The role of symbolism and heroism in the battle against plastic pollution : the case of the world’s largest beach clean-up in Mumbai, India

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The role of symbolism and heroism in the

battle against plastic pollution

The case of the world’s largest beach clean-up in Mumbai, India

By Amalie Henriksen – 12286699

Master thesis Political Science: International Relations

Global Environmental Politics and Governance in Theory and Practice Supervisor: Dr. Robin Pistorius

Second reader: Dr. Jeroen Doomernik June 2019 – University of Amsterdam

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank those who contributed in any way to writing this thesis. Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Robin Pistorius, for his valuable advice and guidance during the writing process. I would also like to thank the second reader, Dr. Jeroen Doomernik, for taking the time to assess this thesis. Furthermore, I would like to thank the interviewees, namely Tor Dahlstrøm, Erik Solheim, Hiten Bheda, Dean Gomes, Aaditya Thackeray and Afroz Shah who’s participation in this study has been greatly appreciated. Thank you for giving me your time and providing me with information that was crucial to the research in this thesis.

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List of abbreviations

AIPMA The All India Plastics Manufacturers’ Association

BMC Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation – the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai

CSR Corporate Social Responsibility

MNC Multinational Corporation

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

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List of figures and pictures

Figure 1 – Share of plastic Waste that is inadequately managed 7

Figure 2 – Model of theoretical framework 19

Figure 3 – Future material consumption in India by category in scenario continuing current

dynamic 27

Picture 1 – The teachings of the God Ganesha 40

Figure 2.1 – Model of theoretical framework: Symbolism and heroism affects environmental

awareness 53

Figure 2.2 – Model of theoretical framework: Symbolism and heroism affects political and

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Chapter 1. Introduction to the topic

It is estimated that 18 billion pounds of plastic waste enters the ocean every year (Howard et al. 2019). Plastic pollution has received increasing attention since sea animals have been found dead with their stomachs filled with man-made plastic products. In 2016, a report was released that stated that there will be more plastic than fish in the ocean by 2050 (Wearden 2016). The severity of the issue has led to significant global concern, and a variety of actors are proposing different methods to combat the issue.

Figure 1: Share of plastic Waste that is inadequately managed, 2010 Source: Jambeck et al. (2015)

The largest share of total plastic waste that is inadequately managed and thus poses the greatest risk of polluting marine areas is centered in Asia and Africa (Jambeck et al. 2015). I will focus on environmental action taken against plastic pollution in South Asia and the coastal city of Mumbai, India’s largest city in terms of population and the country’s financial center. Here, environmental concerns have affected policy-making, and last year Mumbai’s home state of Maharashtra, India’s most populous state, introduced a plastic ban including all single-use plastics. Indian national authorities have encouraged the population to be

innovative and come up with alternatives (UN environment 2018), as the state of Maharashtra has with its plastic ban effectively sought to wipe out all single-use plastics.

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Marine plastic pollution has had a devastating impact on the state of Maharashtra’s beaches, rivers and life on the coast. This kind of pollution affects fish that is eaten in the area and the health of the population, and with its highly visible impact on the beaches and rivers it has received considerable and increasing attention. For an estimation of over 20 years, the Olive Ridley turtles had been missing from the city’s beaches where they once laid their eggs, as five-and-a-half feet of plastic covered the beach, making it look like nothing but a landfill (Arora 2017; Jowit 2018; McCarthy 2018).

An increased focus on the issue has led to a growing international concern, which can be demonstrated in e.g. the impact BBC and David Attenborough’s TV-series “Blue Planet 2” had on people’s conscience. A research conducted by Waitrose and Partners (2018) has shown that 88 percent of Brits who watched the series’ episode about plastic changed their behavior. The UK Environment Secretary also stated that he was “haunted” by the episode and that he was inspired to introduce new environmental regulations (Rawlinson 2017).

In Mumbai, the clean-up of Versova beach has been deemed the largest beach-cleanup in history and has received a great deal of attention both within India and abroad. The cleanup was initiated by two neighbors who were sick of seeing their local beach devastated by

marine litter. Attention was brought to these two activists and more people, primarily from the same area surrounding the beach, joined, and soon the sand on the beach, previously buried under layers of plastic, was again visible. Reportedly, the activists had cleared 12,000 tons of plastic from Versova beach in 2018 (Moore 2018). Consequently, the Olive Ridley turtles returned in March 2018 (Safi 2018).

However, due to continuous human littering the beach will be dirty again, and has gone back to its previous state before again being cleaned (Chatterjee 2017). But when there is little to do at the Versova beach, the activists move to rivers and mangroves around the city to

continue removing plastic waste. The project has grown in size with the number of volunteers rising rapidly, and Multinational Companies (MNCs), the local and national government, the Nordic countries and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has become involved.

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The clean-up has become a symbol for successful civic environmental activism. Actors are getting involved with the project and utilizing its symbolic effect for e.g. branding and political gains. The beach’s transformation symbolizes that individuals can create substantial change, considering the fact that the clean-up started with merely two neighbors cleaning their local beach. These two neighbors were a young man, Afroz Shah, and his 84-year-old

neighbor who later passed away. Shah continued cleaning the beach with other locals who saw him and wanted to help, and went on to inspire and mobilize masses of people to join the clean-up. Shah became the face of the efforts, a symbol for civic environmental activism, and the hero that the other activists could look up to. As the clean-up developed into a movement, Shah became well-known in the media, both nationally and abroad. In 2016 he was

recognized as a UN Champion of the Earth by the United Nations. The award is the United Nation’s highest environmental honor and celebrates figures whose actions has had a

transformative, positive impact on the environment (UN Environment 2019; UN Environment 2016).

Prime Minister Modi is praising Shah as the leader of the project, and the project in itself publicly (Bhatia 2018). The number of volunteers who have participated has reportedly reached tens of thousands (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19; Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19). Municipal and state politicians can enjoy political gains by getting involved in something the local population shows great interest in. The initiator of the plastic ban, Aaditya Thackeray, has also argued that the implementation of the ban was made possible by the pre-existence of a people’s movement, making protests against the policy less likely (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19; Press Trust of India 2018). In 2014, the Indian government announced a “Swachh Bharat”-mission, aiming to achieve a clean and open-defecation free India by the 150th anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi’s birth on the 2nd of October 2019 (Swachh Bharat Mission 2019). In this regard, the country’s politicians are looking for examples of environmental action that can inspire, and have highlighted the Versova beach clean-up and the ideas it symbolizes. Additionally, along with the world directing its attention to Versova beach and Mumbai, comes a responsibility for the city and India’s reputation.

