical concerns among the journalism community. The introduction of virtual reality technology to journalism led me to the following research questions:
1. How does immersive journalism use virtual reality interfaces to evoke empathy through storytelling?
2. What are the ethical implications of immersive journalism?
3.2 Data Collection
For this research, subjects have been asked to read a New York Times article and watch the associated 360-degree film, then answer two questionnaires based on their experiences.
According to Boynton and Greenhalgh: “Questionnaires offer an objective means of collecting information about people's knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and behavior” (2). Furthermore, they state that questionnaires can act as the “sole research instrument” (ibid). For this paper, the questionnaire will be the “sole research instrument” and designed using both qualitative (descriptive) and quantitative (numerical) methods.
3.21 Selection and Sampling of Research Subjects
The subjects of this research will be a sample of journalists from The Next Web, a global
publisher, based in Amsterdam, the Netherlands consisting of approximately 50 employees, that focuses on technology and innovation. Based on the number of employees working at the chosen publisher, a sample of ten journalists was determined by the researcher to be the optimal amount. As immersive journalism is a relatively new platform, there is not a vast amount of scholarly work on the subject (De la Pena 1). So, in order to best assess the research questions, it is crucial to have professional journalists as participants since they are experts in the field.
According to Blank-Libra, the goal of traditional journalism is for journalists to remain objective and follow a set of ethical standards (3). She also argues, however, that compassion, which is driven by empathy, is an important method that journalists can employ while also remaining ethically sound (ibid). Based on the fact that journalists are keenly aware of ethical issues surrounding their practice while also valuing empathy, they are best suited for this research. Furthermore, these journalists all work in the digital space and have a deep understanding of how journalism is changing with technological innovations.
The ten journalists were selected by the researcher. They were chosen via a combination of two strategies outlined by Marshall: The “convenience sample” and “judgment sample” (523). According to Marshall, the convenience sample technique involves “the selection of the most accessible subjects” (ibid). Marshall also states that this method can sometimes lead to “poor quality data” and a lack of “intellectual credibility.” As a result, the judgment sample strategy was also used to garner the best results. This method is the most commonly used and involves the researcher selecting “the most productive sample to answer the research question” (ibid). So, in choosing the sample of ten journalists, convenience and judgment were both taken into
account. Moreover, out of the ten journalists chosen, there is an even split among genders - five identify as female and five identify as male. Additionally, all of the subjects have a high level of education, holding a bachelor degree or higher.
3.22 Choice of Immersive Journalism Platform
This research will use the New York Times virtual reality platform as a case study. According to journalist Rob Tornoe: “No media company has invested more in virtual reality storytelling than the New York Times” (n. pag.). In November of 2015, the Times launched their New York Times Virtual Realty application for smartphones and tablets, while subsequently providing their subscribers with complimentary Google Cardboard virtual reality headsets. Shortly thereafter, more than 600,000 people downloaded the application which provides users with a consumer friendly immersive journalism experience that de la Pena pioneered.
To explore the research questions, the New York Times virtual reality application will be surveyed and analyzed for content and how the techniques used affect user perception and evoke empathy. Moreover, the New York Times immersive journalism application has a myriad of content to choose from and is consumer facing. Due to its accessibility and high quality content, the New York Times virtual reality application was chosen for this research. In order to
experience this application, it first needs to be downloaded onto a smartphone, in this case, an iPhone 6.
3.3 Determine the Virtual Reality Headset for Research
The Google Cardboard product was chosen as the headset for this research, as seen in figure 3. Developed by Google and taken to market in June 2014, Cardboard is Google’s answer to consumer friendly virtual reality technology. When ordered, parts are sent to the consumer who can easily assemble it based on a short list of directions. Made of cardboard, 45 mm focal length lenses, magnets and velcro, the product has become a popular alternative to higher end models like Oculus Rift that sell for hundreds of dollars.
Retailing at $15.00, Cardboard “brings immersive experiences to everyone in a simple and affordable way” (“Get Cardboard” n. pag.). Ralph states that: “Google Cardboard isn't a contender for the VR throne: it's the ambassador that'll make us care about virtual reality in the first place” (n. pag.). In the spirit of Nonny del la Pena’s goal of bringing immersive journalism to the mainstream, a consumer friendly and cost effective product was chosen for this research. Upon downloading the New York Times virtual reality application on the iPhone 6, it can then be
connected to the Google Cardboard for the immersive journalism experience. Apple headphones were also chosen and used to experience the film.
