Exploring Musical Metaphors in Astronomy
(Webb, 2013) Lydia Kooistra Master Thesis Comparative Cultural Analysis Thesis Advisor: Murat Aydemir Student number: 6138772 7 May, 2016
Table of Contents
Introduction ... 3 Examples of musical metaphors in media for the dissemination of astronomy ... 5 Sonic phenomena ... 6 The Big Bang ... 7 The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation ... 8 String theory ... 9 Ornamental musical metaphors ... 9 Chapter 1: Conceptual Metaphor Theory ... 11 Linguistic form or conceptual metaphor ... 11 MIP and MIPVU ... 12 Conventionalized grammar or specific situations of usage ... 13 Determining the similarities ... 15 Primary and complex conceptual metaphors ... 16 Discourse metaphors ... 17 Chapter 2: Cosmos case study ... 19 Description case study ... 19 Analysis Cosmos case study ... 24 Identifying source and target domains ... 24 Grammar or usage? ... 27 Identifying the conceptual metaphor ... 28 Chapter 3: Case Study String Theory ... 30 Description case study ... 30 Analysis String Theory case study ... 32 Identifying source and target domains ... 32 Grammar or usage? ... 34 Identifying the conceptual metaphor ... 35 Chapter 4: Comparison case studies ... 37 Summary ... 37 Comparison ... 37 Discourse Metaphor Approach ... 38 Chapter 5: Harmony of the Spheres ... 41 Origins of Harmony of the Spheres ... 41 The Scientific Revolution ... 43
Kepler’s Harmonic Law ... 46 Music as a model at the beginning of modern science ... 49 Conclusion ... 52 Summary ... 52 Music’s Sublime Quality ... 53 Topics for further research ... 56 Bibliography ... 57
Introduction
Music and astronomy are seemingly unrelated subjects that, at first glance, have no overlap in academia or in our day-to-day lives. The study of astronomy and the study of music (whether practical or theoretical) have no shared discourse. Indeed, these two studies could be regarded as representatives of the ‘two cultures’. The theory of ‘two cultures’ describes the gap between the sciences and the humanities and how the intellectuals of these fields have such different approaches, methods and behaviors that it is as if they belong to different cultures (Snow, 2012). Despite this lack in overlap between these two subjects, an interesting and contradicting trend can be observed in media meant for the dissemination of astronomy like documentaries, nonacademic articles, TED talks and educational YouTube videos. This trend involves the recurrent use of musical metaphors to explain complex astronomical concepts or phenomena to audiences unfamiliar to the field. For example, string theory is rarely explained to laymen without the use of the metaphor of a guitar or violin string that when plucked produces musical notes that represent the elementary particles that are produced by the frequency of the vibration of elementary strings. Apart from that, documentaries and nonacademic articles about astronomy are shot-through with terms like ‘celestial symphony’, ‘planetary orchestra’, ‘soundtrack of the universe’, and ‘space rings like a drum’. This metaphorical trend raises a number of questions. What is it about these musical metaphors that is particularly functional in this context? Does this trend have a basis in culture or history, or does it arise from a predisposition in human cognition that links these two subjects? What does this metaphorical trend imply about how we value music? Ultimately, the question I will try to answer in this thesis is as follows: why has the metaphorical trend that explains astronomical concepts in musical terms manifested itself in astronomy dissemination? By answering this question, I aim to be able to draw conclusions about the implications of this metaphorical trend for how music is viewed and valued in society. I aim to answer the question by analyzing two case studies that make use of musical metaphors in the context of astronomy dissemination. The analysis of these two case studies is useful to gain a comparative perspective. One of the case studies is a novelexample of a musical metaphor that is used in an episode of the popular 1980s astronomy series produced by Carl Sagan, Cosmos: A Personal Voyage (1980). Throughout this thesis, I will refer to this cast study as the Cosmos case study. This novel case study is relevant in relation to my second case study which will deal with a more general and consistently used example of a musical metaphor. It has been drawn upon by many scientists in many different sources over a period of almost 30 years. This is the string theory metaphor that I have mentioned previously, which is used to explain string theory in terms of the strings of a violin or guitar. I will discuss the general use of this metaphor, but I will pay special attention to a passage in the source that popularized this metaphor. I will refer to this case study as the the String Theory case study. The comparison of these very different types of case studies is helpful for determining if, despite their differences, they have a similar basis and, if so, whether this basis is historical, cultural or conceptual. I have identified Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) as a useful theory through which to analyze the musical metaphors in these case studies. This hermeneutic approach focuses on the role metaphor plays in conventional language rather than its ornamental use in literature and poetry. Furthermore, CMT not only shows how metaphors structure everyday conventional language, but also thought. This theory was established in 1980 with linguist George Lakoff’s and philosopher Mark Johnson’s groundbreaking book Metaphors We Live By. I will draw upon their work as well as work by other linguists and metaphor theorists such as Gerard Steen, Zoltán Kövecses, Joe Grady, Jörg Zinken, Iina Hellsten and Brigitte Nerlich who amongst others, have formalized, criticized, and developed this theory throughout the years. The first chapter of this thesis will be devoted to a comprehensive overview of the aspects of CMT that are relevant for the analysis of my case studies. Chapters 2 and 3 will consist of the analysis of the musical metaphors in each case study. These chapters will zoom in on two very specific examples of the usage of musical metaphors. In chapter 4, I will broaden my analysis by applying theories about discourse metaphors to the more general use of musical metaphors in astronomy dissemination. This will allow for an exploration of possible historical events that may have influenced the emergence of this metaphorical trend. This will be done in chapter 5, where the details and history of the theory of the Harmony of the Spheres will be discussed. This is a theory originating from 6th century BC that connects music with astronomy in a literal way (Heller-Roazen, 2011). With this
analysis, it is my intention to determine the reason the metaphorical trend of musical metaphors has manifested itself in astronomy dissemination and what the implications are of this trend for how music is viewed and valued. Before I begin with the overview of CMT, I would like to address two potentially problematic claims that underlie the question I have posed above. These claims are the following: 1. I claim that musical metaphors are used more often in dissemination media about astronomy than in dissemination media about other sciences; 2. I claim that musical metaphors are used more often than other types of metaphors in media for dissemination of astronomy. Both of these claims are made on the basis of my own observation as a student of the humanities, having exposed myself to a large portion of astronomy dissemination due to my own amateur interest in the subject. The fact that I passively observed these patterns rather than actively sought them out, hopefully adds value to these claims. In the following section, I will attempt to substantiate these claims by enumerating a number of examples. I have chosen this qualitative approach to support this claim as opposed to a quantitative one that would involve the use of a computational model that could provide the number of occurrences of metaphorically used musical words in a text corpus (of TED talk transcripts, for example). Such an approach is beyond the scope of this thesis and not necessarily relevant, because the list of examples that follows will suffice as support for the claims above. Examples of musical metaphors in media for the dissemination of astronomy Not only will the following examples serve as an illustration of the consistent use of musical metaphors, but they also attest to their diversity. I have classified metaphors as musical when they use words that can be related to instruments, music theory, harmony, notes, musicians, groupings of musicians (orchestras, bands), symphonies, other musical units and musical genres. I have identified five categories of musical metaphors used within the context of astronomy dissemination. These categories are: 1) musical metaphors describing