Today, cooperation with the municipal government has led the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (BMC) to take over the cleanup and introduce more advanced technologies to do so, as the volunteers are moving their efforts to other beaches, mangroves and rivers. As

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the Versova beach clean-up initially was the only activity, the Versova beach-project – which I will call it in this thesis – is today comprised of the clean-up at Versova beach, but also at the Dana Pani beach, the Mithi river, and other mangroves or beaches centered at the coastline of Mumbai. In addition, the activists have on some occasions helped clean public toilets in the city’s slums while educating the locals about sanitation (Personal observation, A.H., 20.04.19, Mumbai, India).

In India, a country of approximately 1,3 billion people, bureaucracy is famously inefficient. Both foreigners and Indians express their frustration and concern about the matter in the media and elsewhere. Harvard Business School’s economist, Michael Porter, said in an interview with the Indian Economic Times that the business environment in the country was still very inefficient and cumbersome (Times of India 2017). In his own words, “I think in India the greatest problem is that it's going to take decades to clear away all the built-up inefficiency and ineffectiveness and it's going to take a huge effort to invest in the citizens -their education, skills, inclusion, -their ability to have a good life” (Times of India 2017). The inefficient bureaucrats even have their own nickname: “babus”. At the same time, coming into office in 2014, the newly appointed Prime Minister Narendra Modi told the bureaucrats it was “time of work”, giving them what has been named his “11 commandments” aimed at cleaning up in old paperwork and making sure people are at their desks during work hours (Gowen 2014a).A survey conducted by community based social networking platform LocalCircles showed that Indian start-ups expected corruption and/or bureaucratic

inefficiency to be their greatest challenge going into 2018 (Local Circles 2017). Thus, it can be more efficient for civil society to take matters into their own hands.

In Mumbai, the Versova beach-project is a symbol for successful civic environmental action and Shah has become a hero that is today enjoying political power on this basis. The project and its leader have influenced the general awareness about plastic pollution in the population of Mumbai, and created a movement of volunteers cleaning the city’s maritime areas. Public policy in the city, which is one of the world’s largest, has in turn been shaped by this civic action. Corporations have gotten involved and entered into collaborations with Shah that will have the ability to create solutions on a large scale in regard to reducing plastic pollution. Symbolism and heroism has thus, from a grassroots-level, influenced individuals and in turn policy-makers and corporations. The Versova beach-project is a case of a bottom-up approach where symbolism and heroism has played a role in the development of a “trend” that in turn

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has influenced policy and corporate action. Thus, a project initiated by neighbors with the aim of merely cleaning their local beach, has grown powerful and shaped public policy and

corporations’ actions through symbolism and heroism.

1.1 Personal motivation

Before starting my MSc at the University of Amsterdam I worked as a trainee in the Norwegian Consulate General in Mumbai. Part of the Nordic countries’ work in the area consists of cooperating with activists in the Versova beach-project to battle marine plastic pollution. As part of their own national policies about the ocean and pollution that has a global outreach, as well as national branding, they participate in the cleanup and promotes the efforts in Mumbai, at the same time as they are advocates for this type of environmental work and function as messengers to their home countries. I participated in the beach cleanup every week for six months, and I got a hands-on experience and knowledge about the project from personally being in the field. I participated in the development of the project and joined Afroz Shah and his team on school visits and other events in regard to the battle against marine plastic pollution. I witnessed several large MNCs come to the cleanup, sometimes in context of their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) actions, and the attention and outreach this project was getting. I partook in the kick-off of the celebration of the World Environment Day that was organized by the UNEP at Vesova beach, and I saw the involvement from foreign countries and their consulates as well as these multinational organizations and state- or non-state actors.

I was inspired by the outreach the project has had and the development from consisting of merely two neighbors to involving a large number of people and a variety of actors.

Considering the inefficiency of the Indian bureaucracy and governmental system mentioned in the previous section, the participation in the Versova beach-project seemed like a way for actors to effectively bypass the system to get the job done efficiently, or to get attention from state authorities and have influence on environmental policy. The complexity and fascinating effect and development of the project sparked my interest. The symbolic role the cleanup has received, as well as the power Afroz Shah has obtained as a symbolic leader and hero made me want to look at symbolism and heroism in relation to environmental issues and the effect this can have on the efforts to combat marine plastic pollution and to prevent global climate change.

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1.2 Research question

In this thesis I aim to answer the following research question:

How does symbolism and heroism affect awareness about marine plastic pollution as well as political and corporate involvement in and development of solutions to the issue in Mumbai, India?

Hypothesis

H1: The Versova beach-project has through symbolism and heroism influenced the

population’s general awareness about marine plastic pollution as well as political decision-making in Mumbai

The research question and hypothesis are examined through the case of the world’s largest beach cleanup at Versova beach in Mumbai, Maharashtra.

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Chapter 2. Theoretical framework – Symbolism and heroism

The theoretical framework of this thesis is symbolism and heroism. As mentioned,

bureaucracy is inefficient in India, at the same time as the population is massive, diverse and sometimes unwilling to wait for the central government to act. In the case of the Versova beach-project, the clean-up became a symbol for environmental activism that creates substantial change, and the effect resulted in a mass-movement. As Afroz Shah became the face of the efforts, he also became a hero people wanted to follow and an individual

symbolizing the effect of one person’s initiative to clean up their local environment. Shah and the clean-up both served as symbols, and people have drawn parallels between Shah and the Indian hero Mahatma Gandhi (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19; Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19). Symbolism and heroism has thus, in this case, played a role in the development of an environmental project that has influenced

environmental awareness and political and corporate action.

India has a long and eventful history, where spiritual leaders have united a complex, large and divided country. The country has one of the most diverse populations in the world, both in terms of income and religion, and can just as well be characterized as a continent (New World Wealth 2019; Business Today 2018; World Atlas 2018). In this complex society, symbols and heroes can guide others and simplify issues (Gill & Angosto-Ferrandez 2018:429). In

Hinduism, India’s largest religion by far (World Atlas 2018), the Gods are, unlike in e.g. Christianity and Islam, actual human-like, perceptible figures that can be imaged and e.g. made into statues. Contemporary religious guides, or “Gurus” are also prominent in

Hinduism. A Guru is a person that has status as a teacher or guide to the Hindu devotees, and is often seen as an embodiment of the spiritual knowledge of the deity: the God or

supernatural, divine being (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2015). Gurus are also presented in temples in the form of statues and photographs, and can be found in the shape of a statue worshipped the same way as the Gods (Personal observation, A.H. 15.04.2019, Mumbai, India). Lakshmi (2016), Sridhar (2014) and Sanger (2007) describe a culture of exaggerated idolization and hero worship of celebrities in modern times. This mix of humans and Gods creates a setting where people arguably can enjoy significant status in society, should they represent something others can feel attached to or relate to on a personal level.

