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-The Voice of Twitter-

Investigating the actions and motivations of emerging adults for using Twitter while watching television.

Master’s Thesis

Graduate School of Communication

Master’s Programme of Communication Science

Name: Selma de Jong

Student number: 10433236

Specialisation: Youth and Media Teacher: Sindy Sumter

Date: 30 January 2015

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1 Abstract

Social TV is a concept that seems to become increasingly popular, not only among researchers but also broadcasters and producers. Social TV, which implies using Social Networking Sites (SNSs) while watching television, gives broadcasters an important

opportunity to connect the viewer to a television show. Twitter is an important platform that has been integrated in a lot of television shows nowadays. But why do emerging adults engage in Social TV, and what do they do on Twitter while watching the show is still a subject that has not been studied a lot. In this study we aim to find an answer to these questions and aim to find predictors and motivations of using Social TV.

The sample in this study included 189 respondents (18 till 30 years old) with a mean age of 24.96 (SD = 3.50). The survey was divided into three parts; general questions, specific television and Twitter questions and questions about the combination of television and Twitter. The results show that the majority of emerging adults have a Twitter account, which they, among others, use to engage in Social TV. Age, gender, narcissism and Twitter use can predict the engagement in Social TV. We found ten different motivations to engage in Social TV. Connection with the show is the main motivation. Engaging in Social TV because it is a trend was the least applicable motivation. Finally narcissism can predict the motivation to engage in Social TV to impress others.

This study gives us insight in important descriptive information regarding the use of Twitter while watching television. It also shows us that personal characteristics of emerging adults can predict their engagement in Social TV and their motivation to use Social TV

because they want to impress others. These findings are important as they add new knowledge to previous studies that have been done. Also this study shows us which motivations

emerging adults have to engage in Social TV and proves that women are more engaged with Social TV than men.

The Voice of Twitter: Investigating the actions and motivations of emerging adults for using Twitter while watching television.

The Internet has become a large part of society for all age groups and both genders. An important part of the Internet is social media. Social media has become one of the most

important media for especially young people, to spend their time (Coyne, Padilla-Walker & Howard, 2013; Subrahmanyam, Reich, Waechter & Espinoza, 2008). One of the groups in society that are known for the high amount of time they spend on social media, are emerging

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adults (Lenhart, Purcell, Smith & Zickuhr, 2010). Although figures vary among emerging adults, most of them spend around 12 hours each day engaged with media (Coyne et al., 2013). The largest part of these 12 hours is spend by engaging in social media (Coyne et al., 2013). These social sites (including Facebook, Instagram and Twitter) have over 100 million users (Subrahmanyam et al., 2008). Research has found that social media use and even motivations to use media, are dependent on personality characteristics and gender (Bergman, Fearrington, Davenport and Bergman 2011; Joinson, 2008; Smock et al., 2011), however more studies are necessary to investigate if this is also the case for Social TV.

The omnipresence of social media has also been noticed by television broadcasters and program makers. This is one of the main reasons why we can see a change in television programs and communication with the viewers. Social media are integrated in programs and television broadcasters try to stimulate emerging adults to engage in discussions about their programs on social media (Buschow, Schneider and Uberheide, 2014). The integration of social media in television programs becomes visible in multiple ways. Viewers are reminded of the opportunity to engage in social media at least in two ways, namely (1) during

commercial breaks with hashtags that create an interactive television advertisement on Twitter (Hutchinson, 2013) and (2) most television programs have explicit on-screen prompts

displaying their show specific hashtags. For example the Dutch shows De Wereld Draait Door, The Voice of Holland and Penoza, all have their own Twitter account and the hashtags are broadcasted in the right corner of the television screen. The hashtag has different

functions. The hashtag in front of a word or words, makes it possible that Twitter can turn a sentence into a link. That way Twitter users can browse all posts that contain these exact words. The hashtag enables people to have discussions about topics, share opinions with a like-minded audience and identify themselves with certain shows (Bellwoar, 2013). This is interesting because it changes television viewing from an individual experience into a group experience, giving viewers the option to communicate with other viewers (Bellwoar, 2013). Twitter is also interesting for broadcasters because research has shown that viewers of television shows use social media because it makes them more enthusiastic to engage in the television program (Harrington, Highfield, Bruns, 2013). This is also the reason that networks are starting to take charge of hashtags (e.g. make them trending topics) (Hutchinson, 2013), because this allows broadcasters to generate people for their shows. Trending topics are topics that are being discussed the most on Twitter and appear on the left at the startscreen of Twitter users. These trending topics of television shows could attract the attention of other tweeters

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who will check out the tweets about a show and maybe start watching the show (Bellwoar, 2013).

Social media and especially Twitter could be of additional value to a television program, but there is limited research on how these mediums could be of additional value. As mentioned before, the experience of watching television is changing and viewers have more opportunities to engage directly with the programs that they watch. However, more studies are required to define the relationship between TV and social media more clearly (Han and Lee, 2014). It has been argued that “social media meeting television is the next big thing, and that whoever figures it out will be the next Steve Jobs of his generation” (Buschow et al., 2014, p. 130). To advance the field, a more nuanced understanding of this relationship is needed.

In sum, we can conclude that the use of social media and especially Twitter is of importance for television show producers and networks, these sites could keep viewers interested and make them more involved. However, our understanding of who engage in Social TV, how often and why remains limited. That leads us to the following research question:

What does Social TV look like and which characteristics of emerging adults can predict the engagement in Social TV?

Turning Away From Television

Traditional and older media like television and books are changing because of the saturated media world we live in (Brown and Bobkowski, 2011). Television changes into an online experience where people can re-view television shows and communicate with others about shows. Also charts show that the mean minutes people watch television have stagnated over the last years; in 2012 people in the Netherlands watched television for 196 minutes each day, in 2013 this was 195 minutes each day (Kijkonderzoek.nl). This could be because

emerging adults have more media options to spend their time. For instance emerging adults spend about 3½ hours per day on the Internet (with most time being spent on e-mail/social networking, entertainment, and school/work), while they spend 1 and 2 hours a day watching television (Coyne et al., 2013).

There are different explanations why emerging adults use television less than before. The stagnation in the use of television could be because emerging adults are able to use other media the way they want to e.g. decide what they are going to see or post (Gonzales and Hancock, 2008). Internet makes is also possible to personalize their own space (Boyd and

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Ellison, 2007). Television is an older medium with lesser options to do so. Also television is supported by (obvious) commercials; something emerging adults do not like (Alwitt and Prabhaker, 1992).

