Trafficking in human beings and Europol’s publications - seeking the relationship between focusing events and the problem’s framing

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TITLE: ‘Trafficking in human beings and Europol’s publications - seeking the relationship between focusing events and the problem’s framing’

Name: Agata Chmiel Student No.: S1912283

Master Thesis: Crisis & Security Management 2016/17 Supervisor: L. Elías Carrillo, MSc

Second Reader: Dr. E. Devroe Date: 18 August 2017

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Abstract

This is a final master thesis for the Leiden University’s Crisis and Security Management program. It performs a content analysis of chosen Europol’s publications from years 2004 until 2015 in order observe its choice(s) of framing of the trafficking in human beings (THB) and to seek explanation for the choice(s) on the basis of focusing events theory. The analysis aims to seek how THB has been framed throughout the chosen time period and what frames have prevailed on both, a yearly and in this 12 years’ period basis. However, the core of this research is not merely recognizing the frames but explaining the reasoning behind their choice by those who prepared Europol’s publications. With a support of Kingdon’s broad understanding of ‘focusing events’, this reasoning (Europol’s THB ‘frame building’) shall be explained. Building upon Lindstrom’s perspective, this paper chose four possible THB frames: migration, human rights, economic, and law enforcement. The basic assumption of this thesis is that Europol uses at least one of those frames in presenting human trafficking issue and that those frames can be influenced by focusing events. The combination of theories on framing and focusing events is, hence, applied to Europol’s sui generis environment, which makes this thesis innovative to the academic world. What this research has found is not only that Europol has been using the chosen framing of THB between 2004 and 2015, but also that those frames have been transforming throughout the years with the recognizable influence of focusing events.

keywords: European Law Enforcement Office, trafficking in human beings, focusing events, framing theory

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Acknowledgment

This is a master thesis written for the Crisis and Security Management study program at Leiden University. The author would like to express her gratitude to prof. Leticia Elias Carrillo, for her tireless supervising efforts and patience, as well as to prof. dr. Elke Devroe for providing supportive materials and comments, that altogether have brought this research to a successful completion.

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Table of Contents

List of abbreviations ... 6

Chapter I – Introduction ... 7

1.1. Introductory remarks ... 7

1.2. Research Problem ... 8

1.3. Expectation of the research ... 10

1.4.Objective of the research ... 10

1.5.Academic and societal relevance ... 10

1.5.1 Academic Relevance ... 10

1.5.2. Societal Relevance ... 11

1.6. Structure of the thesis ... 12

Chapter II – Background literature review ... 13

2.1. Situation of trafficking in human beings in Europe ... 13

2.2. Europol as an actor in the EU’s anti-trafficking struggle ... 14

2.3. Working definitions of ‘THB’ and ‘Europol’ ... 17

2.4. Hitherto academic study within the field of THB framing ... 18

2.4.1. Media framing of trafficking in human beings ... 18

2.4.2. Framing of trafficking in human beings within academic and political arena ... 20

Chapter III – Theoretical Framework ... 25

3.1. Framing ... 23

3.2. Focusing events ... 26

3.3. THB and Europol in light of focusing events ... 28

3.4. Chosen focusing events for the study ... 29

3.5. Europol in the light of framing as ‘frames communicator’ ... 30

3.6. Four chosen frames for the study ... 31

3.6.1. Elaborating on the chosen frames for this research ... 32

Chapter IV – Research Design... 35

4.1. Methodology ... 35

4.2. Data collection ... 36

4.2.1. Preliminary research ... 36

4.2.2. Data sampling ... 37

4.3. Introducing Europol’s publications... 39

4.3.1. First type: Publications regarding ‘identifying the priorities in the fight against major crime’ ... 42

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4.3.2. Second type: Publications regarding “an overview of Europol activities’ ... 46

4.3.3. Summary of the studied publications ... 47

4.4. Unit of analysis ... 49

4.5. Coding scheme ... 49

Chapter V – Analysis ... 53

5.1. Introduction to the analysis ... 53

5.1.2. Year by year analysis ... 53

Chapter VI – Conclusion ... 81

6.1. Concluding remarks ... 81

6.2. Possible limitations of the research ... 83

6.3. Recommendations for further research ... 84

Chapter VII – Bibliography ... 85

7.1. Primary sources ... 85

7.2. Secondary sources ... 85

Appendix ... 92

Appendix 1 List of all analysed documents ... 92

Appendix 2 Results of the keywords search within the studied documents ... 94

Appendix 3 Conversation with Europol ... 96

Appendix 4 Frames’ prevalence between 2004 and 2015 ... 98

Appendix 5 Table 4 – findings’ overview ... 99

List of tables Table 1 Overview of the focusing events ... 30

Table 2 Types of studied publications per year ... 47

Table 3 Coding scheme ... 50 Table 4 Findings’ overview ...

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List of Abbreviations:

ASFJ Area of freedom, security and justice CEPOL European Police College

EASO European Asylum Support Office EIGE European Institute for Gender Equality EIS Europol Information System

EU European Union

Eurojust European Judicial Cooperation Unit Europol European Law Enforcement Agency FRA Fundamental Rights Agency

Frontex Border and Coast Guard Agency IMF International Monetary Fund

IOM International Organization for Migration JHA Justice and Home Affairs

MS Member States of the European Union OC Organised Crime

OCG Organised Crime Group OCR Organised Crime Report

OCTA Organised Crime and Threat Assessment Report OSCE Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe

SOCTA Serious and Organised Crime and Threat Assessment Report TFEU Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union

THB Trafficking in Human Beings UN United Nations

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Chapter I – Introduction 1.1. Introductory Remarks

This thesis concerns a topic of trafficking in human beings (THB) in broader contexts of European Union’s (EU) agencies, focusing events and framing. More specifically, the paper aims to seek the extent to which portrayal(s) of THB represented by one EU agency, European Police Office (Europol), have been influenced by focusing events over the years between 2004 and 2015. A matter of interest is whether the agency’s publications have projected any particular, recurring image of the problem that omits its certain aspects in favour of underlying others. This part of the thesis can be explained in the best manner with the usage of Entman’s theory on framing because it explains how authors of communication pieces (here: chosen Europol’s publications) intrinsically “highlight some bits of information about an item” and turn them into a ‘frame’ of that ‘item’ [here: THB].1

For this study, four frames were chosen: migration frame, human rights frame, economic frame, and law enforcement frame, that altogether correspond to Lindstrom’s perspective on THB categorization by (transnational) organizations2. The justification for studying those particular frames lies in the result of research done on hitherto THB frames in the academia, politics and media. Lindstrom seems to have structuralized3 a plethora of THB portrayals, inter alia, being “a key border issue”4 (migration frame), a violation of “vulnerable populations”5

(human rights frame), or being a result of “global poverty, gender inequality, and the lack of political will”6

(economic frame), or perhaps seen as a “crime issue”7 (law enforcement frame).