sonic phenomena, 2) musical metaphors describing the Big Bang, 3) musical metaphors describing the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, 4) musical metaphors describing string theory and 5) ornamental musical metaphors. Sonic phenomena There is no sound in space and yet there are several waves that come from space that can be converted into sonic recordings. Astronomy dissemination about these recordings often go hand in hand with the use of musical metaphors. An example of this can be found in Jana Levin’s TED talk called “The Sound the Universe Makes” (2011). She discusses hypothetical recordings of space-time being warped by the gravity of celestial objects with an enormous mass like black holes. Black holes have so much gravity they are able to squeeze and stretch space-time, creating gravitational waves that would be able to resonate against a person’s ear drum were they close enough. Theoretically these waves can be recorded. At the time of Levin’s TED talk this was not yet possible. Detectors were not sensitive enough to pick up the gravitational waves. Levin states that the universe is still ‘ringing’ from the Big Bang and that someday we should be able to record the sounds left over from it. This TED talk is fraught with musical metaphors to describe the sounds from space and their meaning. For example, black holes cause space to ‘wobble like a drum’ and contribute to the ‘universe’s soundtrack’. The following passage shows the way Levin uses musical metaphors to make her main point: (...) whatever year it will be when our detectors are finally at advanced sensitivity - we'll build them, we'll turn on the machines and, bang, we'll catch it - the first song from space. If it was the big bang we were going to pick up, it would sound like this. [Static comes out of the sound system] It's a terrible sound. It's literally the definition of noise. It's white noise; it's such a chaotic ringing. But it's around us everywhere, presumably, if it hasn't been wiped out by some other process in the universe. And if we pick it up, it will be music to our ears because it will be the quiet echo of that moment of our creation, of our observable universe. So within the
next few years we will be able to turn up the soundtrack a little bit, render the universe in audio. (Levin, 2011) The meaning of the white noise/chaotic ringing of the big bang, our creation, will be ‘music to our ears; according to Levin. On February 11th, 2016 gravitational waves like the ones Levin speaks of, were recorded for the first time. Not of the big bang but of a nearby black hole. This information was released at a press conference which was live streamed to Columbia University where scientists discussed the findings with the public. Szabolcs Márka, one of the astrophysicists who worked on the project stated the following: “Until this moment, we had our eyes on the sky and we couldn’t hear the music. (…) [The discovery] lets us listen to the music of the cosmos. (…) you can appreciate Beethoven” (Colombia University, 2016). There are also a number of articles and informational videos on the internet that refer to plasma wave recordings as music. For example, a video released by NASA called “The Sounds of Interstellar Space” (2013) explained that recordings of plasma wave data recorded by Voyager 1 indicated that it had left the heliosphere. This was “music to Gurnett’s ears” (the scientist who had made the discovery). The metaphor continues as the narrator explains what causes the oscillations in the recording that indicate Voyager 1’s crossing. Waves caused by solar storms pass through the plasma and make sounds on the recording “akin to fingers strumming the strings on a guitar”. “Kepler’s Surprise: The Sounds of the Stars”, an article from the science journal Nature, also talks about plasma wave recordings. Here, small stars are compared to flutes and larger ones to trombones, and they are said to form a ‘celestial symphony’ because of the plasma waves they produce (Cowen, 2012). NASA’s timeline of science news from 2000-2015 consists of about a dozen articles referring to plasma wave recordings as music. The Big Bang Explanations of the big bang theory are often accompanied by references to a ringing sound. This was evident in Jana Levin’s TED talk, but also in many other sources. In Allan Adams TED talk, “The discovery that could rewrite physics” (2012), he describes the big bang in the following way:
Imagine you take a bell, and you whack the bell with a hammer. What happens? It rings. But if you wait, that ringing fades and fades and fades until you don't notice it anymore. Now, that early universe was incredibly dense, like a metal, way denser, and if you hit it, it would ring, but the thing ringing would be the structure of space-time itself, and the hammer would be quantum mechanics. (Adams, 2012) ‘Ringing’ does not necessarily have a musical connotation, but the projection that accompanies this statement does suggest that this ringing is musical. Although the ‘whacking’ of a bell with a hammer is hardly playing a musical instrument, the musical notes above the stick figure suggest that the ringing of the big bang is perceived by the whacker as musical. (Adams, 2014: 2:20) Another example of a musical big bang metaphor can be found in Amedeo Balbi’s book for non-specialized readers, The Music of the Big Bang (2008). Throughout the book Balbi refers to microwave background radiation emitted by the big bang as music. The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
In dissemination media about a branch of astronomy called X-ray astrophysics or astronomical spectroscopy, another musical metaphor is commonly used. Astronomical spectroscopy makes it possible to view radio, infrared, ultraviolet, gamma and x-rays as well as visible light emitted by celestial objects. This allows astronomers to determine the composition of these objects. The spectrum of rays is often compared to a musical scale, like in an article released through NASA’s science news timeline: “Restricting our view to one part of the spectrum is like listening to just the middle keys of a piano: you miss most of the music” (Dooling, 1997). It is also used by Neil de Grasse Tyson in episode 5 of the remake of the popular astronomy series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage (1980) called Cosmos: A Space Time Odyssey (2014). Tyson states “There are many more kinds of light than our eyes can see. Confining our perception of nature to visible light is like listening to music in only one octave” (Tyson, 2014). String theory This is a category on its own due to the extensiveness of this metaphor, that not only compares elementary strings to instrumental strings, but also the sub nuclear particles being produced to musical notes and the laws of physics to the laws of harmony. This musical metaphor will be dealt with as a case study more extensively in chapter 3. Ornamental musical metaphors Besides the previous recurrent examples, other examples of musical metaphors occur that do not fall under these categories. An example of this can be found in the article called “The one-man band of astrophysics: An unusual x-ray pulsar bursts, pulses, and puzzles astronomers” (1998). As the title reveals, this author compares a pulsar to a musical one-man band. The metaphor is drawn upon throughout the whole article, starting with the statement: “The original astrophysical one-man band has sounded off again, this time for an encore that wasn't quite as long or loud as its debut.” Later the author states: “J1744-28 [the pulsar] doesn't play Mozart - or even Motorhead - but its beat appeals to scientists.” Astrophysicist Dr. Fred Lamb gave the star the nickname ‘one-man band’, because it does so many things at once. Lamb is quoted in the article: "We've seen some
sources that play the drums, some that crash cymbals, and a few that play the trumpet, but this source is a one-man band” (Dooling, 1998). This series of examples illustrates both the consistence and diversity of musical metaphors in media meant for the dissemination of astronomy. The rest of this thesis will be devoted to explaining why this metaphorical trend has manifested itself in this context. The next chapter will provide a comprehensive overview of CMT, which provides a method to uncover notions that underlie the musical metaphors.