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2.1 Symbolism in environmental action

Through all of human existence, symbols have served important roles in societies and have been an element that unites people. Symbolism can be used to create group mentalities, and in this case, the unifying feature of symbolism can be used to move masses of people in the same, green direction. William York Tindall said: "the religious symbol, and the political too, can unite man with man and man with something greater than he, society or God.” (Walzer 1967:194). Graeme Gill and Luis F. Angosto-Ferrandez argue that symbols perform an essential service in making complex phenomena appear simple and legible (Gill & Angosto-Ferrandez 2018:429).

When something is symbolic, it represents something more than itself. Gill and Angosto-Ferrandez (2018:429) argue that symbols “… represent, in simplified form, complex ideas, reducing them to simple images which convey the complexity they represent”. When facing a global challenge such as plastic pollution and climate change, individuals can feel irresolute and thus symbolism can play a role in simplifying the issue and representing concrete ways in which they can contribute in battling it.

The Versova beach project has become a symbol for civic activism and environmentalism, showing the world that incredible change can happen if people unite and get to work. Photos and videos from the project and the beach’s transformation have been spread through both traditional media and social media and can thus inspire more people to join the project or take the same kind of action in their areas. A song and a music video were also made by a local musicians who are activists themselves, and has been shared online as well as played at the clean-ups.

In March 2018, Olive Ridley turtles returned to Versova beach after being absent for decades (Safi 2018). The clean-up had been going on for two years at this point, and was given the credit for the turtles returning as a number of hatchlings made their way from the beach into the Arabian Sea. This made global news, and became a symbol for the significance of the clean-up and thus what one can achieve with civic environmental activism. Images and videos of the turtles’ return were shared, and the turtles became a symbol for civic environmental action that works.

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Gill and Angosto-Ferrandez emphasize that symbols can have this effect as it plays an irreplaceable role in the formation and maintenance of political communities. Groups seek to mobilize symbols in support of their cause, while trying to make people’s interpretation of these symbols in line with their own, knowing that all symbols are multivocal: they have different meanings to different people. Symbolism is also seen in symbolic action, where the actor is expressing their support for a moral principle (Pincione & Tesón 2001). Hence the actor does not necessarily have to work towards combating the threat of e.g. plastic pollution literally, but instead show their symbolic support of the cause. Celebrities visiting the beach clean-up have donated equipment and helped spread photos of the project in social media, arguably an important platform for information today (Mid-day 2017; Etimes 2018). In spreading these images and calling for action to essentially save marine species and the human environment, they connect with the intellectual and emotional underpinnings of society (Gill & Angosto-Ferrandez 2018:432)

2.2 Heroism in environmental action

While the beach clean-up in itself became a symbol for civic environmental activism, Shah became a symbol in himself and a hero. Without it being his intention, he became the face of the Versova beach-project and a leader. His efforts symbolize his moral conviction in regard to environmentalism, and he inspires and guides the other activists. He is cherished as an inspiration both domestically and abroad (UN Environment 2016), and can by the other activists be seen as a guru and thus a hero (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19).

Heroism is usually characterized by great achievement either in the domain of competence or in the domain of morality (Allison & Goethals 2013:30). But, Allison and Goethals (2011) argue that a hero is a hero to anyone who sees them as that. As will be discussed later, activists have drawn parallels between Shah and Gandhi, as Shah represents the belief that Indians have a moral obligation to care for mother earth and has been successful in creating a movement of activists working together to beat plastic pollution (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19; Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19; Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19). Heroes are often indirect leaders, as they act as an example or a model but do not address followers directly (Allison & Goethals 2011). Heroes also often work under circumstances of great personal cost, as they are investing primarily

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their own being (Allison & Goethals 2013; Couto 2010:467).

Allison and Goethals (2013:32-33) lists eight characteristics they found to be associated with heroes: 1. Caring, 2. Charismatic, 3. Inspiring, 4. Reliable, 5. Resilient, 6. Selfless, 7. Smart, and 8. Strong. In this regard, they put emphasis on the fact that there are many similarities between how heroism and leadership are described in social sciences. But should a leader stray too far from a reasonable moral code, they cannot be considered heroes.

Shah appeals to Indian people’s love and respect for nature and “mother earth”, and thus he represents a moral code that from his personal observation is reasonable to his followers (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19). Shah has expressed what he deems necessary and morally right to do, and has managed to convince others to join him in his work. Leithwood, Jantzi and Steinbach (1999:10) say that the moral leadership model

“…assumes that the critical focus of leadership ought to be on the values, beliefs and ethics of leaders themselves. Authority and influence are to be derived from defensible conceptions of what is right or good.”

Today’s global climate crisis presents a need for environmental leadership. Léon Dion argued already in 1968 that “… the increasing complexity of society today produces a widespread demand for leaders” (Dion 1968:2). Egri and Herman (2000:2) defines environmental

leadership as the ability to influence individuals and mobilize organizations to realize a vision of long-term ecological sustainability.’’ Allison & Goethals (2013:20) mention Gandhi as they explain that heroism and leadership are intertwined when leaders do as Shah and move people emotionally, moving their beliefs, and moving them toward positive action.

Heroes who also function as leaders have in environmental issues successfully influenced others and created movements that has had an impact on public policy. This is evident in e.g. the efforts of the 2015 Goldman Prize recipient Myint Zaw in Myanmar. Zaw was

instrumental in engaging others to use symbols such as pictures, art and music to create a movement against the construction of a dam on one of the country’s rivers. As the result was a movement against the construction, policy makers on the highest level decided to stop the construction (Goldman Prize 2015). Another environmental hero is Leng Ouch, a Cambodian man who went undercover to expose illegal logging activity that in turn created a public discontent and forced policy-makers to cancel land concessions (Goldman Prize 2016). In

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most cases, environmental heroes have created Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) to institutionalize their activism (The Guardian 2019; Goldman Prize 2016; Goldman Prize 2015). In this case, as with the two above-mentioned cases, there is no systematization of the efforts and only civic activism with no organization.

In the case of the Versova beach-project, Shah is the sole leader and front figure, and has gradually been growing into this role since being the initiator of the efforts. He never asked to lead and does not want to be characterized as the activists’ leader (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19), but nonetheless he has become the face of the world’s largest beach clean-up. When looking for answers, people direct their questions at him, and thus a great deal of responsibility lies on his shoulders. Activists have, since the beginning of the clean-up, looked to him for inspiration.