In addition to Europol’s THB frames’ identification, this paper seeks to understand their formation through focusing events’ theory. It is an academically innovative attempt to recognize this theory’s potential connotation with framing. In other words, the thesis will

1

Robert M. Entman, 'Framing: Toward Clarification Of A Fractured Paradigm' (1993) 43 Journal of Communication, <http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01304.x/abstract>, p. 53

2

Lindstrom, N., ‘Transnational Responses to Human Trafficking: The Politics of Anti-Trafficking in the Balkans’ in Human Trafficking, Human Security and the Balkans University of Pittsburgh Press (2007), pp. 61-81 <www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5vkfgr.7>; p. 61

3

Lindstrom, N, Orenstein, M & Bloom, ‘The Fourth Dimension of Transition’ in Transnational Actors in Central and East

European Transitions University of Pittsburgh Press (2008)

<http://upress.pitt.edu/htmlSourceFiles/pdfs/9780822959946exr.pdf>; p. 10

4_{Mojca Pajnik, 'Media Framing Of Trafficking' (2010) 12 International Feminist Journal of Politics}

<http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14616740903429114>; p. 54

5

Michele Anne Clark, 'Trafficking In Persons: An Issue Of Human Security' (2003) 4 Journal of Human Development. <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1464988032000087578>; p. 248

6_{Niina Meriläinen and Marita Vos, 'Public Discourse On Human Trafficking In International Issue Arenas' (2015) 5}

Societies <http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4698/5/1/14>; p. 22

7

Meghan R. Sobel, 'Chronicling A Crisis: Media Framing Of Human Trafficking In India, Thailand, And The USA' (2014)

24 Asian Journal of Communication

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look at a selection of events that received increased socio-political salience8 that miht have had an influence on this EU agency’s framing of THB issue. Focusing events theory is chosen here particularly because, as Kingdon claims, can have an effect on frame-building and a problem’s particular “definition”9. Chapter III, section 3.2. presents a more elaborate conceptualization on focusing events according to Kingdon’s thought. Before that happens, it is worth to present an overall research problem.

1.2. Research Problem

Trafficking in human beings (THB) is one of numerous complex problems that the European Union strives to eradicate. One of the key pillars10 of implementation of the Union’s supranational strategy and policy on this issue is the European Police Office (Europol). Ever since Europol’s establishment in 199511, not only its competences have been gradually expanding12, but also its influence on the EU supranational policing activities13. To exemplify, one of the elements of this influence are Europol’s reports, such as threat assessments, annual reviews or ‘knowledge products’, which sometimes are taken into account as new policy suggestions for the policymakers14 of the EU’s Area of Freedom, Security and Justice (AFSJ)15. Interestingly, previous research has shown Europol’s influence on the EU policy regarding THB16, but little attention has been given on the mere essence of Europol’s perspective on THB itself. What this means, is that there is a knowledge gap in how this EU agency perceives the problem and how this perception is projected to the outside world that involves the general public and, perhaps more importantly, the law enforcement of Member States and/or the EU policymakers. Basing on framing theory, this thesis aims to

8

Birkland T. 'Focusing Events, Mobilization, And Agenda Setting' (1998) 18 Journal of Public Policy; p. 54

9

John W. Kingdon, ‘Agendas, Alternatives, And Public Policies’ (2014) 2nd ed. London: Pearson; p. 98

9

Ibid; p. 98

10

Christian Kaunert, Sarah Léonard and John D. Occhipinti, 'Agency Governance In The European Union's Area Of Freedom, Security And Justice' (2013) 14 Perspectives on European Politics and Society <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15705854.2013.817806?needAccess=true>; p. 274

11

Council of the European Union ‘Convention on the establishment of a European Police Office adopted by Council Act of 26 July 1995 drawing up the Convention based on Article K.3 of the Treaty on European Union, on the establishment of a European Police Office (Europol Convention)’ OJ C 316 (1995) <http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:31995F1127(01)>

12

Stephen Rozée, Christian Kaunert & Sarah Léonard ‘Is Europol a

Comprehensive Policing Actor?’ (2013) Perspectives on European Politics and Society, 14:3, 372-387, DOI: 10.1080/15705854.2013.817808; p. 374

13_{Ibid; pp. 380 – 382} 14

Helena Carrapiço and Florian Trauner, 'Europol And Its Influence On EU Policy-Making On Organized Crime: Analyzing Governance Dynamics And Opportunities' (2013) 14 Perspectives on European Politics and Society <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15705854.2013.817804?needAccess=true>; p. 357

15_{European Union, ‘The Hague Programme: Strengthening Freedom, Security and Justice in the European Union’}

(2004) 2005/C 53/01 < http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52005XG0303(01)&from=EN>; p. 9

16

Stephen Rozée, Christian Kaunert & Sarah Léonard ‘Is Europol a Comprehensive Policing Actor?’ (2013) Perspectives on European Politics and Society, 14:3, 372-387, DOI: 10.1080/15705854.2013.817808; pp. 380 – 382

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begin with performing a content analysis of selected publications of Europol in order to recognize its manner of THB portrayal. In addition, the thesis provides an answer which portrayal is the predominant one, in other words, which aspects of the problem Europol highlights the most. Part of framing theory suggests that the manner in which a problem is projected (‘framed’), either coincidentally or purposefully17

, may have significant implications on the communication’s receiver18

.

Moreover, since Europol’s stance on THB is presumed significant19, it is puzzling why there has not been any research done yet on the reasoning behind the agency’s framing of this issue. In other words, there is no scientific explanation so far on how Europol’s (THB) framing is being formed. With the application of Kingdon’s understanding that “a focusing event, by definition, increases attention to a public issue or problem”20, this thesis aims to find an explanation for THB frames chosen by Europol by linking them with focusing events, such as the 2004 EU enlargement or 2011 EU policy change on THB.

Considering this complex research problem, the thesis aims to answer one main research question:

To what extent can focusing events explain Europol’s framing of trafficking in human beings between 2004 and 2015?

This question is supported by the following three sub-questions: 1. How did Europol frame human trafficking in the research period?

This question is the basis for further study as it presents the types of THB elements that are being highlighted by Europol in a given year. In addition, the question is necessary to be answered in order to recognize the following:

2. What kind of framing prevails on a yearly basis?

This question aims to understand what kind of human trafficking portrayal appeared the most often throughout all studied documents for the given year. Moreover, it is a necessary basis for answering the following sub-question:

3. To what extent did a (possible) change in framing occur due to focusing events?

17

Robert M. Entman, 'Framing: Toward Clarification Of A Fractured Paradigm' (1993) 43 Journal of Communication, <http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01304.x/abstract>; p. 52

18

Ibid; p. 52

19_{Ibid; p. 381} 20

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An answer to this question is not only a prolonging to the two previous ones, but also deepens an understanding that there might be circumstances or ‘external factors’ (focusing events) that possibly trigger the difference in portrayals.