Chapter 1: Conceptual Metaphor Theory
Metaphor theory had a breakthrough in 1980 when linguist George Lakoff and philosopher Mark Johnson published the book Metaphors We Live by. This book introduced Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT). Before the publishing of this book, the study of metaphor was limited to the interpretations of poems and literature, and theory was limited to philosophical works about rhetoric, with little focus on the way metaphors were used in everyday conventional language. Metaphor also received little attention within the debate in linguistics on the existence of universals in language between the rationalists and empiricists. Lakoff and Johnson’s book provided a new perspective through which to study language. They showed how metaphors structure not only everyday conventional language, but also thought. They did this by identifying the conceptual metaphors underlying everyday language. Conceptual metaphors are the cognitive systems that linguistic metaphors arise from (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). An example of this is TIME IS MONEY. This conceptual metaphor is evident in common linguistic metaphors like “I don’t have enough time to spare” and “that flat tire cost me an hour” (ibid.: 8). Lakoff and Johnson were the first to identify and study conceptual metaphors. Before, metaphor had merely been studied in its linguistic form. In this thesis I will use the established conventions for the notation of linguistic metaphors (within quotations) and conceptual metaphors (written in small capitals). This conceptual metaphor paradigm has been embraced by many theorists of many different disciplines such as linguistics, cognitive linguistics, discourse studies, philosophy, psychology, history and literary studies. There is an abundance of literature through which the scope of this theory becomes evident. Many theorists have adopted the theory to study a wide range of topics like the rhetoric of politicians, the role of metaphor in advertisements, and the use of metaphors in media. Many theorists have also expanded this theory resulting in the development of many concepts, theories and approaches relating to conceptual metaphors. The scope of the paradigm is large, ranging from the mere identification of conceptual metaphors to research on how they are processed in the brain. Linguistic form or conceptual metaphorDue to the broad application of CMT among topics and disciplines, there has been a lack of consistent methodology amongst them. Cognitive linguist Gerard Steen criticizes this inconsistency and advocates for research that is methodologically responsible. He argues that there are various dimensions of metaphor that can be studied within language and that it is important to be explicit in distinguishing what the target of study is. This is because certain research questions will require a different target than others and this choice of target fundamentally influences the findings. One of the distinctions that needs to be made explicit according to Steen is whether the focus of the study will be on the linguistic form of a metaphor or the underlying conceptual metaphor (Steen, 2007: 3-4). The identification of conceptual metaphors can be useful to discover if an unconventional metaphor like a musical metaphor has a basis in thought. Perhaps this basis is far more conventional than a novel metaphor might seem to be at first glance. Conceptual metaphors also help to reveal connotations such as cultural values that linguistic metaphors reflect. For example, one culture may make excessive use of linguistic metaphors that are made on the basis of the conceptual metaphor TIME IS MONEY. It can be argued that this reveals a cultural idea that the efficient use of time is valuable and should be used wisely. Thus, for this thesis it is very useful to study the conceptual metaphor underlying the musical metaphors in the two case studies. If there is a similar conceptual metaphor underlying the metaphors in both case studies it will be worth questioning if this also is the basis of many of the other examples given in the introduction and perhaps the whole metaphorical trend (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). MIP and MIPVU Steen and other metaphor theorists have also formulated other procedures and guidelines to help formalize and systematize metaphor research. I will elaborate on these procedures and how they can be useful to help uncover the conceptual metaphors of the musical metaphors in the two case studies. First of all, I will use aspects of the Metaphor Identification Procedure (MIP) and its successor, MIPVU. This procedure serves the purpose of finding metaphors ‘in the wild’ as a way to collect data for research. MIP was developed in 2007 by a group of metaphor
theorists, which called themselves the Pragglejaz Group. MIP did not provide steps for the identification of every type of metaphor (such as similes), thus it was expanded upon to include these. This was done by Steen and a number of theorists from the Vrije Universiteit (VU) in Amsterdam and was called MIPVU (Steen et. al., 2010). The procedures involve familiarizing oneself with the entire text in which the metaphors are being identified. Then each lexical unit in the text is defined by its literal meaning and its contextual meaning. The lexical unit can be defined as metaphorical when: 1. the literal meaning contrasts with the contextual meaning. and 2. the contextual meaning can be understood through comparison with the literal meaning (Pragglejaz Group, 2007: 3). MIPVU makes it possible to identify other types of metaphors like similes by identifying metaphor-related words such as the flags ‘as’ and ‘like’. After the identification of the metaphorical words, they can be classified as the source domain of the metaphor. This is the aspect within a metaphor that refers to something else. What follows is the identification of the target domain. The target domain is the concept to which is being referred. Sometimes the target domain can be found within or near the sentence that holds the source domain. MIPVU classifies this as having a direct meaning. If the target domain requires interpretation because it is absent from the actual context, then it can be classified as having an indirect meaning (Steen et. al., 2010: 32). The aim of MIP/MIPVU is to identify all metaphorical language in a text of which the use of the metaphorical language is unknown. Since I have chosen my case studies based on their use of specific metaphorical language (musical metaphors), not every aspect of the procedure is relevant for my analysis of them. It will however, be useful to dissect the metaphorical statements and determine the source and target domains. This will be useful to identify the conceptual metaphors of the musical metaphors. Conventionalized grammar or specific situations of usage
Another step that is useful to identify the type of a conceptual metaphor is determining whether the linguistic forms of the metaphors are examples of conventionalized grammar or examples of specific situations of usage. This is a step advocated by Gerard Steen in Finding Metaphor in Grammar and Usage (2007). This is useful due to the implications it has for the conceptual metaphor. The implication of a conventionalized grammar metaphor is that the conceptual metaphor underlying it is conventionalized and thus could signal a primary metaphor at its basis (more on primary metaphors to follow). If they are examples of usage, then the conceptual metaphors could either be conventional or unconventional (ibid.: 4). What is the difference between these two types of linguistic metaphors? Metaphors that are part of conventionalized grammar are cognitively entrenched and socio-culturally conventionalized. These metaphors are used in everyday speech like the metaphor “I am defending my argument”. In this metaphor, an argument is being treated as something physical that can be defended against something else. It is difficult to speak about arguments without reference to these kind of war terms (defend, attack, support). This means they are ‘cognitively entrenched’ in that they cannot easily be bypassed when speaking and thinking about arguing. This is because the difference between the metaphorical and non-metaphorical meaning of these statements is ambiguous. Another way to recognize these conventional grammar metaphors is when they can be found in institutionalized repositories like dictionaries (ibid.: 4-10). In contrast, when metaphors are specific situations of usage, they are, to some extent unique or novel. However, examples of usage can be commonly used figures of speech, like “She is a night owl”. This is not a cognitively entrenched metaphor and it is relatively more situated and more specific than examples of conventional grammar metaphors. It can be difficult to distinguish between grammar and usage since usage develops into grammar when it is used so excessively that it becomes conventional. Examples of usage also contain novel expressions of conventional grammar metaphors. The usage example that Steen gives of this is “A tsunami of people” as opposed to the conventionalized metaphor “A flood of people”. In fact, it can be difficult to find metaphors that do not have any basis in conventionalized grammar (ibid.: 4-10). The questions that need to be asked are:
1) Are the musical metaphors examples of conventionalized grammar or specific situations of usage? 2) If they are examples of specific situations of usage, do they have a basis in conventionalized grammar? 3) If yes, what is the conventionalized metaphor? Determining similarities Many metaphor theorists argue that similarity can be found at the conceptual basis of metaphors and that determining the similarities that metaphors are based on is necessary for the identification of conceptual metaphors. However, Lakoff and Johnson argue in their publication Philosophy in the Flesh (1999) that the similarities that metaphors are based on, cannot be preexisting or objective, but merely perceived and thereby generated. For this reason, they argue that focusing on these similarities is not useful. Linguist Zolton Kövecses agrees with the presumption that the similarities are subjective and not preexisting, but argues that they are still relevant to study, because they reveal the motivation and experiential basis of the metaphors. A perceived similarity is in fact more interesting than the presence of a pre-existing similarity because it indicates how people think about the target of the metaphor. Kövecses claims that many metaphors are based on perceived structural similarities (Kövecses, 2002: 71). Once the similarities that underlie a metaphor are determined then the conceptual metaphor can be determined by fleshing out the mapping of the metaphor. A mapping is a set of metaphors that correspond with each other on the basis of the same similarities. These metaphors are also called entailments. Table 1 is an example of the mapping of the conceptual metaphor IDEAS ARE FOOD. This conceptual metaphor is based on perceived structural similarities.