As the project has increased in size and Shah has been invited by politicians and corporations to create collaborations, he has become the sole representative for the project globally, while only reducing the pressure on himself by bringing along a select few of the local volunteers, whom have been involved since the start, as his personal “entourage”. This has become more challenging, as the project for which Shah works full-time creates no revenues and his closest friends and activists are unable to spend the same amount of time as Shah on the project. Should they do so, they must be privileged enough to have saved up capital.

He has become the main face of the project, and represents a meaning that is larger than himself; hence, he is a hero and acts as a symbol. While symbols in the case of the Versova beach project are, as previously mentioned, spread in the form of pictures and videos in the news and in social media, Shah also uses his presence at the beach and door-to-door visits in the polluted area to generate awareness (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19). A leader who is a symbol or hero in this way represents a meaning, or perhaps a number of meanings, in a tangible form (Neuberger 1995). The leader assures the creation and maintenance of the meaning through behavior, and at the same time influences social behavior (Winkler 2010:59). Symbolic leaders exist in a particular social reality where

community members share a common preunderstanding and frame for interpretation (Winkler 2010:60). A symbolic leader does not need to directly influence followers’ behavior, but their actions will, like a symbol, be interpreted by the followers. Therefore, it is important for the leader to make sure that the meaning is clear and thus interpreted “correctly” by the followers

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(ibid).

Usually, a leader influences behavior indirectly through organizational structures and e.g. reward systems (ibid), but in the case of the Versova beach project, there is no organization and no clear structure, other than volunteers creating schedules for initiatives taking place the following week. Hence, the project is unstructured, but Afroz Shah and a select few of the volunteers make more of an effort than others when it comes to planning. Otherwise, he is dependent on people taking inspiration from his personal action (Allison & Goethals 2011). As Shah himself never asked to become a leader, and does not wish to be called by that characterization (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19), he can only influence through symbolic action and e.g. by putting the above mentioned meaning into words. Should he institutionalize his leadership, he might be able to create change through other channels. As Pondy (1978:94) states: “If the leader can put it into words, then the meaning of what the group is doing becomes a social fact.” Hence, he leads by being a spokesperson and writing and speaking about the issue of plastic pollution and the clean-up activities regularly.

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2.3 Model of theoretical framework

Figure 2: Model of theoretical framework

In Figure 1 the theoretical framework is presented. Symbolism and heroism do in some ways overlap. The activists use symbols in the form of photos or videos of the beach’s

transformation or the turtles returning to share a message and to mobilize support for the cause. In a symbolic or heroic leader, symbolism and heroism are combined in the shape of an individual whose being is both heroic and symbolic in itself. Symbols and heroes can have the same effect in regard to simplifying complex phenomena. Where symbols represent a

complex message based on a specific meaning, the symbolic leader is a representation of the same. Symbols and heroes can, as previously mentioned, play a central role in shaping and maintaining political communities, and in this case both Shah and the symbols used and shared can unite the activists against plastic pollution.

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Symbols and heroes’ shared purposes are to inspire, mobilize, legitimize and maintain elements in the context of the project aiming to battle marine plastic pollution. They can inspire, as they represent a message that is shared trough social media or other media

channels that readers are exposed to and may be inspired by. Heroes acting as environmental leaders can inspire others to realize their own vision, and even encourage the development of a shared vision (Couto 2010:25). Through inspiring, and thus making people aware of the issue and the ways in which one can participate in reducing it, symbols and heroes can mobilize the population to get involved in the work they do. Serving as representations of something that by the activists are considered a moral obligation to join the battle against plastic pollution, the cause and the actions taken are legitimized, as they represent an agreed-upon moral code (Allison & Goethals 2013). By sharing e.g. photos of the issue’s devastating effect and activities they have conducted that have improved the situation, they legitimize their activism. The leader, as a hero, conveys the message and invests the self in arguing why the project is legitimate and necessary. The continuous spread of images that convey this message, maintains the attention that is given to the cause. In the same way, the leader or hero’s consistent presence in acting as an example, can maintain the activism and the spread of symbols in regards to it. In other words, the leader or hero can ensure the maintenance of the activities through a consistent investment of self (Couto 2010:467). As complex societies create needs for leaders (Dion 1968:2), the activists may be too unorganized to move forward should there not be a leader present to guide them.

Symbolism and heroism operate in a society with a high or low degree of environmental awareness. Spreading awareness about pressing environmental issues and how to combat them is important and the basis for the discipline of Environmental Sciences (Mukherjee 2002:10). This awareness is about the conflict between human activities and the environment, and can be increased through education (Mukherjee 2002:9), which is the activists in the Versova beach-project’s approach as they document the issue and educate through

storytelling in the media or social media. As they share pictures of the consequences of plastic pollution that is visible on the coast of Mumbai, they educate about the hazards of plastic pollution. Additionally, they do this directly through visiting schools and colleges. Generating an increase in awareness has been a goal for Governments and NGOs, but is also done by individuals through social media. The resulted knowledge can in turn generate activities (Narula et al. 2018), as social media, as a tool for awareness-campaigns, has proven to have a

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positive effect on political participation (Wei 2016). It is the symbols and the hero that spread awareness about plastic pollution when they inspire people to join the cause and, in that way, mobilizes activists, legitimizes their work and maintains the activism and thus the Versova beach-project.

Through symbolism and heroism, awareness about plastic pollution might rise and in turn influence the behavior of political or corporate actors. It may affect political action, as the activists represent voters and the project poses an opportunity for politicians to get involved should they have political interest in the cause. India is a democracy, and thus civic activism can inspire or even demand political action. The activists in the Versova beach-project can affect policy-makers through public pressure as an indirect mean of influence. This is especially useful when they are given attention in the media (Böhm 2015:481) In addition, Shah has, due to his status, been invited to roundtables with policy-makers and other powerful actors and given a voice in fora where issues such as waste-management is discussed (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19; Royal Norwegian Consulate General 2018; Kremlin 2017). Thus, he has direct access to policy makers and can lobby to some extent.

Corporations are dependent on e.g. consumers or other target groups and hence, an increase in awareness about plastic pollution amongst the consumers can make corporations act

accordingly. Studies have shown that impressions of corporations are formed based on their social responsibility and environmental impact (Khojastehpour & Johns 2014:331).

Additionally, consumers’ positive or negative attitudes towards a brand can impact

profitability, and it is therefore in a corporation’s interest to be perceived as environmentally friendly. In recent decades, this consumer attitude has become more prominent and re-shaped the competitive landscape that in turn forces brands to consider their environmental impact (Khojastehpour & Johns 2014:335).