1.3. Expectation of the research

As Kingdon remarks, “focusing events are not always so straightforward”21

. That is why, for instance, the refugee crisis, which is not a ‘sudden’22

occurrence per se, could be considered as a focusing event that might have an influence on building a frame to describe a particular problem, here being the issue of THB through the lenses of an EU agency. For instance, in its ‘Europol Review 2015’ the institution itself recognizes the 2015 migration crisis as a trigger for increased criminal activity in the EU, increase of THB being one of the main concerns23. Therefore, this thesis assumes that, firstly, focusing events do have an impact on THB framing in general and, further, that they have had a particular impact on Europol’s THB framing in the chosen study period. In Birkland’s words: “focusing attention on one problem rather than another is often no accident”24

and that is what this this aims to prove in the chosen context.

1.4.Objective of the research

The research aims to study how Europol has been portraying human trafficking in the first place and to what extent those portrayals are influenced by focusing events that have occurred between 2004 and 2015. It is assumed that Europol does, consciously or not, frame THB in a particular manner. It is then a matter of further analysis to determine what that ‘particular manner’ is and which exact aspects of the problem are omitted and which are emphasized on through the influence of THB-related focusing events. Answer to this puzzle might bring several academic and societal contributions that are explained in the section 1.5.

1.5. Academic and societal relevance 1.5.1. Academic Relevance

As a consequence of Brexit, 2015 refugee crisis, increased personal insecurity and even the rise of extreme - right political voices across the whole Europe, the future direction on the

21

John W. Kingdon, ‘Agendas, Alternatives, And Public Policies’ (2014) 2nd ed. London: Pearson; p. 96

22_{Thomas Birkland, 'Focusing Events, Mobilization, And Agenda Setting' (1998) Journal of Public Policy vol. 18, issue 01,}

pages 53-74; p. 54

23

Europol, 'Europol Review 2015' (2016) <https://www.europol.europa.eu/activities-services/main-reports/europol-review-2015>; p. 9

24

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EU’s anti-trafficking policy might be twofold. It will either continue its globalist approach and focus on multi-level governance and victim aid or, it will gradually return to traditional, state – cantered model with more focus on technical measures, such as border control25. Therefore, the purpose of this thesis’ findings is not only a mere fulfilment of a certain knowledge gap but also could provide a valuable point of reference for Europol officials and/or EU policymakers to seek solutions to this problem in Europe. This institution is particularly valuable to look at because it is named as one of the core actors in the struggle against human trafficking in Europe26. Moreover, there has not been a content analysis of such reports done before, but merely such academic studies as the EU’s framing of a “serious crime” term27

or media narration of THB in Europe or the United States28. On the EU agency level, scholarly opinion clearly states that research tended to largely overlook the role played by European agencies (in the broad sense) in the AFSJ.”29 Hence, the relevance of focusing on the framing done by the agency and not by the media or by the EU politicians. The research could also be an unusual contribution to the study and application of framing theory. The thesis aims not only to follow framing theory that supports describing various manners in which Europol portrays THB over time, but also to explain those analytical findings with the usage of focusing events theory. Both theories aim to describe and explain Europol’s framing and frame-building process of THB. Considering that no similar research discussed Europol’s publications through the focusing event lenses, this on its own would be an innovative addition to the academic knowledge of both, the theory and Europol itself.

1.5.2. Societal Relevance

Human trafficking is considered to be one of the gravest transnational (organized) crimes in the world30. At the same time, it is one of the most complex criminal activities to study31.

25

Sarah H. Krieg, 'Trafficking In Human Beings: The EU Approach Between Border Control, Law Enforcement And Human Rights' (2009) 15 European Law Journal, p. 776

26

Stephen Rozée, Christian Kaunert & Sarah Léonard ‘Is Europol a Comprehensive Policing Actor?’ (2013) Perspectives on European Politics and Society, 14:3, 372-387, DOI: 10.1080/15705854.2013.817808; pp. 380 – 382

27_{Letizia Paoli and others, 'Exploring Definitions Of Serious Crime In EU Policy Documents And Academic Publications:}

A Content Analysis And Policy Implications' [2016] European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research <https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10610-016-9333-y>

28

Amy Farrell and Stephanie Fahy, 'The Problem Of Human Trafficking In The U.S.: Public Frames And Policy Responses'

(2009) 37 Journal of Criminal Justice

<https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Amy_Farrell/publication/227418417_The_Problem_of_Human_Trafficking_in_the_ US_Public_Frames_and_Policy_Responses/links/0deec532f403e628c3000000/The-Problem-of-Human-Trafficking-in-the-US-Public-Frames-and-Policy-Responses.pdf>

29_{Christian Kaunert, Sarah Léonard and John D. Occhipinti, 'Agency Governance In The European Union's Area Of}

Freedom, Security And Justice' (2013) 14 Perspectives on European Politics and Society <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15705854.2013.817806?needAccess=true>; p. 274

30

UNODC ‘Report On Human Trafficking Exposes Modern Form Of Slavery’ (2009) United Nations2 <http://www.unodc. org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/global-report-on-trafficking-in-persons.html>; p.6

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Moreover, it has a serious impact on the society as a whole32. On the one hand, it may be an epicentre of several other criminal activities, such as forced labour or prostitution33. On the other hand, it significantly impacts its victims, for instance by causing a lifelong trauma that makes them almost impossible to return to ordinary functioning in the society34. Therefore, it is a topic worth studying overall. In addition, an observation of how the issue has been conceptualized by the EU agencies would contribute to understanding how (and why) they tend to tackle it. In the end, this understanding could shed another light on the possible improvement of the continuous struggle against this crime, which is a practical implication of this research35.

1.6. Structure of the thesis

The research is divided into six core parts. Chapter I introduces the research problem and presents the main hypothesis that underlines further analysis. Chapter II concerns a literature review on the scholarly field concerned with hitherto research done on THB framing. Chapter III of the thesis elaborates on focusing events and framing theories and explains their relevance to answering the main research question. Chapters IV and V relate to the empirical analysis of this research, first one explaining the chosen methodology, and the latter reporting on the findings. Lastly, Chapter VI consists of concluding remarks that include recommendations on further research in the area of THB framing by the EU and its agencies. The appendix to this thesis includes additional materials supporting the analysis and can be found after the bibliography.

31

Van der Laan et al, 'Cross-Border Trafficking In Human Beings: Prevention And Intervention Strategies For Reducing

Sexual Exploitation' (2011) The Campbell Collaboration.

<https://www.campbellcollaboration.org/media/k2/attachments/Van_der_Laan_Trafficking_Review.pdf>; p. 10

32_{Louise I Shelley, ‘Human Trafficking’ (2010) 1st edn, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521130875; p. 3} 33

Sexual Exploitation' (2011) The Campbell Collaboration.