Because of the rapid development of mobile media, there has been an increase in competitive mediums for television (Han and Lee, 2014). In order to prevent the stagnation in television viewing, the latest trend has been to combine digital technology with television. This trend is what television industry strategists and thinkers call ‘The Second Screen’

(Chronister, 2014) or ‘Social TV’ (Buschow et al., 2014). Social TV is any Internet connected visual media device that is being used while watching television (Chronister, 2014). There is limited research about the advantages and disadvantages of Social TV for television and its importance; however, research does confirm that it actually could be an advantage for television (Harrington et al., 2013).

The engagement in Social TV has become more popular over the last years. For example Nielson (2012) found that in June 2012, 33% of Twitter users have actively tweeted about tv-related content. Nielson (2012) also found that 38% of the Americans that use a smartphone, used their phone daily for social media at the same time as watching television. The study of Han and Lee (2014) shows that in 2012, 62% of TV viewers in different European countries used social media while watching television, an increase of 18% in comparison with 2011.

Television makers aim to enhance viewers’ television watching experience by incorporating the second screen through Twitter, Facebook, mobile applications and games (Chronister, 2014). The increase in use of social media during television programs shows us that the behavior of viewers has become more active, which makes the television experience richer (Han and Lee, 2014; Harrington et al., 2013). To find out why the complementary use of social media and television has become so popular we need to look at the possibilities that social media and television have for emerging adults and companies.

Companies try to use social media sites to gain brand knowledge, awareness and likability among social media users. There is a lot of research on how companies use social media sites to expand their brand (Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010; Mangold and Faulds, 2009; Thackeray, Neiger, Hanson and McKenzie, 2008), but there has not been a lot of research on how television broadcasters and program makers use social media in their favor. As we can see a shift in connection between social media and television, there is limited research on why emerging adults use social media sites in combination with television. That is why it is

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important to take a look at the motivations people have to use media. A theory that could help us figure this out is The Uses and Gratifications Theory (U&G) by Katz et al. (1974).

Uses and Gratifications

The Uses and Gratifications Theory states that people are aware of their social and psychological needs and choose media that are most likely to fulfill those needs (Chen, 2011; Coyne et al., 2013; Han and Lee, 2014). Because of the increase in program choices and SNSs it is interesting to find out why people choose certain programs and sites (Barton, 2013).

It is also interesting to focus on a specific genre when looking at the use of social media while watching television. A genre that seems to be very successful in Holland at combining these two mediums is competition-based reality television. An example of such a program is The Voice. In December 2014 Spot.nl released a publication stating that The Voice of Holland is the program that has the most Twitter posts in the Netherlands, in the month November 2014. In 2013 The Voice of Holland appeared twice (the Blind Auditions and the Battle) in the top ten of most watched programs in the Netherlands (Kijkonderzoek.nl), and in 2012 there were two (The Voice of Holland, The Voice Kids) competition-based reality programs in the top ten (Kijkonderzoek.nl). That is why the focus of this study will be on competition-based reality programs.

General Motivations for Watching Television

People have different motivations and gratifications to watch television, the most important motivations can be separated in five divisions. One of the motivations for watching television is pass time/ a habit (Rubin, 1982). People use television to pass time, which means they are bored and want to occupy their time. Also people watch television because it is a habit, these are the people who do not think about turning on the television but just put it on because it is there and it is just something they do. The second motivation for watching television is to get information (Rubin, 1982). People watch television because it helps them to learn things about themselves and others, it shows them how to do things they haven’t done before. The third motivation for watching television is entertainment (Rubin, 1982). People find television entertaining because it enjoys and amuses them. They also watch television to relax; this happens when they want to unwind and rest. Another feature of entertainment is that people watch television to get aroused because they get thrilled, excited and it peps them up. The fourth motivation for watching television is companionship (Rubin, 1982). People

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watch television because it makes them feel less lonely. People also watch television because it is something they do with friends, and to be with family. The fifth and final motivation for watching television is escapism (Rubin, 1982). People watch television to escape from school, family and what they are doing.

Competition-Based Reality Programs Motivations

As we mentioned before, competition-based reality television is a successful genre when looking at Social TV. That is why it is interesting to see if the motivations for watching television in general, differ for watching competition-based reality programs. Barton (2013) found that the most common U&G for watching competition-based reality programs are the same as general television. Though she also found some additional gratifications, these were: reality (the show is unscripted and the people in the show aren’t actors), vicarious

participation (the viewer can relate to the contestants and imagine themselves as a contestant), television personalities (viewers like the judges and the hosts of the show), social utility (everyone else watches it and viewers can discuss the program with others) and

‘schadenfreude’ (watching people fail on national television). We can conclude that the general U&G for watching television remain the same for competition-based reality shows, but with a few additional gratifications. Limitations of the study of Barton (2013) are that the respondents were all students and the majority of the sample, were women.

Motivations for Social Media Use

To better understand why people actively engage in social media combined with television, we need to look at their motivations to use social media. The U&G for social media and television differ, this due to the fact that social media is a medium where you can connect with other people. This means that social media has additional features that television does not have. Whiting and Williams (2013), Papacharissi and Rubin (2000) and Korgaonkar and Wolin (1999) found that the most common U&G for using social media are in general the same as the gratifications for using television, but as expected social media have some

additional gratifications. One of these additional gratifications is expression of opinion; this means that people use social media to express thoughts and opinions (Whiting and Williams, 2013). The second one is using social media as a communicator utility; this means that people use social media because it gives them something to talk about with friends. Social media is a facilitator for interpersonal communication (Whiting and Williams, 2013). A third additional gratification is that social media is being used as a convenience utility, this means that people

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use social media because it is accessible and convenient anywhere and anytime (Whiting and Williams, 2013). Another gratification is information sharing, this means that people use social media to share information about themselves to others (Whiting and Williams, 2013). And the last additional gratification is that social media is being used for surveillance and knowledge about others, this means that people use social media to watch people or things and watching behavior of other persons (Whiting and Williams, 2013). As we can conclude, social media provides more options for people to fulfill their U&G than television.