Other corporations such as the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) has promoted the Versova beach-project as the organization’s primary aim is to highlight the world’s best examples of environmental action (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19). Foreign nations such as the Nordic countries have through the Nordic Council of Ministers/the

Nordics been involved in the project through collaborations with Shah as a mean to ensure a branding of the Nordic countries that promotes them as countries at the frontlines of the

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global engagement to combat environmental issues (Ollestad 2019).

Conclusion

The theories described above will lay the foundation for the analysis of whether symbolism and heroism have influenced decision-making and the development of solutions to the issue of plastic pollution in India. The case of the Versova beach-project will be understood in light of these theories with the aim to answer the research question. I believe that this case study can be a valuable addition to the study of the power of symbols and heroes in the fight against global climate change.

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Chapter 3. Methodology and research design

To answer the questions in this research I will conduct a case study and use a qualitative research method. I have chosen to do a case study as an attempt to investigate, understand and explain how symbolism and heroism may play a central role in environmental awareness-building that leads to environmental policy and corporate action, and the case of the Versova beach-project in India can shed light on how such effects may come about.

The study can explain how we can broaden our view and take a deeper look into the effect of symbolism and heroism in environmental issues, something that have not yet been studied to a significant extent. Additionally, it can serve as an example of an actual case where an increase in environmental awareness has taken place that in turn could be beneficial for the development of environmental policy as we attempt to prevent or slow down global climate change. Covering the contextual conditions of the efforts to beat marine plastic pollution through the world’s largest beach clean-up in India’s largest city can shed light on the use of creative approaches to get citizens and other important actors on board with otherwise unpopular environmental policies.

Considering the complexity and size of the Indian population as well as India’s status as a rapidly growing economy with an annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth of more than seven percent (World Bank 2019), I believe that conducting research within the field of environmental governance in this exact location can be highly valuable. To collect data, I will use the methods of document analysis and interviews, and I will conduct research in the field in Mumbai and at Versova beach and Dana Pani beach as an observer. I have analyzed and evaluated data from documents, both electronic and printed, and linked the theoretical framework with the ongoing case. Interviews are conducted with the protagonist himself, Afroz Shah, a diplomatic representative from the Nordic countries, a state-level politician, a representative from the plastics industry in the area, a spokesperson for Adidas (as an MNC that has been involved in the efforts at Versova beach) and Erik Solheim, the former head of the UNEP who led the organization in 2018 when Shah was named a UN Champion of the Earth and the World Environment Day was held at Versova beach.

Through these qualitative interviews I was be able to ask questions that can lead to a broad view of the case and its developments, as well as an insight into the affected actors’ thoughts

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in the matter and the influence of symbolism in their actions and/or understanding of environmental governance in Mumbai (Bryman 2008). All interviews were conducted in person, with the exception of the interview with the UNEP which was conducted over Skype.

In my analysis I will through these methods look at heroism and symbolism’s role in inspiring, mobilizing, legitimizing and maintaining in the context of Versova beach-project while influencing environmental awareness and political and corporate action. The analysis will be conducted by analyzing the interviews of the various actors in light of these theoretical framework. Chapter five consists of six sub-chapters where firstly, symbolism and heroism in the context of the project is analyzed, before one sub-chapter is dedicated to each of the four elements of inspiration, mobilization, legitimation and maintenance. Chapter six will consist of an analysis of the project’s influence on environmental awareness and political and

corporate action, before chapter seven which presents a discussion of the results. Chapter 8 is the conclusion of the results in light of the research question and hypothesis H1.

3.1 Interviews

I decided to conduct qualitative interviews with one representative from each of the actors or actor groups. The actors and interviewees are presented in Appendix A. I have conducted semi-structured interviews, where the preparation consisted of constructing a set of seven general questions, as well as sets of a few questions specified for each respondent, while still leaving the conversation open for follow-up questions. As can be seen in Appendix B, the questions were made fairly broad to allow the interviewees the freedom to elaborate on their answers and include various thoughts that may be connected to the question I asked.

According to their answer, I would be able to adjust the upcoming questions to what I might wish to know more about considering the first few answers the interviewees had given me, and remove questions that had already been answered. By leaving room for follow-up

questions I had an opportunity to lead the conversation and dig deeper into the subject should it be necessary. I gave the interviewees the freedom to answer one question for as long as they wanted, allowing me to get a broader and deeper insight into their thoughts on the matter. If I was missing some information by the end of the interview, I would add follow-up questions to make sure I got the answers I deemed necessary for the research.

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in corporate offices or at home. Afroz Shah and the politician Aaditya Thackeray represented themselves and wanted the interviews to be conducted in their respective homes, while the other three were conducted in the official offices of the organization the interviewee

represented. The former head of the UNEP, Erik Solheim, was interviewed over Skype as a personal meeting was impossible. The interview was conducted with video with the aim of making it as natural as possible with a high quality of communication. By letting the interviewees choose the location, it was more likely that they would feel as comfortable as possible and thus give me answers of the highest possible quality. Leaving my personal opinions completely out of the picture, I stayed neutral and let the interviewees speak their mind. All interviews were recorded using a Samsung phone. I was thus allowed to take less notes and keep more eye contact with the interviewee so that I could assure that the

circumstances for the interview was as comfortable as possible.

3.2 Participant observation

From March to August 2018 I went to Versova beach and interacted with the volunteers approximately one day per week. I observed different actors as they came to the beach and got involved in the clean-up, and I learned about both these actors’ and the volunteers’ motivation behind their participation. I learned about what kept them coming back for years, and getting up at six or seven a.m. on weekends to pick up plastic. I went back to Mumbai in April 2019 and visited the beach clean-up again, this time at Dana Pani beach north of Versova, as the municipal authorities have taken over the Versova clean-up. Again, I observed the efforts, and personally participated in the clean-up to get more of a hands-on experience of the project and how it works in a practical sense. Through participating I believe I have obtained a broad overview of the project itself and insight into the dynamics that drive it.

3.3 Document analysis

To obtain as much knowledge as possible, that would in turn assure that the answer to my research question was as solid and true as possible, I have also analyzed documents and texts of various sorts. This content consists of news articles, academic articles and reports. The content analysis has been done with the aim of developing an understanding of the Indian society, the developments of the Versova beach-project, the actors’ motivations and facts about the environmental issue of marine plastic pollution in Mumbai. The documents have

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provided a basis for understanding the case, which was necessary for the formulation of questions for the interviews, as well as for the analysis and discussion of the statements given by interviewees. This will also give the reader a broader understanding of the case. The selected documents come from sources both in India and abroad.