<https://www.campbellcollaboration.org/media/k2/attachments/Van_der_Laan_Trafficking_Review.pdf>; pp. 7 - 9

34_{Baldwin, Susie B., David P. Eisenman, Jennifer N. Sayles, Gery Ryan, and Kenneth S. Chuang. ‘Identification of Human}

Trafficking Victims in Health Care Settings.’ (2011) Health and Human Rights 13, no. 1: 36-49. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/healhumarigh.13.1.36>; p. 37

35

Cornelius Friesendorf, 'Pathologies Of Security Governance: Efforts Against Human Trafficking In Europe' (2007) 38 Security Dialogue <http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0967010607081518>; p. 392

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Chapter II – Background literature review

2.1. Situation of trafficking in human beings in Europe

Trafficking in human beings (THB) is a complex and continuing issue36, which occurs all around the world and damages lives of hundreds of thousands victims on a yearly37 basis. Its driving factors cover wide range of issues, from poor economic conditions to even culture - based gender discrimination38. However, knowledge of this has not resulted in elimination of the problem39. On the contrary, both the United Nations (UN), as well as the EU, continuously call attention to human trafficking40, while the academic society remarks on the problem’s constant “dangerous growth” 41

.

Scholars of numerous disciplines study both causes and consequences of the matter. The latter establishes an unexhausted list42 that includes the growth of organized crime, sexual violence, prostitution, child labour, forced labour or even lifelong “serious health problems”43

caused to trafficked persons. The number of reported victims of human trafficking has been rising gradually across the globe, the EU being a noteworthy example44 because of its unique Schengen regime facilitating movement of persons through a number of international borders45.

Because human trafficking is such a complex issue, it needs solutions provided by similarly complex network of actors. On the European continent, there are several actors involved in the battle against this crime, from individual states, non-governmental organizations, and

36

Louise I Shelley, ‘Human Trafficking’ (2010) 1st edn, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521130875; p. 3

37

UNODC ‘Report On Human Trafficking Exposes Modern Form Of Slavery’ (2009) United Nations <http://www.unodc. org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/global-report-on-trafficking-in-persons.html>; p.6

38

Michele Anne Clark, 'Trafficking In Persons: An Issue Of Human Security' (2003) 4 Journal of Human Development. <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1464988032000087578>; pp. 250 - 253

39

Sexual Exploitation' (2011) The Campbell Collaboration

40

European Commission ‘The EU Strategy towards the eradication of trafficking in human beings, 2012-2016’ (2013)

European Union.

<https://ec.europa.eu/antitrafficking/sites/antitrafficking/files/eu_strategy_towards_the_eradication_of_trafficking_in_huma n_beings_2012-2016_1.pdf>; p. 3

41_{A. Gallagher and P. Holmes, 'Developing An Effective Criminal Justice Response To Human Trafficking: Lessons From}

The Front Line' (2008) 18 International Criminal Justice Review. <http://icj.sagepub.com/content/18/3/318.full.pdf>; pp.319 – 320.

42

Siân Oram and others, 'Prevalence And Risk Of Violence And The Physical, Mental, And Sexual Health Problems Associated With Human Trafficking: Systematic Review' (2012) 9 PLoS Med. <http://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1001224&type=printable>; pp. 10 - 12

43

Ibid; p. 11

44

Eurostat, 'Trafficking In Human Beings' (2015) European Union, ISBN 978-92-79-45831-6.

<http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3888793/6648090/KS-TC-14-008-EN-1.pdf/b0315d39-e7bd-4da5-8285-854f37bb8801>; p. 10

45

Milivojevic, S.; Pickering, S. ‘Trafficking in People, 20 Years On: Sex, Migration and Crime in the Global Anti-Trafficking Discourse and the Rise of the Global Anti-Trafficking Complex’ (2013) Current Issues in Criminal Justice 25(2), 585-604. <http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/cicj25&div=18&g_sent=1&collection=journals#>; p. 588

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finally, numerous EU institutions. In its “Strategy Towards The Eradication Of Trafficking In Human Beings 2012 – 2016”, the Commission underlined strategic importance of six agencies in the implementation of anti-trafficking policy: the European Police College (CEPOL), the European Asylum Support Office (EASO), the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE), the European Police Office (Europol), the Judicial Cooperation Unit (Eurojust), the Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) and the Border and Coast Guard Agency (Frontex) 46. Even though, their roles are dispersed and governed by the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice (AFSJ) unit of the EU, they are said to be playing a significant role in the policymaking process on a bottom-up level47.

The following section explains why Europol is the one EU agency worth studying in this thesis.

2.2. Europol as an actor in the EU’s anti-trafficking struggle

Although, the formation of the European Union Agency was agreed upon in the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 already, it was not until 1999 when it "commenced its full range of activities"48 under 1995 'Europol Convention'. It has a formally established legal nature as “an agency of the [European] Union”49

.

Main objective of the organisation is laid down in several legal acts, including the 1995 Convention establishing Europol or, being the most recent relevant document50, Regulation 2016/794 on Europol51. An overall summary of all the definitions included in such acts is held in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU):

46

European Commission, 'Mid-Term Report On the Implementation Of The EU Strategy Towards The Eradication Of Trafficking In Human Beings' (2014) European Union COM 2014 635 final <https://ec.europa.eu/home-

affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/what-is-new/news/news/docs/20141017_mid-term_report_on_the_2012-2016_eu_strategy_on_trafficking_in_human_beings_en.pdf>; p. 11

47

Christian Kaunert, Sarah Léonard and John D. Occhipinti, 'Agency Governance In The European Union's Area Of Freedom, Security And Justice' (2013) 14 Perspectives on European Politics and Society <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15705854.2013.817806?needAccess=true>; p. 275

48_{Mathieu Deflem, 'Europol And The Policing Of International Terrorism: Counter}

‐Terrorism In A Global Perspective' (2006) 23 Justice Quarterly <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07418820600869111>; p. 342

49

European Parliament and Council of the European Union ‘Regulation (EU) 2016/794 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 May 2016 on the European Union Agency for Law Enforcement Cooperation (Europol) and replacing and repealing Council Decisions 2009/371/JHA, 2009/934/JHA, 2009/935/JHA, 2009/936/JHA and 2009/968/JHA’ OJ L 135 (2016) <http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32016R0794>; art. 62(1); p. 102

50

Council of the European Union ‘Convention on the establishment of a European Police Office adopted by Council Act of 26 July 1995 drawing up the Convention based on Article K.3 of the Treaty on European Union, on the establishment of a European Police Office (Europol Convention)’ OJ C 316 (1995) <http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:31995F1127(01)>

51

European Parliament and Council of the European Union ‘Regulation (EU) 2016/794 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 May 2016 on the European Union Agency for Law Enforcement Cooperation (Europol) and replacing and repealing Council Decisions 2009/371/JHA, 2009/934/JHA, 2009/935/JHA, 2009/936/JHA and 2009/968/JHA’ OJ L 135 (2016) <http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32016R0794>

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Art. 88(1): “Europol's mission shall be to support and strengthen action by the Member States' police authorities and other law enforcement services and their mutual cooperation in preventing and combating serious crime affecting two or more Member States, terrorism and forms of crime which affect a common interest covered by a Union policy.”52

Those “forms of crime” are further specified in the Regulation 2016/794 that contains a list of 30 activities, one of which being trafficking in human beings53.