Twitter and Television

As we now know the different U&G for television in general, competition-based reality programs and social media, it is important to take a look at the motivations for using both at the same time. Nielsen (2012) found that Twitter is the most important medium for Social TV or second screen interaction. Moreover, young adults lead the way when it comes to using Twitter and status updating on any social media site. One-third of online 18-29 year olds, post or read status updates on Twitter (Lenhart et al., 2010). Therefore, we focus on Twitter, specifically when trying to understand Social TV. Twitter has three main features, namely creating tweets, reading tweets and retweeting (Chronister, 2014), and provides its users with alternative opportunities to engage more actively in different media (Harrington et al., 2013).

Twitter does not necessarily replace existing media channels, such as broadcasting or online mainstream media; it actually has the option to complement them (Harrington et al., 2013). However, at the moment it remains somewhat unclear why people use Twitter alongside television programs, which devices they use to do this, and how Twitter is able to complement television programs.

Earlier research provides us with some ideas. It appears that only a small group of television viewers can maintain their undivided attention for the television screen (Courtois and D’Heer, 2012). Many tablet owners are likely to combine this particular device with their television viewing activities. Similarly, Tsekleves, Whitham, Kondo and Hill (2011) showed that 21% of the households that participated in their study watch television while

simultaneously using their PC or mobile phone. These findings stress that people who watch television have the urge to use multiple devices while doing so.

More recent studies (Buschow et al., 2014; Chronister, 2014; Han and Lee, 2014; Nee, 2013) revealed specific motivations that emerging adults have to use social media while

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watching television. Though the motivations differ per study, some of them are the same. The motivations found in several studies are that people engage in Social TV for information sharing and seeking, to find out more about the program that viewers were watching (Han and Lee, 2014; Nee, 2013) and using Social TV to communicate with others about the program that they are watching (Chronister, 2014; Han and Lee, 2014; Nee, 2013). Other motivations that were found for using social media in combination with television are the chance to create parasocial relationships with favorite media characters, the use of internet to pass time during commercials and creating feelings of coviewing (Chronister, 2014; Han and Lee, 2014; Nee, 2013).

Although these studies have provided some unique first insights, some limitations need to be mentioned. First, with some of the studies the focus lies on political campaigning (Han and Lee, 2014). Second, the investigated social media contained a combination of two platforms, namely Twitter and Facebook (Chronister, 2014; Han and Lee, 2014), or was only focused on Facebook (Nee, 2013). And Third, the samples were taken in America and Korea, which are non-European countries. That is why the following research question will be answered; what motivations do Dutch emerging adults have, to use Twitter, in addition to competition-based reality programs? (RQ1).

Gender and Narcissism

Most studies about gratifications for social media and television (Buschow et al., 2014; Harrington et al., 2013; Han and Lee, 2014; McPherson, Huotair, Cheng, Humphrey, Cheshire and Brooks, 2012) do not take into account individual differences like gender and personality. The importance of studying these individuals is shown by some recent studies investigating media use in general and motivations for using media. For instance, in the study of Smock et al. (2011) difference in gender for using social media has been found. Girls and boys tend to use Facebook for different features; boys seem to use the Facebook chat more than girls. That is why the following research question will be answered, do the motivations for using Twitter during competition based shows, differ for girls and boys? (RQ2).

Joinson (2008) and Smock et al. (2011) found that girls are more frequent visitors of Facebook than boys. That is why we expect that girls engage more in Social TV than boys (H1). Furthermore, girls tend to use social media for social relationships rather than

informational purposes (Barker, 2009). The aforementioned studies (Barker, 2009; Joinson, 2008; Smock et al., 2011) focused on Facebook and undergraduate students in America, that

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is why it is interesting to research if this is also the case for Twitter and Dutch emerging adults.

In addition to gender differences, some studies found differences in personality that makes some people more vulnerable or more attractive to SNSs (Judge, LePine and Rich, 2006; Ryan and Xenos, 2011). One of these personality characteristics is narcissism (Judge, LePine and Rich, 2006; Ryan and Xenos, 2011). Narcissism is a characteristic of a personality where people find themselves very important and physically attractive. These people tend to be judged as arrogant, haughty and they lack empathy (Judge, LePine and Rich, 2006). Ryan and Xenos (2011) found that people who use SNSs, have higher levels of narcissism than people who don’t. They also suggest that this could be because SNSs give people the opportunity to gratify the needs of narcissistic people (like self-promoting, superficial behavior and seeking approval of others). This suggestion was confirmed by Bergman et al. (2011) and Buffardi and Campbell (2011).

Narcissism does not only predict social media use, but also social media motivations. Bergman et al. (2011) found that narcissism was positively related to the belief that friends on SNSs are truly interested in what their friends are doing and that they had the desire to know what others were doing. That is why we expect that narcissism can predict emerging adults’ use of Social TV to show others what they are doing (H2). Though these studies are mainly focused on Facebook, this could also be the case for Twitter (McKinney, Kelly and Duran, 2011).

Current Study

Social TV is a new phenomenon for viewers. It is also an interesting area for research, as there is limited research on this topic. The studies that have been done are focusing on motivations of using second screen in general (Chronister, 2014; Han and Lee, 2014), and specific devices like tablets (Cesar, Bulterman, Jansen, 2008). Though the outcomes of these studies are of considerable importance for understanding the use of SNSs in combination with television, the current study aims to provide descriptive information about Social TV use among Dutch emerging adults and insights in predictors of engagement in Social TV, with the focus on Twitter. Although the study of Buschow et al. (2014) has made an important start when looking at motivations to engage in Social TV, this study is a content analysis and empirical data is still largely missing. Furthermore limited attention has been paid to possible gender and personality issues.

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As our understanding is still limited, there is a need for descriptive information from different national samples. First, we will look at Twitter and TV use in general, which sort of accounts are popular to follow and general Social TV device use, frequencies and content. Second, we will look at the predictors for using Social TV, including gender and narcissism. Third, we will investigate the prevalence of different motivations that Dutch emerging adults have to use second screen. Finally we will look at reasons emerging adults have not to engage in Social TV.

Method Participants

In total 223 emerging adults filled out the survey on Qualtrics in a time period of two weeks (begin of November till half November). Of these 223 respondents, 30 respondents were excluded from the analysis because they were older than 30 years and therefore did not meet the age criterion for this study. In addition nine respondents were excluded because they did not fill in their age and four respondents were excluded because they did not fill in their gender. Thus, the final sample included 189 respondents (66.10% female). The average age of the respondents was 24.96 years (SD = 3.50). Of the respondents 50.80% were students and 49,20% finished studying. Although the survey was in Dutch four different nationalities were represented in the sample, namely 90,50% were Dutch, 7,90% were Belgian, 1,10% were German and 0,50% were French.