Figure 3: An image from a Fortune.com article showing a woman using the Google cardboard device. Source: (Gaudiosi n. pag.).
3.31 Choice of Film
The researcher determined the film chosen should highlight an important issue that could resonate with a global audience. The video chosen for this research is entitled “10 Shots Across the Border” (figure 3.1) and runs seven minutes and forty-six seconds long. Directed by Ben Rofee and Tyson Sadler, it is set within the United States and Mexico border and focuses on the killing of a 16-year-old Mexican boy named Sergio Hernandez by a US border patrol officer. Hernandez was shot by agent Jesus Mesa across a concrete border fence; Mesa stood in Texas, while Hernandez was in Mexico. According to Mesa, he was chasing two men (purportedly smuggling drugs) trying climb the border fence. When Mesa allegedly saw rocks being thrown at him over the fence, he began firing. Instead of hitting the targeted men, he hit Hernandez, who was unarmed and only carrying a cell phone. As outlined in both the article and film, this case is complicated and not typical due to the fact that the alleged perpetrator and the victim were in two different countries at the time of the shooting.
Figure 3.1: A freeze frame from of the NY Times piece “10 Shots Across the Border.” Source: (Binelli n. pag.).
This film was chosen based on its length as well as context. For this research, a film under ten minutes was considered desirable in order to garner the most accurate results from the subjects. Due to the detailed nature of the questionnaire, it is crucial that the subjects are able to focus on the film for its entirety with close attention to detail. According to a Microsoft survey, the average adult attention span is eight seconds (Egan n. pag.). Here, attention span is defined as “the amount of concentrated time on a task without becoming distracted” (ibid). The researcher decided that based on this evidence, the length of the chosen film (7:41) was appropriate.
For this research, it was also determined that the chosen film should resonate with current cultural or societal events. This video focuses on the issue of immigration, specifically within the region of Mexico, and concerns surrounding US border patrol actions. According to Christine Lagarde, immigration is a global issue, specifically cross-border migration (n. pag). In February 2017, newly elected American president Donald Trump signed a travel order banning refugees from specific countries from entering the US. This sparked protests worldwide and continues to be a major focus of the international community (ibid). According to a piece by the Los Angeles Times, “At issue is whether the Mexican family can invoke the Constitution’s protections against excessive force and for due process of law to restrain the conduct of the American agent, or whether U.S. law stops at the border” (Savage n. pag.). As the topic of immigration remains a cemented part of today’s media focus, it will certainly be a topic of relevance for the subjects of this study. Figure 3.2 is an example of one subject watching the film. As it was her first time
experiencing immersive journalism, she had to hold onto the chair due to her feeling of uneasiness.
Figure 3.2: A subject watching the film “10 Shots Across the Border” The Next Web offices with Google Cardboard glasses on. Source: Photograph by Caroline Nisenson.
3.4 Questionnaire Design
Once the components of the methodology were determined, the final step was to develop and design the questionnaires. In thinking about the questionnaire design, I considered research of Rattray and Jones who state that in designing a questionnaire, the researcher must consider the aims of their research and the background on similar research done on the subject (1). Moreover, they state that: “Questionnaire design and development must be supported by a logical,
systematic and structured approach” (ibid). Based on this, the following parameters were decided upon:
3.41 Self-Completion Questionnaire
I determined that the questionnaires administered to subjects were to be self-completed rather than via interview. This method was determined to be best suited for the research questions due to the “absence of interviewer effects” (Bryman 2008 217). According to Bryman,
“characteristics of interviewers (and respondents) may affect the answers that people give” (219). He goes on to state that characteristics such as “ethnicity, gender and social background of the interviewers may combine to bias the answers that respondents provide” (ibid). Moreover, in an interview setting, the interviewer could exhibit variability, meaning that they may not ask the same question in the same exact way each time (ibid). In order to avoid these issues, the self-completion questionnaire was chosen.