Table 1. Mapping IDEAS ARE FOOD Source domain Target domain FOOD IDEA cooking thinking chewing considering digesting understanding (Kövecses, 2002: 73) A mapping can also be made on the basis of the linguistic form of the metaphor in the case that the conceptual metaphor is not yet known. This can then be determined by adding source and target domains of entailments to the mapping, then identifying which source and target domains are the most salient of the other concepts. These overarching target and source domains are not necessarily used in the metaphorical statements and may have to be interpreted on the basis of the context (ibid.). Primary and complex conceptual metaphors There is another step that can be taken after the identification of the conceptual metaphor that can provide insight into the origins of the musical metaphors in the two case studies. This step entails identifying whether the conceptual metaphor is formed by one or more primary metaphors. A major development in CMT was the introduction of the theory that there are different levels of conceptual metaphors: primary and complex metaphors. This development was a reaction to a major theoretical and empirical upheaval that helped traditional CMT develop into contemporary CMT (Steen, 2010: 37). This reaction was led by the linguist Joe Grady (1997), who pointed out that not every possible linguistic version of a
conceptual metaphor is used in practice. For example, the linguistic metaphor “their theory collapsed” is derived from the conceptual metaphor THEORIES ARE BUILDINGS. A possible entailment of this conceptual metaphor is “theories have windows”. However, this is not used in practice. There are gaps in this mapping (Grady, 1997). This problem is solved by Grady’s concept of primary metaphors. Primary metaphors can be combined to form complex metaphors like THEORIES ARE BUILDINGS. This is comprised of the two primary metaphors: ORGANISATION IS PHYSICAL STRUCTURE and PERSISTING IS REMAINING ERECT. Lakoff and Johnson have accepted Grady’s analysis and have since identified twenty-four primary metaphors and argue that these are formed in the cognition of each individual due to the recurrent correlations between sensorimotor experience and the subjective judgment of this experience that are made in early childhood (Lakoff & Johnson: 1999). Other examples of primary metaphors are HAPPY IS UP, KNOWING IS SEEING and TIME IS MOTION (Steen, 2010: 37-41). Whether all metaphors are derived from this small set of universal primary metaphors is a subject of debate and further research in cognitive linguistics. Lakoff & Johnson argue that all metaphors are derived from primary metaphors. Steen does not agree and states that primary metaphors are not metaphors at all, but metonymies (figurative language based on contiguity as opposed to similarity) and that even they the break down at one point, because they do not always provide full mappings (Steen, 2007: 57, 40). Discourse metaphors In the paper “Discourse Metaphors” (2008), cognitive linguists, Jörg Zinken, Iina Hellsten and Brigitte Nerlich also argue against the idea that primary metaphors are universal and are at the basis of all linguistic and conceptual metaphors. They do not state that primary metaphors do not exist, but that not all metaphors are motivated by such simple mappings. They argue that what they call discourse metaphors cannot be explained in this way. Discourse metaphors are novel metaphors that are conventional within a certain discourse. Zinken and his colleagues state that these metaphors are formed through social-cultural processes rather than cognitively in early childhood like primary metaphors are said to be (Zinken, Hellsten and Nerlich, 2008: 364-366). In my analysis of the musical metaphors in
the case studies I will explore to what extent the conceptual metaphors I have identified are formed by primary metaphors or socio-cultural processes. In sum, the aspects of CMT that I use in this thesis are limited to the approaches, procedures and concepts I have explained in this chapter, despite the many other possibilities that CMT offers. I have identified these aspects of CMT to be useful for the purpose of answering my research question: why has the metaphorical trend of explaining astronomy in musical terms manifested itself in media meant for the dissemination of astronomy?