Conclusion

Through the three qualitative methods I have decided to use, I believe that I have obtained a nuanced and broad understanding of the issue. This chapter has presented the theoretical and methodological framework of this thesis as well as the reasons behind my choices in this context. The next chapter will provide a description for a better understanding of the Indian context in which the Versova beach-project has evolved.

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Chapter 4. The Indian context

This chapter will provide a foundation for understanding the environment in which the Versova beach-project has been developed. Causes for the challenge of plastic pollution in India as well as information about what measures are being taken to control or reduce the amount of plastic pollution will be presented.

4.1 Development, urbanization and waste-management issues

India is a rapidly growing economy, in the midst of a transformational economic

development. Since 1960, the national GDP has gone from USD 37 billion to 2.6 trillion in 2017 (World Bank & OECD 2019). The population is currently at 1.3 billion, and still growing. Most indicators have been pointing upwards in India since the acceleration in growth started in the 90s: The size of the population, the Gross National Income (GNI), the life expectancy and school enrollment (Dubey & Tiwari 2018; World Bank & OECD 2019). One thing that is pointing downwards is the poverty headcount ratio. But with all these positive numbers, other numbers that are increasing in size is the amount of CO2-emissions and absolute consumption of materials (World Bank & OECD 2019).

Figure 3:Future material consumption in India by category in scenario continuing current dynamic Source: IGEP 2013:21

What has been called an “urban awakening” is also taking place, as the portion of the

population living in urban areas has grown from 220 million people in 1991 to 380 million in 2011. By 2030 the urban population is expected to have risen to 600 million. This rapid

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process of urbanization is shaping the political, social and environmental contexts in which they happen (Ahluwalia et al. 2014; Hoelscher & Aijaz 2016). With Indians flocking to the country’s cities, at the same time as wealth and life expectancy is on the rise, the considerable governance issues they have in Indian cities is a cause for concern. Planning, management and political governance are major challenges, further complicated by an inefficient bureaucracy and business environment (Gowen 2014; Times of India 2017). With wealth comes consumption, and the already poor infrastructure is under immense pressure as the urban population grows (Hoelscher & Aijaz 2016). On the beaches of Mumbai, the infrastructural problems are clearly visible, as mainly plastic debris gather in tons and

overwhelm the coast. India is one of the world’s countries that are most vulnerable to climate change (Cruz et al. 2007).

4.1.1 Slums and the lack of a functioning infrastructure

Considering the rapid economic growth, the reduction in the percentage of the population living in poverty has been slow in comparison (Dubey & Tiwari 2018). In 2011, about 22 percent of the population still lived below the national poverty line (World Bank & OECD 2019). Mumbai has a fascinating combination of poor people living in slums alongside billionaires in what is the 12th richest city in the world (New World Wealth 2019; Business Today 2018). The city is simultaneously home to the world’s third largest slum. The slum, named Dharavi, is located in the middle of the city, and outside Dharavi there are also areas of slum in-between the richer city parts and along the beaches (Zhang 2016). The slum of Mumbai has been called the “informal” city, and is home to about one million of Mumbai’s approximately twenty-two million people (Press Information Bureau 2011; Totaro 2016). The slums lack access to fresh water, while having insufficient sewage drains. Some sewage drains are open and contaminated with plastic articles (Urbz 2011).

Underdeveloped slum-areas with a lack of infrastructure to handle the waste coming from the households leads to large amounts of plastic ending up in the city’s rivers and drainage

systems. In a city that experiences heavy rains in the four-month long monsoon season, plastic debris has choked the drains designed to lead the water away from the streets (Nair 2018). Flooding is a direct consequence, posing risks to human life. The lack of an efficient infrastructure means that a large amount of the plastic consumed in Mumbai ends up in streets, drains and rivers, and is in turn transported to the sea.

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According to Afroz Shah, the main sources of the plastic pollution on Mumbai’s beaches is garbage being dumped into nine creeks in the area (Chatterjee 2017). The clean-up efforts remove all plastic debris for a period of time, but until the structural issue behind the plastic ending up there in the first place is handled, the plastic keeps coming back. At the same time as India’s plastic use is fairly low seen in the global context, the Indian river Ganges

transports the second largest amount of plastic to the sea after China’s Yangtze river (Sampathkumar 2019).

4.2 Plastic ban

A state-wide ban of the use, manufacturing, sale, distribution and storage of single-use plastics was implemented in Maharashtra on the 23rd of June 2018 (Economic Times 2018). Banned items include one-time use plastic items such as cutlery and plates, plastic bags, plastic sheets, plastic wrapping and food/drink containers and plastic bottles carrying less than 500ml of liquid (Hindustan Times 2018). The city of Mumbai and the state of Maharashtra are ruled by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and Shiv Sena coalition. The party Shiv Sena, led by Uddhav Thackeray and founded by his father Bal Thackeray, has a youth wing, Yuva Sena, led by son of Uddhav and grandson of Bal, Aaditya Thackeray. The plastic ban in Maharashtra came into place when Aaditya Thackeray, after extensive flooding in the midst of the monsoon season in 2017, suggested a ban of all plastic, not just the plastic bags below 50 microns that had been banned since floods in 2005. Plastics were given most of the blame for the flooding as it clogged the city’s drainage systems. The Environment Minister, also belonging to Shiv Sena, soon after announced that there would be a plastic ban coming into place (Naik 2017).

India hosted the United Nations World Environment Day in 2018, where also Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced his ambition to eliminate all single-use plastic, nation-wide, by 2022 (Sampathkumar 2019). Twenty-five Indian states have so far banned (at least) plastic bags, but the bans remain inefficient in several states (Parvaiz 2018).

Conclusion

India’s population is growing in size while becoming wealthier and more urbanized. At the same time, the amount of materials consumed is increasing in a country that is unable to manage the amount of waste produced. This section has provided an overview of the Indian

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context in regard to the country’s economic development, urbanization and consumer-society as well as the efforts by the Maharashtra state government to reduce the plastic pollution. Plastic bans are implemented, but the lack of efficient waste-management leads to coastal areas being covered in discarded plastic.

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Chapter 5. Empirical findings on the effect of symbolism and heroism

in the context of the Versova beach-project

The following findings are based on interviews with the initiator of the Versova beach-project, Afroz Shah, the Immediate Past President of the All India Plastics Manufacturers Association (AIPMA), Hiten Bheda, the Nordics through the Norwegian Consul at the Royal Norwegian Consulate General in Mumbai, Tor Dahlstrøm, Shiv Sena-politician Aaditya Thackeray, former head of the UNEP Erik Solheim and Adidas’ Manager of Key Cities, Dean Gomes. The interviewees were selected based on the aim of acquiring information from all central actor groups who have become involved in the Versova beach-project. The actors and their representatives are presented in Appendix A.