Article 4 of the same Regulation discusses numerous tasks of Europol, including two of a particular interest to this paper:

Art. 4(1)(f): “prepare threat assessments, strategic and operational analyses and general situation reports;”54

Art. 4(2): “Europol shall provide strategic analyses and threat assessments to assist the Council and the Commission in laying down strategic and operational priorities of the Union for fighting crime. Europol shall also assist in the operational implementation of those priorities.”55

There are two assumptions that can be made based on those passages. First one, that preparing such reports as the crime reports, organised crime and threat assessments, annual reviews and specific reports on singular crimes (such as the 2016 “Trafficking in human beings in the EU”) constitutes as one of the core tasks of Europol.

Second assumption relates to art. 4(2), which suggests, as such scholars as that Europol’s publications are to be taken seriously by regarding them as possible indicators for creating and/or improving legislation on serious crime (and terrorism) on the European continent56. Both of those assumptions are worth remarking because they might indicate why framing of THB by Europol is significant to become aware of.

This relates to three main reasons for choosing Europol for this study. Firstly, Europol is part of the anti-trafficking response chain57. Kaunert and Léonard claim that Europol has been

52_{Member States of the European Union ‘Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union’ OJ}

C 326 (2012) article 88 (ex. art. 30 TEU) <http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:12012E088>; p. 84

53_{European Parliament and Council of the European Union ‘Regulation (EU) 2016/794 of the European Parliament and of}

the Council of 11 May 2016 on the European Union Agency for Law Enforcement Cooperation (Europol) and replacing and repealing Council Decisions 2009/371/JHA, 2009/934/JHA, 2009/935/JHA, 2009/936/JHA and 2009/968/JHA’ OJ L 135 (2016) <http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32016R0794>; p. 108

54

Ibid; p. 64

55

Ibid; p. 65

56_{Stephen Rozée, Christian Kaunert & Sarah Léonard ‘Is Europol a Comprehensive Policing Actor?’ (2013) Perspectives on}

European Politics and Society, 14:3, 372-387, DOI: 10.1080/15705854.2013.817808; pp. 380 – 382

57

Council of the European Union 'The Joint Report By EUROPOL, EUROJUST And FRONTEX On The State Of Internal Security In The EU' (2010) <http://www.statewatch.org/news/2010/aug/eu-council-eurojust-europol-frontex-int-sec-9359-10.pdf>

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actively involved in the struggle towards eradication of THB on both supranational and domestic levels. They argue that over the years the agency “has built confidence in its supporting role in the areas of trafficking in human beings, child sexual exploitation and facilitating irregular immigration”58_{, particularly through “building trust, awareness and}

[stimulating] willingness of the national competent authorities to cooperate”59

in the subject matter. Secondly, Europol is a notable agency to study in this research area from strategic and operational perspective. As Lavenex and Wichmann suggest, Europol is a vital intermediary in the “vertical coordinating structures”60

among the EU – level policymaking against human trafficking and its implementation by domestic law enforcement bodies. In this regard, its publications and the specific manner in which they portray crimes, could be influential to law enforcement agents of individual Member States and to the EU policymaker. Thirdly, as Rozée, Kaunert and Léonard suggest, “Europol contributes to varying degrees in terms of depth and importance to the efforts of the national police forces to combat human trafficking and illegal migration.”61

Not only the EU Commission considers Europol as a “particularly”62 significant actor in the overall struggle against eradication of THB in Europe, but it is also recognized in the scholarly field. Carrapiço and Trauner argue that studying Europol’s publications provides an added value to academia (and practice of law enforcement) because “[t]he production of organized crime reports has been directly related to the evolution of the European police office, reflecting not only the function attributed to this body but also the way it perceives itself, its goals and its level of autonomy.”63

Puntsher-Rekmann moves even further in directly claiming that Europol “may be regarded as the most important of the ASFJ agencies.”64

2.3.Working definitions of ‘THB’ and ‘Europol’

58_{Stephen Rozée, Christian Kaunert & Sarah Léonard ‘Is Europol a Comprehensive Policing Actor?’ Perspectives on}

European Politics and Society (2013)

<http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15705854.2013.817808?needAccess=true>; p. 381

59

Ibid; p. 381

60_{Sandra Lavenex and Nicole Wichmann, 'The External Governance of EU Internal Security' (2009) 31 Journal of European}

Integration <http://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:76480>; p.89

61_{Stephen Rozée, Christian Kaunert & Sarah Léonard ‘Is Europol a Comprehensive Policing Actor?’ Perspectives on}

European Politics and Society (2013)

<http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15705854.2013.817808?needAccess=true>; p. 382

62

European Commission ‘The EU Strategy towards the eradication of trafficking in human beings, 2012-2016’ (2013). <https://ec.europa.eu/antitrafficking/sites/antitrafficking/files/eu_strategy_towards_the_eradication_of_trafficking_in_huma n_beings_2012-2016_1.pdf>; p. 11

63_{Helena Carrapiço and Florian Trauner, 'Europol And Its Influence On EU Policy-Making On Organized Crime: Analyzing}

Governance Dynamics And Opportunities' (2013) 14 Perspectives on European Politics and Society <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15705854.2013.817804?needAccess=true>; p. 360

64

Sonja Puntscher Riekmann ‘Security, Freedom and Accountability: Europol and Frontex’ In: Security vs. Justice. Guild, E., Geyer, F. (eds) (2008) Ashgate Publishing Limited, pp. 19-34.

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In order to organise the fundamental knowledge necessary for following this study, this brief section will explain what is exactly meant by ‘trafficking in human beings’ and ‘Europol’.

Trafficking in human beings

United Nations provides, so far, the most popular definition of THB to both, the international community and the academia65:

Art. 3(a) ““Trafficking in persons” shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs”66

Although, the exact definition and legal consequences for the actors involved in this crime varies per Member State (MS), the EU supranational framework adopts the UN’s definition of THB67.