Procedure

Respondents were recruited through two social media sites, namely Facebook and Twitter. In addition, respondents were asked to share and retweet the survey as often as possible so that through a snowballing method multiple respondents were reached. The tweets with the survey link were tweeted during programs like The Voice and Expeditie Robinson. The survey was created in Qualtrics, an online survey software program. The survey was preceded by a short instruction which included the instruction that participants could stop whenever they wanted. The survey was divided into three parts; general questions, specific television and Twitter questions and questions about the combination of television and Twitter. Because the survey is distributed through Internet, the respondents could fill in the survey on their own preference of place and time.

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11 Measures

Twitter use in general. To assess Twitter use, respondents were asked nine questions. The questions were a mixture of multiple choice and open questions, which included

questions about the number of followers, tweets, and when they started using Twitter. In addition, we measured how active Twitter users were. This was measured by asking

respondents how many times per day they accessed Twitter (with 1 being less than one time

per week and 7 being multiple times per day), and what they were doing on Twitter e.g.

tweeting, replying and following, these questions were based on the research of Chen (2011). The respondents could fill in what activities they did on Twitter and how many times per visit.

Twitter and entertainment. We asked respondents which sort of accounts they followed on Twitter. The options to choose from were actors, presenters, directors, writers of television shows, official accounts of television shows and fan accounts of television shows.

Social TV use. We measured Social TV use, which is defined as using SNS (in this thesis, Twitter) while watching television, with five questions. Respondents indicated when they used Twitter with regard to competition based reality programs on a Likert scale of 1 till 5, with 1 being never and 5 being always. These five items together formed a reliable scale ‘Social TV’, Cronbach’s α = 0.84. Some example questions were, if the respondent used Twitter during a live show or/and if they used Twitter during a recurrence of a show.

Device use. In addition we asked respondents how often they used multiple devices

while watching television. They could choose multiple options (smartphone, tablet and laptop/computer) on a scale of 1 till 5, with 1 being never and 5 being always.

Social TV motivations. To measure why people use Twitter to communicate about the shows they watch, we used an adapted version of the ‘Social TV motivations’ scale by Buschow et al. (2014) and Smock et al. (2011). This scale was expanded with one subscale. The survey included 52 statements, based on former literature (See appendix 1). As most research has measured different motivations per article, this research has combined all different motivations found in the literature so far. The multiple motivations were measured by various items per motivation. A total of ten motivations were measured by the statements on a Likert scale of 1 till 5, with 1 being strongly disagree and 5 being strongly agree. Using the 52 items, which were based on the research of Mull and Lee (2014), we ran an exploratory factor analysis; See appendix 2, for the complete EFA. The number of factors that could be extracted from the EFA, were assessed by the analyses. As expected, the analysis suggested that ten factors could be retained. The ten factors together accounted for 96.85% of the total variance explained. The ten factors were defined as: (1) Impression management, (2)

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Orientation and assistance, (3) Intense show experience, (4) Alternative actions, (5)

Entertainment, (6) Maintaining relationships/companionship, (7) Show connection, (8) Cool and new trend, (9) Passing time/habitual time passing and (10) Meeting new people.

Impression management. The motivation impression was measured with twelve

statements which included ‘I use Twitter while watching TV because I think that others appreciate my opinion about a show’ and ‘I use Twitter while watching TV to share information that could be of interest for others’. The twelve statements formed a reliable scale, Cronbach’s α = 0.89.

Orientation and assistance. The motivation orientation and assistance was measured

with four items which included ‘I use Twitter while watching TV to find orientation in what others watch’ and ‘I use Twitter while watching TV because I can be guided by how others judge a show’. The four statements formed a reasonable reliable scale, Cronbach’s α = 0.79.

Intense show experience. The motivation intense show experience was measured with

five statements which included ‘I use Twitter while watching TV to get in contact with the talents of the show’ and ‘I use Twitter while watching TV to shape the program with my comments’. The five statements formed a reasonable reliable scale, Cronbach’s α = 0.69.

Maintaining relationships/companionship. The motivation maintaining

relationships/companionship was measured with eight statements which included ‘I use Twitter while watching TV to communicate with friends and acquaintances’ and ‘I use Twitter while watching TV because my friends and acquaintances want me to participate’. The eight statements formed a reliable scale, Cronbach’s α = 0.90.

Alternative actions. The motivation alternative actions was measured with four items,

which included ‘I use Twitter while watching TV to bridge the commercial breaks’ and ‘I use Twitter while watching TV to distract myself when I’m bored’. The four statements formed a reliable scale, Cronbach’s α = 0.86.

Entertainment. The motivation entertainment was measured with six statements,

which included ‘I use Twitter while watching TV because it is enjoyable’ and ‘I use Twitter while watching TV because it helps me relax’. The six statements formed a reliable scale, Cronbach’s α = 0.91.

Connection with the show. The motivation connection with the show was measured

with four statements, which included ‘I use Twitter while watching TV because I want to compliment the talents/actors’ and ‘I use Twitter while watching TV to tweet quotes’. The four statements together formed a reliable scale, Cronbach’s α = 0.94.

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with five statements, which included ‘I use Twitter while watching TV because I got nothing better to do’ and ‘I use Twitter while watching TV because it is a habit’. The five statements together formed a reliable scale, Cronbach’s α = 0.90.

Cool and new trend. The motivation cool and new trend was measured with three

statements, which included ‘I use Twitter while watching TV because everybody does it’. The three statements together formed a reliable scale, Cronbach’s α = 0.92.

Meeting new people. The motivation meeting new people, was measured with a single

item.

Narcissism. Narcissism was measured with five items on a Likert scale of 1 till 5, with 1 ‘strongly disagree’ and 5 ‘strongly agree’. The statements included ‘I am assertive’ and ‘I find myself a good leader’. The five items together formed a reasonable reliable scale (Cronbach’s α = 0.72). The items were randomly taken from the NPI-16 (as short measure of narcissism) of Ames et al. (2006).