Chapter 2: Cosmos case study
Description case study The first case study I will analyze is episode 2 “One Voice in the Cosmic Fugue”, of the television program Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, in which music is used as an overarching metaphor for the whole episode. Cosmos is a 14 hour-mini series that aired on PBS in 1980, produced and narrated by Carl Sagan. Carl Sagan was an astronomer who became a public figure due to appearances on talk shows where he stirred the interest of viewers in astronomy. He became popular because “he was outspoken, charismatic, direct and assertive in a way that scientists generally were not (…)” (Head, 2006: xi). Cosmos was Sagan’s biggest project, costing over 8 million dollars and making it the most expensive television program of that time. The show was targeted for nonscientists and was an attempt to bridge the division between scientists and the general public (Lessl, 1985: 175-177). Each episode handles a variety of scientific topics from astronomy to exobiology. The show attempts to portray a holistic view of the universe and its history with the help of visual special effects that were groundbreaking for its time. Sagan produced and hosted the show. His charisma, passion and poetic scientific rhetoric contributed to Cosmos’ success. It became the highest-rated PBS series ever (Head 2006: xiii) and holds a nostalgic place in the hearts of many Americans that experienced the show’s first airing in 1980. Lessl argues in his article “Science and the Sacred Cosmos” that Carl Sagan switches between two personas as he narrates the series: Sagan the scientist and Sagan the cosmologist: When Sagan the cosmologist speaks a different set of epistemic principles seem to be in force. Suddenly, through the subtle suggestiveness of metaphor, Sagan breathes life into the formerly dead machine universe, transforming it into a self-determining, purposive cosmos (…). The ambiguity of figurative speech allows Sagan the capacity to transgress the more rigid norms of scientific description. (Lessl, 1985: 181)
Many parallels can be drawn between Sagan’s rhetoric and the rhetoric used in the TED talks of recent times. Now many respected scientists seem glad to participate in this rhetoric, however in 1967 Sagan was denied tenure at Harvard University due to this ‘pandering to the public’ (Morrison, 2007). Sagan’s metaphorical rhetoric becomes clear just from the chosen titles of each episode: 1. The Shores of the Cosmic Ocean 2. One voice in the Cosmic Fugue 3. Harmony of the Worlds 4. Heaven and Hell 5. Blues for a Red Blanet 6. Travellers’ Tales 7. The Backbone of Night 8. Journeys in Space and Time 9. The Lives of the Stars 10. The Edge of Forever 11. The Persistence of Memory 12. Encycolpaedia Galactica 13. Who Speaks for Earth (Sagan, 1980) The show is built around the notion of a ‘personal voyage’ that Sagan embarks on. It uses a metaphorical spaceship in the form of a giant dandelion seed called the ‘spaceship of the imagination’. Carl Sagan travels around the universe in this ship showing us celestial bodies and other things that illustrate his narration (Head, 2006: xiii). Even though the show is structured around this metaphor, it isn’t central in most of the episodes. Rather, it lends itself to the formation of other metaphors since we are travelling through Carl Sagan’s imagination, which is constantly making connections and analogies throughout each episode. Three of the thirteen episode titles are related to music (episode two, three and five). In episode two, Sagan runs with the metaphor of a ‘cosmic fugue’ and also continues to draw upon it in the following episodes. Episode two, “One voice in the Cosmic Fugue” is the episode I will take a closer look at. It should be mentioned that this episode is not mainly about astronomy, but has its focus
on one of astronomies interdisciplinary fields called astrobiology. The episode deals with biological concepts and the theory of evolution. It is relevant for this study as these concepts are applied to the broader context of the cosmos with the help of the musical metaphor of the ‘cosmic fugue.’ This format is the premise of the whole series: Sagan advances the thesis that the whole cosmos can be perceived through a scientific perspective and that this is in harmony with nature itself (Lessl, 1985: 182). The episode starts with images of Sagan inside of the spaceship of the imagination looking out of the window at stars, earth, and beautiful gas clouds that pass as the spaceship flies by. This scene is accompanied by Sagan’s narration, which serves as an introduction to the episode. He starts by telling us about his personal interest in the idea of life on other planets. He asks the question: how common is life in the universe? He states, “The nature of life on earth and the quest for life elsewhere are two sides of the same question: the search for who we are” (1:34). He goes on to explain that the organic molecules that we are made of can be found throughout the universe. He also states that all life on our planet has a common organic chemistry and a common evolutionary heritage. This means that the biologists on earth can study only one biology. This is when the musical metaphor that the episode is based around is established. Carl Sagan calls the earths single biology “one lonely theme in the music of life. Is it the only voice for thousands of light-years or is there a cosmic fugue a billion different voices playing the life music of the galaxy?” (3:34, my emphasis). He continues to ask the questions that he plans to answer in the episode: how did life on our planet come about, how were organic molecules made, and how did life evolve? Then he tells a story that at first seems unrelated to any of these questions. “Let me tell you a story about one little phrase of the music of life on earth” (4:26, my emphasis).
(Sagan, 1980: 1:30-3:00) The story is a Japanese legend describing a battle of samurai warriors in the 12th century. The legend has led to a superstition in a small area in Japan that has caused its inhabitants to throw crabs with special markings on their back back into the sea when fishing. This resulted in artificial selection of these special crabs. The next segment is of Sagan strolling on the beach and among farm landscapes explaining artificial selection, natural selection and evolution. Sagan make the statement: “evolution is a fact not a theory. It really happened” (15:00). This was a daring thing to say considering the criticism Sagan received from colleagues for not following scientific conventions. Stating something so absolute was frowned upon. He does address the controversy of the theory, which according to him stemmed from people’s tendency to ascribe the intricacy, and beauty of nature to a great designer. “The idea of a designer was appealing; an altogether human explanation of the biological world. But as Darwin and Wallace showed, there’s another way; equally human and far more compelling. Natural
selection, which makes the music of life more beautiful as the eons pass” (16:50, my emphasis). In the next portion of the episode Sagan explains how life originated on earth and how it evolved into humans and other species that live on earth today. This is explained in the context of the history of the universe: the cosmic calendar. This is accompanied by visuals of extinct species, the cosmic timeline and Sagan walking around a moon-type planet which is meant to be primitive earth. He continues to explain biological concepts like cells, mutations and DNA. He emphasizes the common ancestry of all living things on earth. We are all descended from a single and common instance of the origin of life in the early days of our planets. The following segment shows a scientist executing an experiment that reproduces the atmosphere of earth four billion years ago within a reaction vessel to see if molecules would form on their own. The gasses are sparked with electricity like earth’s atmosphere was with lightning. After a few hours, molecules have formed within the vessel, including the building blocks of the proteins and the nucleic acids that are essential to the formation of life. Sagan speculates on how some kind of similar reaction could have happened on other planets in the universe and how it could result in very different kind of creatures. He speculates about what form other life might take on, on planets entirely different from our own. These speculations are accompanied by visuals of celestial bodies and drawings of strange creatures on hypothetical gas planets. He speaks of the importance of the search for extraterrestrial life. It would de-provincialize biology and let us know if there are other forms of molecular chemistry that can form life.