What is worth adding in this paper is Europol’s working definition of THB, which can be derived from the agency’s website:

“Human trafficking is a serious crime that abuses people’s fundamental rights and dignity. It involves the criminal exploitation of vulnerable people for the sole purpose of economic gain.” It directly refers to the crime as “modern form of slavery”68

that “is often transnational in character and its victims are of both genders and all ages.”69 Noteworthy,

65

Sexual Exploitation' (2011) The Campbell Collaboration

66_{United Nations, 'Protocol To Prevent, Suppress And Punish Trafficking In Persons, Especially Women And Children,}

Supplementing The United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime' (Treaties.un.org, 2001) <https://treaties.un.org/pages/viewdetails.aspx?src=ind&mtdsg_no=xviii-12-a&chapter=18>

67

Brenda Carina, Oude Breuil and others, 'Human Trafficking Revisited: Legal, Enforcement And Ethnographic Narratives On Sex Trafficking To Western Europe' (2011) 14 Trends in Organized Crime <http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12117-011-9118-0>; pp. 34 - 35

68

Europol 'Trafficking In Human Beings' (2017) <https://www.europol.europa.eu/crime-areas-and-trends/crime-areas/trafficking-in-human-beings>

69

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the agency marks a clear differentiation between THB and human smuggling70 and considers THB as a “priority”71

issue.

Europol

THB is one of the issues that Europol includes in its agendas, operations, and publications. The agency defines itself bluntly as “the European Union’s law enforcement agency”72

. To elaborate on this, adopted working definition of this agency in this study also relies on the latest EU Regulation on Europol, describing the agency as:

“(…) an entity of the Union funded from the general budget of the Union to support and strengthen action by competent authorities of the Member States and their mutual cooperation in preventing and combating organised crime, terrorism and other forms of serious crime affecting two or more Member States.”73

2.4.Hitherto academic study within the field of THB framing

There is a significant amount of scholarly knowledge on framing of the issue in the media. In addition, there are a few research examples of THB framing within the academic and political arena, including such political broad institutions as the European Parliament74 or merely local US law enforcement units75. The literature in media, academic and political THB framing is reviewed below in order to present possibly more comprehensive image of the scholarly field in this topic. Altogether, the hitherto study in this field aims to outline the vast amount of THB portrayals, which in the end, will be narrowed down to Lindstrom’s four perspectives: a migration frame, a law-enforcement frame, an economic frame, and a human rights frame.”76

70

Europol 'Trafficking In Human Beings' (2017) <https://www.europol.europa.eu/crime-areas-and-trends/crime-areas/trafficking-in-human-beings>

71

Ibid

72

<https://www.europol.europa.eu/about-europol>

73_{REGULATION (EU) 2016/794 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 11 May 2016 on the}

European Union Agency for Law Enforcement Cooperation (Europol) and replacing and repealing Council Decisions 2009/371/JHA, 2009/934/JHA, 2009/935/JHA, 2009/936/JHA and 2009/968/JHA

74

Niina Meriläinen and Marita Vos, 'Public Discourse On Human Trafficking In International Issue Arenas' (2015) 5 Societies <http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4698/5/1/14>

75

76

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2.4.1. Media framing of trafficking in human beings

Charnysh, Lloyd and Simmons argue that there have been numerous frames of human trafficking emerging and changing overtime77. This also translates to media and general public portrayal of THB, which has been studied with a focus on numerous singular states or regions, to name a few: the United States78, the United Kingdom79, Slovenia80 or Poland81. As an example, Farrell and Fahy recognize that such American newspapers as, inter alia, Washington Times, Washington Post, or San Diego Tribune, use THB in such forms as: “human rights frame, a crime and criminalization frame, and[or] national security frame.”82

The authors identified those four as the most commonly used portrayals of trafficking process and/or actors involved after their initial content analysis of 2,462 US news-articles83. According to those media pieces, the human rights category relates to THB as the abuse of fundamental rights and is often “associated with commercial sexual exploitation of women and children.”84 US media criminalization category stipulates that trafficking in all forms is first and foremost seen as a “crime that necessitated a criminal justice system response”85

, rather than a socio-political contest. As last on possible framing list, some news articles relate to the ‘national security category’, which associates THB with (illegal) migration and, hence, perceives it as “a national security problem.”86

77

78

79

Jeff Gulati, 'Media Representation Of Human Trafficking In The United States, Great Britain, And Canada' (2010) SSRN Electronic Journal <https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1633574>

80

Mojca Pajnik, 'Media Framing Of Trafficking' (2010) 12 International Feminist Journal of Politics <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14616740903429114>

81

Maryla Koss-Goryszewska ‘Wizerunek handlu ludźmi i kobiety-ofiary w prasie polskiej na przykładzie Gazety Wyborczej’ (2010) The Institute of Public Affairs <http://www.isp.org.pl/files/19734635060162107001278326109.pdf>

82_{Amy Farrell, Stephanie Fahy, 'The Problem Of Human Trafficking In The U.S.: Public Frames And Policy Responses'}

<https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Amy_Farrell/publication/227418417_The_Problem_of_Human_Trafficking_in_the_ US_Public_Frames_and_Policy_Responses/links/0deec532f403e628c3000000/The-Problem-of-Human-Trafficking-in-the-US-Public-Frames-and-Policy-Responses.pdf>; p. 618 83 Ibid; p. 618 84 Ibid; p. 619 85

Amy Farrell, Stephanie Fahy, 'The Problem Of Human Trafficking In The U.S.: Public Frames And Policy Responses'

<https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Amy_Farrell/publication/227418417_The_Problem_of_Human_Trafficking_in_the_ US_Public_Frames_and_Policy_Responses/links/0deec532f403e628c3000000/The-Problem-of-Human-Trafficking-in-the-US-Public-Frames-and-Policy-Responses.pdf>; p. 619

86

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A somewhat different approach is taken presented in Pajnik’s study on Slovene press reporting on the issue. In Slovene media, according to Pajnik, such categories can be identified as “first, ‘criminalization’; second, ‘nationalization’; third, ‘victimization’; and, fourth, ‘regularization’.”87

In his view, the first one incorporates all criminal aspects of THB and its oscillating illegal activities. It “supports the assumption that adopting stricter legislation will hinder trafficking, imprison the perpetrators and save the victims.”88

Further, the second frame presents the nation state “as fighting trafficking for the sake of the nation and the citizenry within its territorial boundaries.”89 This, in comparison to the first frame, makes THB portrayed as ‘a minor problem’ in the eyes of the everlastingly protective state90

. The third frame he recognized in Slovene media relates to depiction of trafficked people as vulnerable ‘victims’ which the perpetrators prey upon91

. In addition to such, some articles portray THB as a ‘regularization matter’, which Pajnik specifically explains as a ‘media advocacy’ towards finding legal improvements and policy changes that lie in core of anti-trafficking efforts92.