3.5 Two Online Questionnaires via SurveyMonkey
Two separate online questionnaire were chosen for this research versus a paper questionnaire because it was more suitable and convenient for the subjects. The platform SurveyMonkey was also chosen because it is cost-effective as well as being a strong tool favorable among
researchers.
Based on the research questions, it was determined that the best course of action was for the subjects to read the corresponding New York times article that goes along with the film and respond to that in the first questionnaire. Then, the subjects will watch the film and answer an additional questionnaire. The researcher can then analyze the results against one another in order to best respond to the research questions. The article is also entitled “10 Shots Across the
Border” by Mark Binelli and was published on March 3, 2016. See Appendix 1 for full article.
3.51 Qualitative and Quantitative Components
Both qualitative and quantitative components were chosen for the questionnaire design. Research that involves the integration of quantitative and qualitative methods is also known as “mixed methods” and has become increasingly popular throughout the past few years (Bryman 1). According to Bryman, this type of approach “can be helpful{...}in clarifying the nature of their
intentions or of their accomplishments” (ibid). As a result, the questionnaires for this research will incorporate both quantitative and qualitative components. To protect people’s privacy, the questionnaires are filled out anonymously. Moreover, Whelan states that subjects are more likely to answer questions honestly when their identity is not revealed. Based on her research and the research questions, the questionnaire was then formulated. See appendix 1 for screen shots of both full questionnaires.
Chapter 4: Findings
“Why do we do basic research? To learn about ourselves.” - Walter Gilbert (“Walter Gilbert Quotes” n. pag.).
Once all twenty surveys were complete, I then examined the results via the analytics tool provided by SurveyMonkey.com. This tool creates custom charts and also allows users to export data into excel. As a result, I determined that the Survey Monkey platform was sufficient and comprehensive enough that no additional analytics tools were needed to address the research questions. Before I discuss the findings, however, it is first necessary to highlight challenges that were presented as a result of my methodology. While I was able to garner sufficient results through the use of my questionnaires, I also found difficulty collecting responses in a timely manner. Once the subjects completed reading both the article and associated film, they were asked to answer the two respective questionnaires that were sent to them via email. While I hoped that these would be completed within 24 hours, the average completion time was 72 hours. This hindered my ability to stay on schedule.
In analyzing web and mail survey response rates, Kaplowitz et al claim that “some studies suggest that in populations with access to the internet, response rates for e-mail and Web surveys may not match those of other survey methods” (1). They go on to state that “one
explanation for these differences in response rates may be the fact that less time and attention have been devoted to developing and testing motivating tools to increase Web survey response” (ibid). This resonated with me because the biggest challenge I faced revolved around slow response rates. Having reviewed my methodology - in future research, I will try to provide incentives to subjects in order to attain results in a more efficient manner. Moreover, I will experiment with paper surveys rather than email to see if that method garners a faster completion rate. The following are results of each survey - first looked at individually and then compared in order to best address the research questions.
4.1 Responses to Traditional Journalism Experience
This first questionnaire was made up of five questions in response to reading the New York Times article “10 Shots Across the Border” by Mark Binelli. Question number 1 asked the subjects what their journalistic area of expertise is at The Next Web. The majority of respondents indicated area of expertise as “tech” or “technology.” The second most popular answer for question number one was “fin tech,” which stands for financial technology. The results of each subsequent question are described and visualized in the following findings:
The results of Question 2 showed that 10 percent of respondents felt as though the plot of the article was “not very” clear. The majority of respondents, however, found that it was “quite” comprehensible to read but no one chose “very much.” This could potentially be attributed to the length of the story and the nature of the adult attention span. As stated in the methodology, a recent Microsoft survey found that the average adult attention span is eight seconds (Egan n. pag.). Moreover, several of the subjects told me that the length of the article made it difficult for them to concentrate on for long periods of time.
Questions 3 and 4 ask the subjects whether or not after reading the article, they would take further action to learn about the case and its major players. Figures 4 and 4.1 show that the majority of respondents took a moderate position on this point, choosing “somewhat” for both questions. No one was highly enthusiastic about either question as the “very much” response was not chosen by anyone in either question.