(Sagan, 1980: 54:20) The last sentence of the episode brings back the musical metaphor for the last time: “We've heard so far the voice of life on only a single world, but for the first time, as we shall see we've begun a serious scientific search for the cosmic fugue” (56:28, my emphasis). Analysis Cosmos case study The analysis of the musical metaphors of Episode 2 of Cosmos will consist of the steps described in chapter 1. I will identify the source and target domains of the metaphors. This involved determining the similarities that the metaphors are based on. I will then determine if they are example of conventionalized grammar or specific situations of usage. These steps will help identify what the conceptual metaphor is, which will follow. Then I will discuss to what extent the conceptual metaphor is a complex metaphor made up of one or more primary metaphors. Identifying source and target domains
Episode 2 of Cosmos contains four statements with musical metaphors. These are marked in italics in the description of the episode. Two of these metaphors are complementary to a overarching metaphor that is stated at the beginning of the episode and reiterated and expanded at the end. I will analyze these two statements: 1) “They study a single biology, one lonely theme in the music of life. Is it the only voice for thousands of light-years or is there a cosmic fugue, a billion different voices playing the life music of the galaxy?” (5:00). 2) “We've heard so far the voice of life on only a single world, but for the first time, as we shall see, we've begun a serious scientific search for the cosmic fugue” (56:28). Above, the metaphorically used musical words in each statement are marked in italics. To understand this metaphor, it is important to know what the structure of a fugue is. A fugue is a piece of music composed in a very ordered manner. It contains two or more voices that build on a theme. “Voice” in this context refers to a melody played by an individual instrument or sung by a person. In this context voice seems like a metaphor for melody; however, it isn’t since this is the technical term in music theory. A theme within a fugue is a melody upon which the whole composition is based. The theme is often introduced at the beginning and it is repeated many times in the composition at different pitches. The theme transforms throughout the piece. To be clear, ‘voice’ refers to the (transformed) melodies that are being played or sung and the theme refers to the overarching melody of the piece. A fugue usually has one theme and multiple voices (Benward, 2003). In the following table the target domains of the metaphorically used musical words are identified. The word ‘theme’ and ‘voice’ are used interchangeably in the statements as if they were the same thing. I have therefore interpreted that they have the same target domain. Table 2. First mapping musical metaphor Cosmos case study Source domain Target domain
A. a theme a biology B. a voice a biology C. a fugue an ordered set of biologies D. music all sets of biologies This table does not provide a full understanding of the metaphor. This is because the word ‘biology’ is used as a metonymy. A metonymy is a form of figurative speech based on a contiguity instead of a similarity (Steen, 2007: 57). When Carl Sagan states that biologists study one single biology he means that they can only study the life that is on earth. He used the word ‘biology’ as a stand in for ‘life form’, meaning all life forms specific to one planet that differs from life forms of other planets. Based on this, the target domains become the following. Table 3. Second mapping musical metaphor Cosmos case study Source domain Target domain A. a theme a life form B. a voice a life form C. a fugue an ordered set of multiple life forms D. music all life forms
It becomes clear why MIP and MIPVU require that full familiarity should be gained of the context of the metaphors being studied. This is necessary to uncover the metaphorical words that have an indirect meaning. The target domains of A and B have a direct meaning and are simply identified since the target domain can be found within the statement. C and D however, have an indirect meaning and require more interpretation. I have determined these by identifying the similarity that the metaphor is based on. Like many metaphors, these are made on the basis of a perceived structural similarity between a fugue and what Carl Sagan believed to be extraterrestrial life found around the universe. Since ‘one lonely theme’ and ‘the only voice’ refer to a life form specific to one planet, then according to the structure of a fugue, a ‘cosmic fugue’ is a set of life forms that are repetitions and mutations of each other. Since a fugue has many voices that are different versions of each other, it can be argued that Sagan suspects that there is life in the universe that is similar to ours, perhaps made up of the same building blocks, yet different. This type of life is transformed like a theme within a fugue, because it evolved differently due to its non-earth circumstances. It adapted to the environment of its own planet. Sagan also refers to the ‘scientific search for the cosmic fugue’. With this he means the search for extraterrestrial life. The structural relationship between a fugue and the overarching phenomena of music helps to identify the target domains of ‘music of life’ and ‘life music of the galaxy’. A fugue is a type of composition of music, while music is the overarching term for all compositions, styles, genres, and musical units (i.e. organized sound). If a fugue represents a set of related life forms, then music represents all life forms. This also becomes evident in the use of the word ‘life’ in ‘life music’ and ‘music of life’. Grammar or usage? Both statement 1) and 2) are examples of specific situations of usage. The comparison of life to a voice or theme within a fugue is not cognitively entrenched and cannot be found in institutionalized repositories like dictionaries. Neither is the comparison of a fugue with a set of extraterrestrial life. Also, referring to the the search for life on other planets as a search for the cosmic fugue is very unique. None of these specific metaphors have a basis in conventionalized grammar. There is no deduction or obvious modification of these
metaphors that would line up with metaphors used in conventionalized grammar. This means that the conceptual metaphor to be identified below, can be either conventional or unconventional. Identifying the conceptual metaphor To help identify the conceptual metaphors, I have added entailments to the mapping that are derived from the original metaphors. Mappings E-I are entailments that utilize the same structural similarities between the target and source domains of A-D. Table 4. Expanded metaphorical mapping Cosmos case study Source domain Target domain A. a theme a life form B. a voice a life form C. a fugue an ordered set of multiple life forms D. music all life E. notes building blocks of life F. composing big bang G. modulation mutation H. concert hall galaxy I. concert building cosmos The conceptual metaphor can be determined by identifying the source and target domains that are overarching of the other concepts. These overarching target and source domains are not necessarily used in the metaphorical statements and may have to interpreted. In
this case the two overarching concepts are ‘music’ and ‘life’ making the conceptual metaphor: LIFE IS MUSIC. To be clear, LIFE in this case does not refer to a person’s temporary existence (e.g. a person’s life), but to life forms (e.g. life on other planets). Now that we have identified the conceptual metaphor it is useful to determine whether it is based on one or more primary conceptual metaphors. As explained in chapter 1, this would mean that these conceptual ideas are formed based on universal predispositions in humans to correlate sensori-motor experiences with subjective judgment (e.g. HAPPY IS UP) (Steen, 2010: 40). From the list of primary metaphors that Lakoff and Johnson have identified based on Hardy’s expansion of CMT, there do not seem to be any primary metaphors from which LIFE IS MUSIC could be deducted. One that comes close is ORGANIZATION IS PHYSICAL STRUCTURE, for it provides a way to understand abstractly organized concepts in terms of a concrete physical structure. However, the source domain MUSIC is not concrete in the same way. Music may be structurally organized but it is also ineffable and intangible. Music is however a conventional part of human experience that people have an understanding of. This is why, despite music’s abstractness, this conceptual metaphor works (Lakoff & Jonson, 1999: 51). The identification of the conceptual metaphor LIFE IS MUSIC is valuable as it ascribes quite a significant meaning to music, extraterrestrial life in the universe and humanities’ place in it. It implies that there is something aesthetically pleasing about our existence and how it relates to other forms of life in the universe. Life seems to be structured beautifully throughout the universe. It will be interesting to see if the string theory metaphor will have a similarly significant conceptual metaphor as this could imply a similar conceptual origin of the musical metaphors used in science dissemination.