2.4.2. Framing of trafficking in human beings within academic and political arena

Academic arena

The scholarly field varies in deciding which frame might be the predominant one. Charnysh et al. suggest that one of the leading frames of THB, especially in the 20th century, is related to “victim protection”93

. While these authors see such a frame as similar, but disconnected from the ‘human rights’ lenses of THB, such scholars as Clark combines the too into a one collective frame94. She argues that the “framework (…) [provides] a basis for specific policy and institutional changes necessary to protect vulnerable populations from the risk of being trafficked in their countries of origin as well as in countries of transit and destinations.”95

87_{Mojca Pajnik, 'Media Framing Of Trafficking' (2010) 12 International Feminist Journal of Politics}

<http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14616740903429114>; p. 45 88_{Ibid; p. 52} 89 Ibid; p. 54 90_{Ibid; p. 54} 91 Ibid; p. 56 92 Ibid; p. 59 93

. Charnysh, P. Lloyd and B. A. Simmons, 'Frames And Consensus Formation In International Relations: The Case Of Trafficking In Persons' (2014) 21 European Journal of International Relations <http://charnysh.net/documents/Charnysh_Lloyd_Simmons.pdf>; p. 329

94

Michele Anne Clark, 'Trafficking In Persons: An Issue Of Human Security' (2003) 4 Journal of Human Development. <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1464988032000087578>; p. 258

95

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Even though, the media and some scholars do indeed perceive THB through human rights/victim lenses, there are other frames relevant to the overall discourse. Farell and Fahy, for instance, recognize a substantial economic element to THB portrayal that relates to the perception of it as a lucrative business96.

Finally, particularly in response to the migration crisis and increased illegal border crossing97, there is a THB framework that relates to securitization of the problem. Rizer and Glaser connect it with the fact that trafficked humans cross the border not only unwillingly (which is not always the case either) but first and foremost, illegally98. In this regard, they are a peculiar ‘threat’ to national security and only later are perceived as victims. Additionally, Holmes suggests THB as a threat to security from another angle – corruption of law enforcement99. She explains that “if a gang is involved in other types of smuggling and trafficking—such as narcotics or arms—then officers of the state could become involved in that (…) [and they] can assist in the continuation and even expansion of trafficking operations through tipping off brothel-owners and others of imminent raids.”100 In her view, “it is obvious why this constitutes a serious security threat.”101

Political arena

Meriläinen and Vos argue that “while the power of the press is still recognized, other actors, such as political entities and NGOs, also have power as agenda setters and framers.102” By means of analogy, one could assume that if media portrayal of THB has been reported to have an influence on the general public perception, then perhaps, Europol’s narration of the problem would also be of importance to specific group of recipients (e.g. on law enforcement officers). Meriläinen and Vos perceive THB as “challenging social problem to overcome”103,

96

Amy Farrell, Stephanie Fahy, 'The Problem Of Human Trafficking In The U.S.: Public Frames And Policy Responses'

<https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Amy_Farrell/publication/227418417_The_Problem_of_Human_Trafficking_in_the_ US_Public_Frames_and_Policy_Responses/links/0deec532f403e628c3000000/The-Problem-of-Human-Trafficking-in-the-US-Public-Frames-and-Policy-Responses.pdf>; p. 624

97

Ibid; p. 618

98_{Arthur Rizer, Sheri R. Glaser ‘Breach: The National Security Implications of Human Trafficking’ (2011) Widener Law}

Review 17: 69-94 <https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4457/9f4bb517655341cd8cf7cd1025a4fab1160c.pdf>; p. 82

99_{Leslie Holmes, ‘Corruption and Trafficking: Triple Victimisation?’ [in Cornelius Friesendorf ed. ‘Strategies Against}

Human Trafficking: The Role of the Security Sector’ National Defence Academy and Austrian Ministry of Defence and Sports, DCAF (2009)] <http://www.acrath.org.au/multimedia/downld/var/Strategies_Against_Human_Trafficiking-The_Role_of_the_Security_Sector_Vienna%26Geneva_Sep2009.pdf>; p. 83

100_{Ibid; p. 105} 101

Ibid; p. 105

102

Niina Meriläinen and Marita Vos, 'Public Discourse On Human Trafficking In International Issue Arenas' (2015) 5 Societies <http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4698/5/1/14>; p. 15

103

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where communication of its aspects plays a major role in “decision making and policy formation”104_{. They argue that “a better understanding of the context wherein human}

trafficking is discussed and how the issue is framed can offer (…) insight into what are seen by the actors as causal reasons behind human trafficking”105

. In their 2015 article, they look at the problem framing by Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch and the European Parliament, which proved that THB portrayal is far from unity among the concerned organizations and policymakers106. For instance, according to Meriläinen and Vos’ findings, in Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch’s narration of THB, the problem “is not discussed as an isolated issue, but it is connected to many other serious social problems such as rape, labour violations, sexual exploitation, kidnapping, prostitution, blackmail, governmental corruption, ill treatment or abuse and murder.”107

Further, the authors identify that such organizations follow “a strategy called “framing of responsibility” (…) that draws attention to the root causes of trafficking: global poverty, gender inequality, and the lack of political will to resolve this human rights issue.”108

While the European Parliament seems to be following such a frame, its focus is less on human rights as it is on economic factors, specifically related to “gender [in]equality and women’s rights, [un]equal opportunities between the sexes, (…) [and] social problems that facilitate the development of human trafficking rings.”109

A somewhat other framing suggestion is given by Lindstrom, who in one of her publications on human trafficking presents “four competing frames deployed in international discussions: a migration frame, a law-enforcement frame, an economic frame, and a human rights frame.”110

The first one, focusing on migration “is based on the understanding of the trafficking problem as one of unregulated or irregular migration,”111

which focuses on state immigration procedures and border control. Next, “law enforcement approach operates according to the definition of trafficking in persons as a crime under international law that

104

Ibid; p. 15

105_{Niina Meriläinen and Marita Vos, 'Public Discourse On Human Trafficking In International Issue Arenas' (2015) 5}

Societies <http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4698/5/1/14>; p. 15 106_{Ibid; pp. 15, 17} 107 Ibid; p. 22 108_{Ibid; p. 22} 109 Ibid; pp. 26 – 27. 110

111

Lindstrom, N., ‘Transnational Responses to Human Trafficking: The Politics of Anti-Trafficking in the Balkans’ in Human Trafficking, Human Security and the Balkans University of Pittsburgh Press (2007), pp. 61-81 <www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5vkfgr.7>; p. 64

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must be prevented, prosecuted, and punished.”112

She considers the frame corresponding to such anti-trafficking measures as improved prevention, police training and linking THB with other ‘similar’ trading crimes, such as drug trafficking113

. Here, she suggests that, among others, Europol might be somewhat following this approach114, which is not far from surprise considering the core nature of this EU agency.

Lindstrom ‘economic frame’ is similar to other economic approaches to THB portrayal as already mentioned before in this chapter. “It shifts the emphasis away from strict law enforcement or migration approaches in favor of policies that not only protect victims of trafficking but address the broader socioeconomic conditions that lead to the problem.”115

Last of Lindstrom’s frames concerns ‘human rights’ aspect of THB and generally refers to the “violent and coercive nature of human trafficking”116 that emphasized on its victims and their vulnerability.