This chapter presents the results from the empirical data collected through qualitative interviews with the chosen actors. In addition, documents received from the Norwegian Consulate General will provide additional information. The findings presented will highlight the various thoughts and experiences the actors have of the Versova beach-project itself, awareness-building, influence on political and corporate action and the work towards eliminating marine plastic pollution. All seen in the context of the use of symbolism and heroism in the project and the progress that has been made in the fight against marine plastic pollution in Mumbai.

5.1 Symbolism in the Versova beach-project

The Versova beach-project started out with two neighbors whose intention was only to clean the local beach. They had not intended that it would turn into a symbol for the effect of plastic pollution and civic activism to combat it (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19). Afroz Shah, who was one of the first two people picking up plastic on the beach, emphasizes that the clean-up is not merely a symbol as it is actual action, but acknowledges the symbolic effect and role it has. It is not merely a picture of action, it is actual change being created, but it serves as a symbol in the sense that it brings people to what he calls the “flashpoint” of pollution and shows them how extensive the problem is and that they need to change their lifestyle. Hence, it represents a meaning that is larger than itself. He thinks this has a major effect, and says:

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“A beach clean-up is not just about clean beaches; beach clean-ups are the eyes of marine pollution and marine debris. So, when your eyes see it, your hands, your legs and your heart all starts working in coordination.” (Afroz Shah, personal

communication 20.04.19)

Erik Solheim believes that Shah and the activists have succeeded in building and developing the project into what it is today by focusing on sharing positive images on social media platforms. Before-and-after photos of the beach shows that the hard work pays off, and Solheim highlights the spread of photos and videos of the Olive Ridley turtles’ hatchlings, earlier mentioned in the introduction of this thesis, running through the sand and heading for the water after being born on Versova beach and thus returning after decades (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19). When celebrating that the turtles have returned to what was earlier nothing but a landfill of plastic, the focus shifts from images of a hopeless situation to one where change is absolutely possible. It is likely that this has contributed to drawing a great deal of attention to the issue, as the positive story of the turtles have been shared by news channels and the media, both in India and abroad (Safi 2018; Iqbal 2018). A video of the beach’s transformation was shared by global media company Great Big Story on YouTube, and the video has currently close to 950,000 views (Great Big Story 2018). Having a global outreach, symbolic videos and photos are creating what the interviewees call a “buzz”, and people applaud the efforts. Solheim argues that people are sick and tired of the scaremongering from the environmental movement, and therefore Shah and the activists’ approach has a stronger effect (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19).

Positive symbols are thus arguably important in the promotion of the Versova beach-project, and symbols have been used in political campaigns since the beginning of time. These

developments could also mean that a shift from scaremongering to positive symbols may be useful, but Aaditya Thackeray disagrees with this view as he is of the opinion that fear could be effective. In the case of Versova beach, evidence suggests that the positive symbols have made people cheer on Shah and the crew as well as join the efforts. Showing people that it is easy to give a helping hand and that the work pays off has been one of Shah’s methods. At the same time, Shah and the volunteers also share their concern for the marine species, and

emphasizes the dangers of plastic pollution and e.g. microplastics when they conduct school visits (Personal observation, AH. 01.08.19, Mumbai, India).

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Evidence suggests that there is a combination of both positive images and creating a form of fear towards the consequences of plastic pollution being used in the promotion of the project. Mumbai is a coastal area, and thus images of fish from Mumbai’s coast containing

microplastics that in turn end up on people’s dinner plates are being used to inform about the severity of the issue (Personal observation, A.H. 01.08.19, Mumbai, India). Dean Gomes from Adidas agrees that one should focus on the consequences for people’s livelihoods, such as fishermen, to appeal to people on a personal level (Dean Gomes, personal communication 22.04.19). This has been done by Shah’s team, and it is likely that it has had a positive effect on the Versova beach project being perceived as a positive, optimistic symbol for

environmental action.

Well-known Bollywood-celebrities visit the beach and share photos from the clean-up on their social media channels, and thus they use the clean-up’s symbolic effect to partake in the efforts to build awareness. Until now, several Bollywood-celebrities such as actor Amitabh Bachchan, Fashion choreographer Achla Sachdev, film-maker and actress Pooja Bhatt, actor Irrfan Khan and actor Deepak Dobriyal have visited the beach and cleaned alongside the volunteers (Shukla 2016; Bhatt 2018; ETimes 2018;). Amitabh Bachchan’s donation of a tractor and an excavator also received notable attention (Bhatt 2018).

5.2 Heroism in the Versova beach-project

The project becoming a symbol has in turn led to Afroz Shah, the initiator of the clean-up and the man responsible for the Versova-beach project growing into what it is today, becoming a well-known person and the person the media will go to if they want to write about the project. Shah has thus received a great deal of attention and become a well-known figure. In Dean Gomes’ words: “Everyone knows about Afroz. He is everywhere.” (Dean Gomes, personal communication 22.04.19). In schools and colleges, Thackeray explains that he has observed that the youth are on a journey to “become Afroz”. He believes that all the actors that get involved have this desire to become like Shah, and follow his example. He thinks that the best part of the inclusiveness of the project; the support from various agencies, governments, companies and colleges, is that everybody has a desire to be Afroz Shah (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19).

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Despite becoming one, Shah does not believe in the concept of being a sole “leader”. He believes that the concept of leadership is, in his words, “warped”, because he sees leaders as primarily acting through words and not by example. They talk, but they don’t deliver. “That is troublesome, and troublesome for the marine species the most” (Afroz Shah, personal

communication 20.04.19). He believes that everyone should see themselves as a leader.

“Look at global warming. Look at the slums and fertility management. A rising population is causing major problems. Where is the fertility management? If plastic is causing a problem; where is the circular economy? Calling somebody a leader is warped in this manifestation. I think everyone is a leader. You are a leader, I am a leader, every day; become a leader and do something.” (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19)

He acknowledges the complexity of leading a population of more than 1.3 billion people, and expresses his concern that the population in the Indian democracy believes that they can elect one person, in the shape of a Prime Minister, to lead them. Even in your own house, he says, you need several people to care for the building and give support in your daily life.