Chapter 3: Case Study String Theory
Description case study
This case study entails a commonly used explanation of string theory. String theory is the theory that has attempted to unify the theories of quantum mechanics and general relativity. It is a theory that ultimately might be able to explain movements of celestial objects in space and solve the mystery of dark matter. The theory states that sub-nuclear particles are strings rather than point-like particles. These strings are said to be massless and vibrate at extremely high velocities. The different vibration speeds, determine the type of sub-nuclear particles that are constructed (Kaku and Thompson, 1987). The musical metaphor used to explain this theory compares the theorized strings in elementary particles to strings on stringed instruments (guitar, violin etc.). The musical string vibrates in different ways depending on its length and on how it’s plucked. It can vibrate with one one or more loops along its length. The amount of loops on the string determine the tone that is played. Similarly, the amount of loops on the string of a sub-nuclear particle determine what kind of particle it is and what kind of electromagnetic interaction it produces. The strings are massless yet detectable through their tension. The greater the tension, the greater the mass. Similarly, the greater the tension of a guitar string, the greater the frequency of the tone (Pesic & Volmar, 2015: 3). When searching for ‘What is string theory?’ on Google, many of the search results make use of the metaphor in one variation or another. After the dry Wikipedia definition, the first result is The Official String Theory Web Site (Schwarz, 2016), where the metaphor can be found. It is also used in the first TED talk given when searching the TED database, “Making sense of String Theory” by Brian Greene. In fact, it is used in about half a dozen TED talks, not to mention in many educational videos on YouTube. Brian Greene also uses the metaphor in his book The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory (2010), which is the number one best seller in Mathematical Physics books for a wider audience, according to Amazon.com. It is clear that scientists have consistently turned to this metaphor for clarification of this very abstract concept that
predicts invisible, massless strings. This certainly has to do with the overlap of the word ‘string’, but the metaphor goes farther than this initial overlap. Musicologists Axel Volmar and Peter Pesic track the history of this metaphor and find that it was not used in the works of the scientists who originally formulated the theory in 1968. This may have had to do with scientific conventions that do not accept non-rhetorical language in science communication aimed towards peers. This caused Sagan his tenure at Harvard after all. The metaphor was first used in Search for a Supertheory: From Atoms to Superstrings (Parker, 1987), one of the first popular books attempting to introduce the theory to a wider audience. In this paper, the extent of the metaphor was limited to an explanation of the workings of the sub-nuclear particle string. Later string theorist, Michio Kaku and journalist, Julia Thompson (1987) expanded the metaphor in Beyond Einstein: Superstrings and the Quest for the Final Theory in which they used the physics of musical tones as a model through which to understand the whole universe. String theory, for them, was a unified theory of everything including music (Pesic & Volmar, 2015: 4). The following passage that introduces the metaphor that is used throughout the book will be the target object of my analysis: The superstring theory can produce a coherent and all-inclusive picture of nature similar to the way a violin string can be used to unite all the musical tones and rules of harmony. Historically, the laws of music were formulated only after thousands of years of trial-and-error investigation of different musical sounds. Today, these diverse rules can be derived easily from a single picture that is a string that can resonate with different frequencies, each one creating a separate tone of the musical scale. The tones created by the vibrating string, such as C or B flat, are not in themselves any more fundamental than any other tone. What is fundamental, however, is the fact that a single concept, vibrating strings, can explain the laws of harmony. Knowing the physics of a violin string, therefore, gives us a comprehensive theory of musical tones and allows us to predict new harmonies and chords. Similarly, in the superstring theory, the fundamental forces and various particles found in nature are nothing
more than different modes of vibrating strings. The gravitational interaction, for example, is caused by the lowest vibratory mode of a circular string (a loop). Higher excitations of the string create different forms of matter. From the point of view of the superstring theory, no force or particle is more fundamental than any other. All particles are just different vibratory resonances of vibrating strings. Thus, a single frame work -the superstring theory- can in principle explain why the universe is populated with such a rich diversity of particles and atoms. (Kaku and Thompson, 1987: 5) It is interesting to see how string theory is so extremely hinged on the musical metaphor in this passage. It is difficult to conceptualize how sub-nuclear particles work in reality separate from the metaphor. Analysis String Theory case study Identifying source and target domains The passage from Beyond Einstein: The cosmic quest for the theory of the universe (1987) contains a different kind of musical metaphor. Namely, two sets of similes. These are directly expressed metaphorical comparisons. The MIP was not made for identifying the metaphorical meaning in similes but only for identifying the indirect metaphorically used words. However, “MIPVU has extended MIP to be able to take these other manifestations of metaphor in discourse on board” (Steen et. al., 2010: 94). This involves identifying the ‘Metaphor-Related Words’ of the type ‘flag’ (for example ‘like’ and ‘as’) in order to determine what the source and target domains are of the metaphor. Steen and his colleagues argue that, when analyzing similes, it is important that a literal simile is not mistaken for a metaphorical simile. A literal simile is not a metaphor because the source and target domain are almost identical and the comparison is on the basis of very concrete similarities. A metaphorical simile creates a cross-domain mapping (ibid.: 38-39, 93-94). The comparison of a violin string and a sub-nuclear particle string is
semi-literal due to the fact that they are both ‘vibrating strings’ (their difference is mainly found in their visibility and the extent that they can be perceived). I would like to argue that this semi-literal simile is the jumping off point that produces a number of similes that are actually clearly metaphorical. The following identification of source and target domains will clarify more extensively the examples of metaphorical similes. The two set of similes are the following: 1) “The superstring theory can produce a coherent and all-inclusive picture of nature similar to the way a violin string can be used to unite all the musical tones and rules of harmony”.
2) “Knowing the physics of a violin string, therefore, gives us a comprehensive theory of musical tones and allows us to predict new harmonies and chords. Similarly, in the superstring theory, the fundamental forces and various particles found in nature are nothing more than different modes of vibrating strings” (Kaku and Thompson, 1987: 5). The description of the physics of harmony between the two similes is not metaphorical, but serves as an elaboration on the similes. This is important context for determining the source and target domains. Instead of the commonly used flags, ‘as’ and ‘like’, even more explicit words are used to indicate the simile, namely ‘similar to’ and ‘similarly’. These flags are marked in bold. The target domains and the source domains are separated by the flag. The source and target domain can be found in the tables below: Table 5. Mapping Simile 1 String Theory case study Source domain Target domain L. [the physics that dictate] a violin string superstring theory M. rules of harmony all-inclusive picture of nature Table 6.
Mapping Simile 2 String Theory case study Source domain Target domain N. modes musical tones O. violin string sub nuclear particle strings P. new harmonies/chords fundamental forces The perceived similarities between the source and target domains are also based on structural similarities. The structural similarity between a violin string and the sub nuclear particle string is the starting off point that motivates the other metaphors. The other similes are entailments of this semi-literal simile. The similes are constructed rather poorly, making it difficult to interpret exactly which musical words correspond with which string theory terms. For example, the term ‘the way a violin can be used’ doesn’t make sense. Based on the context, what is meant is ‘the physics that dictate a violin string’ (L). This follows from the starting point that compares the sub nuclear strings with violin strings (O). Plucking a violin strings produces musical tones (N). Along with other tones they form new harmonies and chords (P) and the particles produce modes that together form the fundamental forces like gravity and dark energy. It seems that the fact that the sub-nuclear particles were conceptualized as vibrating strings was a pleasant coincidence due to the way it was applicable to instrumental strings. The shared structural elements of these domains seems to be a desirable quality. This metaphor certainly makes it easier to conceptualize string theory, however, its extensive use over the years and the way it has been applied so broadly indicates a greater purpose. Identifying the conceptual metaphor may help to uncover the greater purpose that music has in this context.
Grammar or usage? The string theory metaphor is also an example of usage. However, it is certainly more conventional than the Cosmos examples. This metaphor is to some extent institutionalized since many scientists draw upon it in their explanation of the theory. String theory is also difficult to explain without the use of this metaphor however, I would not state that it is
fully cognitively entrenched since string theory is not something that is dealt with on a day to day basis by those unfamiliar with the field of astronomy. This metaphor is a perfect example of a discourse metaphor. As previously explained, discourse metaphors are conventionalized only within a certain context. In this case the metaphor is conventional within the context of astronomy. The fact that this metaphor is a discourse metaphor indicates an unconventional conceptual metaphor. This is due to the unconventional nature of their targets (Zinken, Hellsten and Nerlich, 2008: 364).