As Bloom, Orenstein and Lindstrom discuss, “in the case of human trafficking, the EU has advocated a migration approach, while the United States emphasizes law enforcement, and these choices have made a difference.”117

Interestingly, individual perceptions on trafficked humans also vary, for instance within law enforcement communities118. Farell, Pfeffer and Bright highlight that, at least in the United States, “when asked to define human trafficking, many [police] officers provided definitions in conflict with their states’ human trafficking laws.”119

In Farell’s earlier research, she argues that despite improved legislation and increased inter-agency awareness spread on the issue, still the issue image remained ambiguous for the federal and state agents. She suggests that “the failure of police organizations to operationalize law may help explain the low number of identified victims”120. If that is the case, then it can be argued that recognizing

112

Lindstrom, N., ‘Transnational Responses to Human Trafficking: The Politics of Anti-Trafficking in the Balkans’ in Human Trafficking, Human Security and the Balkans University of Pittsburgh Press (2007), pp. 61-81 <www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5vkfgr.7>; p. 64

113

Lindstrom, N., ‘Transnational Responses to Human Trafficking: The Politics of Anti-Trafficking in the Balkans’ in Human Trafficking, Human Security and the Balkans University of Pittsburgh Press (2007), pp. 61-81 <www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5vkfgr.7>; p. 65 114_{Ibid; p. 65} 115 Ibid; p. 67 116_{Ibid; p. 65} 117

<http://upress.pitt.edu/htmlSourceFiles/pdfs/9780822959946exr.pdf>; pp. 10 – 11

118_{Amy Farell, Rebecca Pfeffer, Katherine Bright, 'Police Perceptions Of Human Trafficking' (2015) 38 Journal of Crime}

and Justice <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0735648X.2014.995412>; p. 315

119

Ibid; p. 316

120

A. Farrell, 'Environmental And Institutional Influences On Police Agency Responses To Human Trafficking' (2013) 17 Police Quarterly <http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1098611113495050>; p.4

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frames on particular crime that a given institution (e.g. Europol) is using, could contribute to the overall anti-trafficking struggle.

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Chapter III – Theoretical Framework

This chapter introduces two theories that are fundamental to this research. It begins with introducing framing theory in order to further explain its connection with focusing events. Because the combination of those theories has neither been used in THB nor Europol’s context, another two sections provide a brief representation of how the elements of chosen theoretical frameworks can apply to the thesis’ subject matter itself. This is done in order to clarify to the reader why this theoretical framework is used in this study and is deemed appropriate for answering the research question.

3.1. Framing

In order to build a comprehensive answer to the research question, it is firstly necessary to recognize what kind of frames of THB there are in Europol’s publications. For this, framing theory will be used. Generally, framing aids to perceive one complex notion from numerous angles, depending on the selected elements for its portrayal. The theory has been used throughout various scholarly fields, from communication and media studies, political science, and finally, social science, which is of relevance here. Because of such a wide range, there seems not to be a consensus on what exactly framing theory entails and what it does not121. Moreover, framing can occur in numerous types of communication pieces, such as news-articles, press releases, advertising, political speeches, policies, or reports122. Goffman suggests that framing has even broader scope and exists within society on a regular basis as “schemata of interpretation”123

that every individual establishes towards particular issue. This ‘individual’ does not have to be understood as a ‘person’, but could be a political party, social group, or as specified in this paper, an institution (e.g. Europol)124.

One of the possible definitions of ‘frames’ themselves depicts them as “cognitive structures that help define how one sees the world.”125

Moreover, in context of human trafficking and

121

Robert M. Entman, 'Framing: Toward Clarification Of A Fractured Paradigm' (1993) 43 Journal of Communication, <http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01304.x/abstract>; p. 51

122_{Dennis Chong, James N. Druckman, ‘Framing Theory’ Annual Review of Political Science, Vol. 10 (2007) pp. 103-26;}

<http://www.annualreviews.org.ezproxy.leidenuniv.nl:2048/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.polisci.10.072805.103054>; p. 107

123_{Erving Goffman, ‘Frame Analysis: An Essay On The Organization Of Experience’ Northeastern University Press edition}

(1986) ISBN: 093035091X

<https://is.muni.cz/el/1423/podzim2013/SOC571E/um/E.Goffman-FrameAnalysis.pdf>; p. 21

124

Margaret E. Keck, Kathryn Sikkink ‘Transnational advocacy networks in international and regional politics’ International

Social Science Journal 51.159 (1999): 89-101;

<http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic446176.files/Week_7/Keck_and_Sikkink_Transnational_Advocacy.pdf>; p. 90

125_{Amy Farrell and Stephanie Fahy, 'The Problem Of Human Trafficking In The U.S.: Public Frames And Policy Responses'}

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international organisations, framing may lead to “consensus making”126 in policymaking and in implementing new measures concerning particular issue. In this specific regard, another definition of ‘framing’ is provided by McAdam, McCarthy and Zald, who perceive it as a “conscious strategic efforts by groups of people to fashion shared understandings of the world and of themselves that legitimate and motivate collective action”127.

As shown above, the academia offers numerous approaches to understanding this phenomenon. One of the leading, if not the most popular, scholars in the field is Robert M. Entman. He suggests that “(…) the omissions of potential problem definitions, explanations, evaluations, and recommendations may be as critical as the inclusions in guiding the audience.”128

Entman not only systematised the “fractured”129 scholarship on framing theory but also conceptualized frames within a set of several categories. Having researched Entman’s work and the work of other scholars mentioned above (e.g. Goffman or McAdam, McCarthy and Zald), this thesis narrows the conceptualization of ‘framing’ and ‘frames’ accordingly to Entman’s understanding. Further section elaborates on and clarifies this conceptualization.

Entman’s definition of a ‘frame’ and its attributes

According to Entman, and following to this thesis’ understanding, ‘frames’ are a kind of narrative on a particular issue that “highlight some bits of information about an item [an issue] that is subject of communication, thereby in salience.”130 Worth adding, Entman understands ‘salience’ as “making a piece of information more noticeable, meaningful or memorable to audiences [whatever the ‘audiences’ may be in a given case]”131.

From this definition, he derives the four purposes of frames, namely, to “define problems, (…) diagnose causes, (…) make moral judgments, (…) and suggest remedies”132

.

126

V. Charnysh, P. Lloyd and B. A. Simmons, 'Frames And Consensus Formation In International Relations: The Case Of Trafficking In Persons' (2014) 21 European Journal of International Relations <http://charnysh.net/documents/Charnysh_Lloyd_Simmons.pdf>

127

Doug McAdam, John McCarthy, Meyer Zald (Eds.) ‘Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings’ (Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (1996), doi:10.1017/CBO9780511803987 <https://www-cambridge-

org.ezproxy.leidenuniv.nl:2443/core/books/comparative-perspectives-on-social-movements/37388790DB2274310BF9145D87BB58E5>; p. 6

128

129_{Ibid; p. 50} 130

Ibid; p. 53

131

132