Why do some emerging adults not engage in Social TV. During our research the expectation grew that the majority of the emerging adults weren’t active in Social TV. We were interested in the reasons that emerging adults have for not participating in Social TV, that is why we showed them seven reasons for not using Social TV. These reasons for not being actively engaged with Social TV had to be answered on a Likert scale of 1 till 5, with 1 ‘strongly disagree’ and 5 being ‘strongly agree’.

Results

Twitter Use and TV Use in General

To understand why emerging adults engage in Social TV we looked at their basic use of Twitter and television.

Twitter use. Of the 189 respondents, 74.60% (n = 141) had a Twitter account. On average, respondents had send 3543.46 tweets (SD = 8326.62), they had 177.33 followers (SD = 355.90) and they followed 205.94 accounts (SD = 279.61).

Table 1 shows how many times per week Twitter users accessed their account. Of the emerging adults who own a Twitter account, 47.50% use Twitter to send tweets, 50.40% use Twitter to retweet and 62.40% use Twitter to read tweets of others.

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Twitter activity.

Times per week Percentage

Multiple times per day 17.50% A few times per day 12.60% At least once a day 11.70% 5 a 6 times per week 3.90% 3 a 4 times per week 7.80% 1 a 2 times per week 14.60% Less than 1 time per week 32.00%

Television use. On average respondents spend 2.01 hours (SD = 1.46) per day watching regular television. They spend 1.43 hours (SD = 1.36) per day watching television on the Internet (e.g. Uitzendinggemist.nl and Netflix). Participants also indicated their favorite competition based reality shows. Table 2 shows the Top 5 of shows the respondents watched. Table 2

Top 5 competition based television shows

Show Percentage

1. The voice of Holland (RTL) 26.50% 2. Wie is de mol (AVROTROS)

Expeditie Robinson (RTL)

25.40% 25.40%

3. Boer zoekt vrouw (KRO) 15.30%

4. So you think you can dance (RTL) Hollands’ next topmodel (RTL)

14.80% 14.80%

5. MasterChef (RTL) 11.60%

Twitter and TV: Who Are People Following?

Twitter gives people the possibility to follow accounts of actors or favorite television shows. These accounts make it possible for the followers to get access to additional

information of a television show or an actor. We wanted to know which type of accounts were the most popular among Twitter users. Official television show accounts are most followed by the respondents. Of the respondents almost half (49.00%) stated that they followed official

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accounts of television shows on Twitter. An overview of the percentages followed accounts are shown in Table 3.

Table 3

Twitter entertainment accounts

Type of account Percentage Official television accounts

Actors/actrices 49.00% 45.50% Presenters 45.90% Directors 8.40% Writers of TV shows 15.80% Fan accounts of TV shows 13.70%

Twitter and TV: How Often Are People Engaged With Social TV

When looking at Social TV, we divided the results into three parts, device use (which devices do emerging adults use for Social TV), frequencies (how often do they engage in Social TV and when) and content (which activities do they engage in on Twitter while watching TV).

Device use. Emerging adults can engage in multiple ways with Social TV. They can use a tablet, smartphone or their laptop while watching television. We were interested which devices respondents used most. On average respondents used the smartphone most while watching television (M = 3.23, SD = 1.23), followed by laptop/computer (M = 2.86, SD = 1.17) and tablet (M = 2.09, SD = 1.11).

Frequencies. Respondents indicated if and when they used Twitter in the context of competition-based reality programs. Though a large part of the respondents did not use Twitter while watching television (48.15%), the respondents who did use Twitter while watching television (51.85%) scored an average of 1.39 (SD = 0.62) on the scale of Social TV which is very low. The respondents who stated that they do engage in Social TV, use Twitter at several moments. Most frequently they used Twitter during live shows/broadcasts, 28.60% of the respondents stated this differed from sometimes to very often. Some of the respondents (11.20%) stated they used Twitter sometimes during the season but not the regular broadcast.

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Of the respondents, 6.10% tweeted sometimes till often during a reoccurrence of a show/broadcast, 9.20% tweeted sometimes in between seasons about the show, 12,20% tweeted sometimes till very often when they watched the show themselves (but not during the official broadcast).

Content. When emerging adults use Twitter when watching competition-based reality programs, 16.30% use Twitter to retweet, 24.80% use Twitter to read tweets and 21.30% use Twitter to make tweets. We also asked them what activities they did on Twitter in the context of competition based reality shows when the show was not on television, these percentages were lower than the percentages when the show was on television. Of the Twitter users, 7.10% used Twitter to retweet, 10.60% use Twitter to read tweets and 8.50% use Twitter to make tweets in the context of competition based reality shows.

Of the respondents 44.70% stated that they prefer watching competition based reality shows during the normal airing time, because otherwise social media would show them which contestant was eliminated.

Predicting Social TV Use

We ran a regression analysis to investigate which variables predicted Social TV. We included four predictors, namely age, gender, narcissism and Twitter use. The regression model with Social TV as dependent variable was significant, F (4, 28) = 5.66, p = 0.002. The variance use of Social TV could be explained for 44.70% by the variance in age, Twitter use, gender and narcissism together (R² = 0.44).

Table 4

Regression model predicting the use of Social TV

Social TV b* Constant B 0.39 Age -0.02 Sexe 0.57** Narcissism 0.34* Twitter use 0.56*** 0.44

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F 5.66**

Note. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 and *** p < 0.001. n = 33

Age did not significantly predict Social TV. Narcissism has a low correlation with Social TV which is significant, 95% CI [0.05, 0.85]. Gender 95% CI [0.28, 1.16] and Twitter activity 95% CI [0.06, 0.23], have an average correlation which is significant with Social TV. When someone’s age increases, the use of Social TV decreases. Women use Social TV on average more than men. When a person becomes more narcissistic, the use of Social TV increases. Last but not least, when Twitter use increases, the engagement in Social TV also increases. With all these effects the remaining variables stay constant.