Identifying the conceptual metaphor An expanded metaphorical mapping of the similes in the String Theory case study can be made based on the structural similarities that are ascribed to both source and target domains that have been previously determined. Table 7. Expanded metaphorical mapping String Theory case study: Source domain Target domain L. harmony superstring theory M. notes Sub nuclear particles N. violin string sub nuclear particle strings O. chords fundamental forces P. music matter Q. theory of music theory of nature Here I have simplified the original mappings and added entailments. It is difficult to determine more entailments due to the abstract nature of string theory and my limited understanding of it as a student of the humanities. My understanding of the structural attributes of string theory are based foremost on the metaphor itself. The expansion of the metaphors in the Cosmos case study were easily made due to the relatively simple structure of a set of different life forms in the cosmos in relation to earth’s single form of life.
Therefore, I determined the entailments P and Q based on other statements in the book that build upon the similes that first introduce the metaphor. The overarching conceptual metaphor seems to be MATTER IS MUSIC or rather MATTER IS MUSICAL. This could even be interpreted to be EVERYTHING IS MUSICAL based on how string theory (theory on how matter is produced by string like particles) is also called the “theory of everything” throughout the book. This in itself could be interpreted as a conceptual metaphor (STRING THEORY IS THE THEORY OF EVERYTHING or EVERYTHING IS MATTER since string theory is the theory on matter). To avoid placing a metaphor within a metaphor, I will identify the conceptual metaphor to be MATTER IS MUSICAL. This conceptual metaphor also cannot be derived from any primary metaphors due to the unconventionality of the target (ibid.). It can be characterized as an unconventional conceptual metaphor.
Chapter 4: Comparison case studies
Summary I will shortly summarize the data gathered from the analysis above. First of all, the musical metaphors in both case studies are based on perceived structural similarities between the source and target domains. I have identified the musical metaphors in the Cosmos case study to be specific examples of usage. This implied that the conceptual metaphor could be either conventional or unconventional. I have identified the conceptual metaphor to be LIFE IS MUSIC. This is unconventional and does not seem to have any basis in primary metaphors and is therefore not a derivative of any universal cognitive dispositions formed in early childhood. The musical metaphor in the String Theory case study is conventionalized within the context of astronomy, which makes it a discourse metaphor. Discourse metaphors are per definition not based in primary metaphors. Instead they have a cultural component (Zinken et. al., 2008). The conceptual metaphor of the String Theory case study is MATTER IS MUSICAL. This could also have been interpreted as EVERYTHING IS MUSICAL since string theory is a theory on matter or the ‘theory of everything’. Both of these conceptual metaphors are not as trivial as other conceptual metaphors like THEORIES ARE BUILDINGS. They seem to hold more weight due to their reference to such overarching concepts as life and matter/everything. Comparison Since these case studies do not share their conceptual metaphors, it cannot be concluded that these musical metaphors in this context are made on the basis of the same underlying thought or idea. The only correspondence between the musical metaphors in the two case studies is that they are both based on perceived structural similarities. Perhaps it can be argued that all musical metaphors made in the context of astronomy are made on the basis of perceived structural similarities. This, however, does not reveal why there is a tendency consistently to draw upon the source domain of music as opposed to another sourcedomain that shares the same structural similarities. For example, Sagan could have compared earth’s single biology to one seed within a flower in the cosmic garden. It is more obvious why a vibrating violin string seemed to be the only sufficient comparison for the vibrating strings of string theory. This is due to the semi-literal comparison of instrumental strings to sub nuclear particle strings. However, I argue that the extensive use of this metaphor and the way it has been applied so broadly indicates a greater function of this metaphor than merely acting as a pedagogical aid for understanding this difficult concept. It seems that the comparison with music is meant to do something more than explain string theory. What can be concluded from this analysis, is not that there is a consistent conceptual metaphor that governs all musical metaphors in astronomy dissemination, but that the use of music in these metaphors serves a greater purpose than acting as an analogical aid. The weighty conceptual metaphors that govern the musical metaphors have implications for how music is conceptualized. Music seems to hold a quality that makes it most suitable to draw upon in the context of astronomy dissemination. We have yet to discover why this metaphorical trend has manifested itself. I argue that to answer this question the metaphorical trend needs to be approached as a discourse metaphor. The metaphorical trend of musical metaphors in astronomy dissemination shares many characteristics with the concept of a discourse metaphor and approaching it as one will help to uncover why this metaphor has manifested itself. Furthermore, it will help uncover what quality is being ascribed to music by these musical metaphors. Discourse Metaphor Approach A discourse metaphor is a metaphor with a specific source and target domain that is conventional within a certain discourse. An example of this is the metaphor that was prominent in the 1990s, GENTICALLY MODIFIED FOODS ARE FRANKENFOODS. The musical metaphor trend does not fit this description since there is not a specific source and target domain being used, but rather source domains that belong to the general field of music and target domains that belong to the general field of astronomy. I argue that this trend or tendency shares many characteristics with the concept of a discourse metaphors even though it does not fully fit that description. Applying the theories of the evolution of
discourse metaphors will serve useful to identify the origins of the metaphorical trend and uncover its implications for music. The different characteristics of these kind of metaphors are formulated by cognitive linguists, Zinken, Hellsten and Nerlich in their paper “Discourse Metaphors” (2008). As discussed in Chapter Two, Zinken and his colleagues criticize the way CMT is predominantly interested in universal aspects of metaphor and the idea that all metaphors are derived from primary metaphors. The primary metaphor theory only focuses on how culture and language is influenced by primary metaphors rather than how culture plays a role in their formation. This also negates any study into the cultural situatedness of metaphors. This however, is essential to the study of discourse metaphors. Zinken and his colleagues claim that that discourse metaphors are not motivated by the simple mappings of primary metaphors, but that they are formed as a result of socio-cultural processes. The following characteristics that Zinken and his colleagues ascribe to discourse metaphors are also applicable to the metaphorical trend: 1) They are unconventional in everyday grammar, but conventional within a specific context (ibid.: 374). The list of examples I have given in the introduction has established that this metaphorical trend is conventional within the context of media for the dissemination of astronomy. The fact that they are bound to this very specific context makes them unconventional in everyday language. 2) They do not have a basis in primary metaphors. This is due to the unconventional nature of the target domains (ibid.: 362-364) 3) They can resonate over long periods of time and topics. “Individuals encounter them in discourse, take them up, modify or reject them. They become part of situated discursive and narrative practices” (ibid.: 376). The fact that the metaphorical trend was evident in the 1980s astronomy series Cosmos and in TED talks of recent days attest to the application of this characteristic. Also the different varieties and forms the metaphors take on show how they resonate accross many topics. 4) The source domains are basic level categories that use rich images of salient cultural objects as opposed to the abstract source domains of primary conceptual metaphors like in KNOWING IS SEEING (ibid.: 377). The target domain is often a new concept