“My prime minister Narendra Modi has to deliver now, for 1.5 billion people. It’s impossible. We are fooling ourselves if we say that ‘my master delivers’. You see it one the ground level. Every weekend we see it. No politicians reach them. The toilets are a mess, their sewers are choked, their creeks are choked, the plastic pollution is increasing day by day.” (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19)

He never wanted to be a leader and reacts immediately negatively upon being asked questions about his leadership, explaining that he is not a leader, he is merely someone who does what he deems necessary while people have decided to follow him. Being named a UN Champion of the Earth, is something he sees as a “pat on the back”, and a motivation for himself to work harder. He also acknowledges that the award helps bring attention to the cause, as it brings it to the center stage. Shah says that the award comes with a huge responsibility, and being named a Champion of the Earth comes with an expectation that he needs to deliver. He also mentions that he was recently in Norway, where he experienced broad support from “left,

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right and center”. He then decided that he needs to make an effort of more than two hundred percent (Afroz Shah, personal communication 20.04.19).

Thackeray agrees that Shah’s Champion of the Earth-award incresed the attention drawn to the Versova beach-project. He explains that for India, with a population which makes up one seventh of the world’s total population, a number that is growing faster than in China, and with an economy that is one of the fastest growing in the world, being recognized as a country that is contributing to the global climate change battle or environment-friendly issues is important for the country’s reputation. The fact that Shah started off as an individual, not an agency or a lawyer which is his profession, and that he did not go to the government but did the work with his own hands, is in Thackeray’s opinion something that makes him especially important in symbolizing the importance of civic activism (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19).

Shah is an advocate for a form of civic activism that is based on a mission to create change rather than pressuring or encouraging political leaders to create change. As a politician, Thackeray says that this kind of action is greatly appreciated. When people start idolizing Shah, Thackeray argues that they want to act like Shah and therefore join the efforts. In turn, the politicians encourage them while giving political support to the clean-up. Thackeray emphasizes that they need heroes acting like influencers and making it “cool” to clean the beach, and that Shah has been successful in doing this. As a government, Thackeray argues that they need civic activism and influencers to make the people understand the reasoning behind policies.

“Today, influencers make things cool, make things acceptable in the society. If I say ‘let’s ban plastic’, they might see me in the perspective of being a government, saying ‘the easiest thing for him to do is to ban single-use, disposable plastics’. You need people like Afroz to go out and speak about it and say why we don’t need plastic; why people also should give up plastic when we are banning plastic. So that it becomes a movement rather than a ban.” (Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19) Further supporting this argument is the fact that brands like Adidas, who’s ultimate goal is to sell apparel and hence take advantage of what people are interested in, has entered into a collaboration with Shah. Based on this evidence it can be argued that Shah has become an

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influencer, which in Thackeray’s opinion is an important and welcome role as it makes it easier for politicians to implement policies related to plastic pollution, because influencers like Shah may have encouraged people to willingly stop using the material in advance. In this way, Thackeray believes it becomes a movement rather than a ban, which can arguably have a crucial impact as this could prevent protests and unwillingness to comply with policies

(Aaditya Thackeray, personal communication 27.04.19). As the Versova beach clean-up had already gained popularity, Thackeray had a stronger basis for suggesting the plastic ban. When justifying the ban in an interview, he explained that there was already a movement to create awareness against plastic and that the people’s feedback had been positive (Press Trust of India 2018).

As the project has grown, a great deal of attention given to environmental issues in Mumbai, and as the sole spokesperson, a lot of emphasis and responsibility is on Shah as an individual. Dahlstrøm argues that too much emphasis may be put on one single individual in the shape of a leader or a guru, that in turn can pose a risk to, in this case, Shah’s health and the future of the beach clean-up. Dahlstrøm observes that Shah has become a leader that wants to do everything himself and not delegate responsibilities, perhaps, Dahlstrøm argues, because of a lack of trust (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19). At the same time, other activists would have needed to have funds saved up to be able to spend all their time

volunteering alongside Shah instead of being employed in a day-to-day job. Creating an NGO out of the project would also be a way to take more of the responsibility off Shah’s shoulders, but Shah has expressed to Dahlstrøm that he does not wish to do so because of the resources that disappear in the administrative work of an NGO (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal

communication 26.04.19). While the effect of his leadership has been prominent until now, both Dahlstrøm and Solheim argues that there is a serious need for organization (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19; Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication

26.04.19). This is both to lift some of the responsibility off Shah’s shoulders, and to keep the efforts moving forward and growing in scale under the modern global circumstances.

Solheim believes that Shah’s leadership is essential, but that leaders and followers need to work together as a leader cannot lead in a vacuum. Still, “we need leaders at the frontline” (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19). As the project became symbolic and Shah grew into a role as the hero at the frontline, he has taken almost all responsibility for the

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management of the project on his shoulders. Symbols are, as mentioned in chapter two,

interpreted differently, and as he has the sole responsibility for the project’s reputation there is a risk that he, as a symbol, may be seen in a more positive light or a more negative light in the future and influence the project’s symbolic meaning. Should his leadership style of not

delegating responsibility or his personal reputation be damaged, he thus poses a risk to the project’s reputation. With the amount of responsibility that is consequently on him, heroism presents a risk to the hero himself should he not have substantial support in the shape of other people as the project grows into a global initiative with major resources instituted into it. As will be discussed later, several prominent Norwegian organizations have recently agreed with Shah on developing collaborations with him in regard to solutions to the issue of plastic pollution (Tor Dahlstrøm, personal communication 26.04.19). Hence, the project is only growing and together with it, the responsibility and pressure on the project’s front-person, the hero.

5.3 A symbolic movement and a hero to inspire

The project has become symbolic and the hero has been essential in driving it forward. The Versova beach clean-up turned into the world’s largest beach clean-up, and environmental action that has never been done before. Solheim emphasizes that the project is unique. It is unique, he argues, due to the fact that Shah never started out with the aim of creating a mass movement: He merely stood on his balcony and looked down at the beach and saw how incredibly polluted it was. He mobilized a neighbor, then they were ten, then they were a hundred and, in the end, they were thousands. It started with individuals’ commitment, and has become a genuine people’s movement in what Solheim calls Gandhi’s style (Erik Solheim, personal communication 15.05.19). Shah himself explains that he chose to lead by example and focus on what people can do on a personal level (Afroz Shah, personal

communication 20.04.19). This is what Solheim calls positive environmental action, where the focus is not on what someone else should be doing, or the negative in the fact that there is a lack of action, but instead on what we can do ourselves.

“You do not have to be a professor in plastic economy or have a deep insight into environmental issues to get involved; you see the problems right in front of you and start doing something. Afroz did not start out by calling his representative in

The role of symbolism and heroism in the battle against plastic pollution : the case of the world’s largest beach clean-up in Mumbai, India