We did several multiple regression analysis to find out if the amount of tweets, followers and accounts that were being followed, could be predicted by Social TV use, narcissism, gender, activity on Twitter and age together. Results are displayed in Table 5. Table 5

Regression models for predicting activities on Twitter, values present b*

Amount of followers Followed accounts Amount of tweets

Constant B -484.60 -308.52 30225.90** Age 0.04 -0.02 -0.48*** Sexe -0.23* -0.24* -0.10 Narcissism 0.16 0.25* 0.10 Twitter use 0.20 0.22* 0.10 Social TV 0.23* 0.25* -0.01 0.21 0.27 0.23 F 4.14** 5.85*** 4.72*** Note. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 and *** p < 0.001. n = 85

Amount of followers. The regression model with the amount of followers as

dependent variable and gender, age, Twitter use, Social TV use and narcissism as independent variables is significant, F (4, 26) = 4.14, p = 0.002. The variance in amount of followers could be explained for 20.80% by the variance in age, gender, Twitter use, use of Social TV and narcissism together (R² = 0.21). Age, Twitter use and narcissism, barely have a correlation with amount of followers, and these correlations are also non significant. Gender 95% CI

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355.33, -10.98] and use of Social TV 95% CI [11.72, 319.55], barely have a correlation, but this correlation is significant. When someone grows older, the amount of followers increases. Men have on average more followers than women. When a person becomes more narcissistic, the amount of followers increases, when someone becomes more active on Twitter, the amount of followers increases. When the engagement in Social TV increases, the amount of followers also increases. With all these effects the remaining variables stay constant.

Amount of followed accounts. The regression model with the amount of followed accounts as dependent variable and gender, age, Twitter use, Social TV use and narcissism as independent variables is significant, F (4, 27) = 5.85, p = 0.001. The variance in amount of followed accounts could be explained for 27.00% by the variance in age, gender, Twitter use, use of Social TV and narcissism together (R² = 0.27). Age has barely a correlation which is non significant with amount of followed accounts. Twitter activity 95% CI [24.75, 201.86], narcissism 95% CI [1.50. 53.23], gender 95% CI [-265.47, -19.55] and use of Social TV 95% CI [22.67, 243.71], barely have a correlation, but this correlation is significant. When

someone grows older, the amount of followed accounts decreases. Men on average follow more accounts than women. When a person becomes more narcissistic, the amount of followed accounts increases, when someone’s Twitter use increases, the amount of followed accounts increases. When the engagement in Social TV increases, the amount of followed accounts also increases. With all these effects the remaining variables stay constant.

Amount of tweets. The regression model with the amount of tweets as dependent variable and gender, age, Twitter use, Social TV use and narcissism as independent variables is significant, F (4, 28) = 4.72, p < 0.001. The variance in amount of tweets could be

explained for 23.00% by the variance in age, gender, Twitter use, use of Social TV and narcissism together (R² = 0.23). Age 95% CI [-1782.18, -687.56], barely has a correlation which is significant with amount of tweets. Twitter activity, narcissism, gender and use of Social TV, barely have a correlation, and this correlation is also non-significant. When

someone grows older, the amount of tweets decreases. Men on average send more tweets than women. When a person becomes more narcissistic, the amount of tweets increases, when Twitter use increases with one, the amount of tweets increases. When the engagement in Social TV increases, the amount of tweets decreases. With all these effects the remaining variables stay constant.

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19 What Are Motivations to Tweet About TV

We calculated the mean scores for all ten motivations, which are listed in Table 6. On average the respondents rated ‘Connection with the show’ highest for using Social TV. This means that respondents used Social TV most for leaving comments about actors, episodes and tweeting quotes. Respondents rated ‘Cool and new trend’ lowest for using Social TV. This means that Social TV is least being used because others are doing it and because it is cool. Table 6

Motivations for engaging in Social TV.

Motivation Mean (SD) Cronbach’s α

Impression management 2.61 (0.84) 0.89

Orientation and assistance 2.57 (0.92) 0.79

Intense show experience 2.42 (0.79) 0.69

Maintaining relationships/companionship 2.19 (0.85) 0.90

Alternative actions 2.66 (1.12) 0.86

Entertainment 2.69 (0.96) 0.91

Passing time/habitual time passing 2.32 (1.07) 0.90

Connection with the show 2.75 (1.13) 0.94

Cool and new trend 1.78 (1.03) 0.92

Meeting new people 1.82 (1.19) Single item

Gender Differences in Motivations

To investigate gender differences in the motivations we ran independent samples t-tests. All the tests showed p-values higher than 0.08. Thus women and men reported no significant differences in the motivations for using Social TV.

Does Narcissism Predict the Motivation Impression management?

The regression model with the motivation ‘Impression management’ as dependent variable and being a narcissist as independent variable is significant, F (1,16) = 6.96, p = 0.019. The model could be used to predict the use of Social TV for impressing others, but the model is, when looking at strength, mediocre: 31.70% of the differences in using Twitter while watching television to impress others, could be predicted by narcissism (R² = 0.32). Narcissism, b* = 0.56, t = 2.64, p < 0.05, 95% CI [0.10, 0.98], has a significant moderate

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correlation with the motivation ‘Impression management’. When someone becomes more narcissistic, his or her motivations to use Social TV to impress others increase.

What Are the Reasons for Not Tweeting about TV

Respondents who did not engage in Social TV indicated why they did not tweet about TV. The statement on which the respondents scored highest, was that they thought it did not add any value to the program (M = 3.91, SD = 1.16). The other reasons were that they did not have the urge to share their opinions (M = 3.59, SD = 1.16), they did not care about what others had to say about the program (M = 3.57, SD = 1.14) and they wanted to concentrate on the program itself (M = 3.56, SD = 1.14). The reasons that they did not watch television enough (M = 2.29, SD = 1.31) and it costs too much effort (M = 2.67, SD = 1.21) were least applicable, as was the reason they did not have the devices to engage in Social TV (M = 1.28,

SD = 0.64).

In addition, we also asked all respondents if they used Twitter to tweet about other genres than competition based talent shows. We found that 3.90% of Twitter users tweet about soaps, 13.60% tweet about sports, 11.70% tweet about talkshows, 14.60% tweet about news and 56.30% does not tweet during other genres.

Discussion

Social TV is a phenomenon that becomes more and more popular, especially as a research subject (Bellwoar, 2013; Buschow et al. 2014, Chen, 2011; McPherson et al., 2012). Therefore, the main aim of this thesis was to provide descriptive information about the use of Social TV among Dutch emerging adults and to uncover motivations to engage or not engage in Social TV. Furthermore, a first step was taken to investigate possible predictors of Social TV use and motivations for this behavior.

Of the respondents, almost three out of four people had a Twitter account, which is high when comparing with the study of Nee (2013), in which less than one out of three people had a Twitter account. This high percentage is caused by the recruitment method; we asked primarily respondents who had a Twitter account to fill in the survey. Of these respondents more than half engage in Social TV, and almost a quarter use Twitter to read tweets and one/tenth use Twitter while watching television to read tweets, these findings are in line with the research of Nielson (Nielsonsocial.com, 2014), in which they find that emerging adults

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use Twitter most for reading tweets. On average respondents watched two hours of television per day. Though this number seems less, this result is comparable with the results of Coyne et al. (2013) and Chronister (2014). Though official accounts of television shows on Twitter are being followed most, few emerging adults were actively engaged with Social TV before, during and after the show aired on television. As expected, the majority of the respondents used their smartphone while watching television, which is in line with the findings of Pew Research (pewresearch.org, 2012) and Chronister (2014).

When looking at predictors of using Social TV; age, gender, narcissism and Twitter use were significant predictors. Of all these predictors’ gender and Twitter use, were the strongest predictors for the engagement in Social TV. These findings seem to be in line with previous research (Smock et al., 2014 and Joinson, 2008), though these studies did not take a personality characteristic in account when predicting the use of SNSs. As we expected, women on average engage more in Social TV than men, this could be because women are more actively involved with social media (Joinson, 2008).

Age, gender, narcissism, Twitter use and Social TV use were predictors for the three main features of Twitter (e.g. amount of followers, amount of tweets and amount of followed accounts). Gender was the strongest predictor for the amount of followers, narcissism was the strongest predictor for the amount of followed accounts and age was the strongest predictor for the amount of tweets. The findings of the features are in line with the findings of Smock et al. (2011), who found that features of Facebook could be predicted by age, gender and

internet use of emerging adults. This study shows that this is also the case for Twitter, and shows the importance of adding a personality feature (e.g. narcissism) in predicting use of Twitter.

As expected, we observed ten different motivations to engage in Social TV: (1) Impression management, (2) Orientation and assistance, (3) Intense show experience, (4) Alternative actions, (5) Entertainment, (6) Maintaining relationships/companionship, (7) Show connection, (8) Cool and new trend, (9) Passing time/habitual time passing and (10) Meeting new people. These motivations are in line with the motivations found in the studies of Buschow et al. (2014) and Smock et al. (2011). Connection with the show was the most important motivation to engage in Social TV. Connecting with the show means emerging adults engage in Social TV because they like to comment on an episode, certain scene or character of the show. The motivations found in our study and their significance could differ because from previous studies, because the samples were taken from different countries; Buschow et al. (2014) did research amongst Germans in a broad age range and Smock et al.

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(2011) did research amongst undergraduate students in America. Engaging in Social TV because it is a cool and new trend, was the least important motivation. The motivation cool and new trend means engaging in Social TV because everybody else is doing it and because it is cool. We did not find any significant differences in motivations to engage in Social TV when looking at gender. This finding does not appear in line with the findings of Smock et al. (2011), they did find a difference in Facebook use between gender. A declaration of this result could be because the sample of this study was small and had an unequal division between boys and girls.

As we expected, narcissism could predict the engagement in Social TV to impress others; when a person is more narcissistic, he or she engages more in Social TV to impress others. This means that personality characteristics can predict the motivations of emerging adults to use Social TV. This finding is in line with the findings of Bergman et al. (2011), in which they find that narcissism is positively correlated with using SNSs to show others what they are doing.

Our expectation was that respondents do not engage in Social TV because it does not add any value to their television experience, because this was also one of the main reasons that Buschow et al. (2014) found in their research. This expectation was confirmed. The reason that was least applicable for not engaging in Social TV was that they did not have the devices to engage in Social TV, we could conclude that almost all respondents own devices that make engaging in Social TV possible.

Future research

First of all we should state that the sample for this research was very small. To find more significant results the sample should have been bigger. In addition to the small sample we should note that the division in gender was unequal, this could be the main reason that we did not find any significant differences in motivations to engage in Social TV. Besides the small sample it is also possible that we did not find any differences in gender because we looked at differences for Social TV. It could be that the motivations for using ‘just’ Twitter (instead of Twitter while watching TV) could be different and then the findings could be more in line with the findings of Barker (2009) and Joinson (2008).

Besides the unequal division of gender it is also possible that emerging adults are not as active on Twitter as we thought. It could be that adolescents are more active on Twitter and Social TV than emerging adults, though we do not find any scientific prove for this. Besides that it could also be that young people in the Netherlands are more active on Facebook while

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watching television, instead of Twitter. When we look at popularity, Facebook is still more popular (71%) compared to Twitter (18%) (Pewinternet.org, 2013). Also this study focuses on the use of Twitter while watching competition-based reality programs, though recent research shows us that Social TV for people under the age of 35 also peaks during sports

(Nielsensocial.com, 2014). Future research could focus on the comparison for the motivations to use Twitter between sports and competition based reality programs.

This study added a new motivation to the motivations that have been researched (Buschow et al., 2014 and Smock et al., 2011), namely ‘Connection with the show’. The results showed us that show connection is also an important additional motivation for using Social TV, and in this study even the most important motivation. Future studies at motivations for using Social TV should also take into account this motivation.

This study also makes a start with adding a personality characteristic as a predictor of using Social TV. Narcissism seems to be a significant predictor for engaging in Social TV and using specific features of Twitter. Future research should take into account this characteristic and could even add other personality characteristics to predict engagement in Social TV, which could help us understand more about the persons who engage in this phenomenon.

Narcissism also is a significant predictor of using Social TV with the motivations to impress others. More research is necessary to find out if this could also be the case for the other nine motivations that were used in this study.

It could be interesting to do more research with surveys in relation to Social TV. With surveys it is possible to find relations and motivations for Social TV, which could be

interesting for broadcasters and program makers. These findings in relation to the time ranges in which people tweet could be helpful for broadcasters so they know when they could

stimulate people to engage in Social TV, because Nielson (Nielsen.com, 2014) has found that tweets are still being send a few hours after the show has been on television.

Respondents who did not engage in Social TV stated that it did not add any value to the show they were watching. Future research is necessary to find out if there are features (and which features that would be) that could add any value to a show, to attract more fans/viewers.

This research has been done amongst Dutch emerging adults, it could be that the results differ for other European countries and other continents, more research is necessary to compare Twitter activity between countries.

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24 Implications

Broadcasters and producers of programs should use the motivation ‘connection with the show’ in their advantage by posting tweets with quotes of the characters. Another important implication is giving fans of the show the opportunity to tweet with actors, something which is often done in America. Respondents used Twitter while watching television most for reading tweets of others, broadcasters could initiate a discussion on Twitter by posting tweets themselves. These tweets should be posted at the beginning, during and at the end of the program, because that is when users access their account most. As our results show that official tweet accounts are being followed most, broadcasters should make sure that all shows have their own official Twitter account. A successful example in the Netherlands is ‘The Voice of Holland’. Besides the official program accounts, respondents stated that they use their smartphone most while watching television. Broadcasters should make sure that applications of shows and additional content is accessible and optimized for smartphones. Because there also seems to be a relation between the amount of followers, tweets, followed accounts and Twitter activity, broadcasters should also follow Twitter accounts of the fans who are very active in posting tweets about the program. This could be the possibility for broadcasters to build a relationship with their viewers/fans, who will probably have friends that can be reached also.

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29 Appendix 1 Statements and authors.

Impression management Author

Because I think that other people appreciate my opinion about a certain show

Buschow et al. (2014)

To show others that I know a lot about the current program Buschow et al. (2014) To show others what i’m watching at the moment Buschow et al. (2014) Because I think I can help others by the selection of tv shows Buschow et al. (2014) To show program –preferences I cannot show otherwise Buschow et al. (2014)

To provide information Buschow et al. (2014)

To present information about a special interest of mine Buschow et al. (2014) To share information that may be of use or interest to others Buschow et al. (2014) To provide personal information about myself Buschow et al. (2014)

Because I can share my own ideas Buschow et al. (2014) and

Ballard (2011)

Because I can share my own opinion Buschow et al. (2014) and Ballard (2011)

Because I want to see others’ opinions about the show Buschow et al. (2014) Orientation and assistance

Because I can be guided by how others judge a show Buschow et al. (2014) Because I prefer to be guided by the comments of others than by a

tv guide

Buschow et al. (2014)

To find orientation in what other people watch on tv Buschow et al. (2014) Because I’m excited about what other people write about certain

shows

Buschow et al. (2014)

Intense show experience

To get in contact with the actors of the show Buschow et al. (2014) To shape the program with my comments Buschow et al. (2014) Because I’m a fan of a show or it’s actors Buschow et al. (2014) To get additional information about the show, its actors or its

content

Buschow et al. (2014)

To have a more intense TV-experience Buschow et al. (2014) Alternative actions

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To bridge the commercial breaks Buschow et al. (2014) and

Chronister (2014)

To distract myself when I’m bored Buschow et al. (2014)

To transform boring content into an exciting one Buschow et al. (2014) Because I like to deal with new technologies Buschow et al. (2014) Entertainment

Because it’s enjoyable Smock et al. (2011)

Because it’s entertaining Smock et al. (2011)

Because it relaxes me Smock et al. (2011)

Because it allows me to unwind Smock et al. (2011)

I use to look up more information about the show Smock et al. (2011) and Chronister (2014) I use Twitter to access show related content online because it

entertains me

Smock et al. (2011) and Chronister (2014) Maintaining relationships/companionship

I use Twitter while watching tv because then I feel that I am connected to other users

Buschow et al. (2014) and Chen (2011)

Being on Twitter while watching television series makes me feel connected to the series’ audience

Buschow et al. (2014)

I use Twitter while watching tv because it makes me feel less lonely

Buschow et al. (2014), Brown et al. (2012) and Smock et al. (2011)

I use my mobile device while watching the show so I can talk with my friends who are also watching

Buschow et al. (2014) and Chronister (2014)

I use Twitter while watching tv to get to know what my friends and others watch on tv and what they write about it

Buschow et al. (2014)

I use Twitter while watching tv because my friends want me to participate

Buschow et al. (2014)

To communicate with friends and acquaintances Buschow et al. (2014) To get to know what my friends and acquaintances watch on TV

and what they write about it

Buschow et al. (2014)

Connection with the show

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31

Because I like to comment on a certain scene Chronister (2014) Because I want to compliment the actor Chronister (2014) Because I like to comment on a character Chronister (2014) and

McPherson et al. (2012)

To tweet quotes Chronister (2014) and

McPherson et al. (2012) Cool and new trend

Because everybody else is doing it. Smock et al. (2011)

Because it is the thing to do. Smock et al. (2011)

Because it is cool. Smock et al. (2011)

Passing time/ habitual time passing

Because I just like to surf around on Twitter. Smock et al. (2011) Because it is a habit, just something I do. Smock et al. (2011)

When I have nothing better to do. Smock et al. (2011)

Because it passes the time away, particularly when I’m bored. Smock et al. (2011), Ballard (2011) and Barton (2013) Because it gives me something to do to occupy my time. Smock et al. (2011) and

Buschow et al. (2014)

(33)

32 Appendix 2 EFA.

Exploratory factor analysis results for Social TV U&G

Factor title and item Item mean (SD) Factor loading

Impression management (M = 2.61, SD = 0.84, α = 0.89) Q1 2.18 (0.88) 0.62 Q2 2.00 (1.12) 0.67 Q3 2.76 (1.20) 0.62 Q4 2.35 (1.22) 0.74 Q5 2.65 (1.32) 0.56 Q6 2.59 (1.23) 0.72 Q7 2.71 (1.11) 0.78 Q8 3.06 (1.39) 0.68 Q9 2.65 (1.32) 0.68 Q10 2.35 (1.27) 0.56 Q11 2.94 (1.39) 0.78 Q12 3.18 (1.38 0.73

Orientation and assistance (M = 2.57, SD = 0.92, α = 0.79)

Q13 2.41 (1.18) 0.76

Q14 2.29 (1.16) 0.81

Q15 2.53 (1.13) 0.85

Q16 3.06 (1.20) 0.74

Intense show experience (M = 2.42, SD = 0.79, α = 0.69)

Q17 2.00 (1.12) 0.63 Q18 1.94 (1.09) 0.51 Q19 2.94 (1.25) 0.72 Q20 2.82 (1.29) 0.84 Q21 2.41 (1.18) 0.60 Maintaining relationships/Companionship (M = 2.19, SD = 0.85, α = 0.90) Q22 2.41 (1.28) 0.76 Q23 1.88 (0.93) 0.94 Q24 2.53 (1.23) 0.67 Q25 1.94 (0.90) 0.93

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