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Flaring and food security in the Niger Delta: A literature review on the environmental impact of flaring on food security in the Niger Delta

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Flaring and food security in the Niger

Delta

A literature review on the environmental impact of flaring on food security in the Niger Delta

In partial fulfillment of the BSc Future Planet Studies

Name: Milou de Schrijver Student number: 12105880

Supervisors: Dr. A. Praetorius & PhD. R.H. Hoondert Project: BSc Thesis Future Planet Studies

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Abstract (WC: 243)

Flaring is common practice in the oil exploration industry of the Niger Delta of Nigeria, which has been booming since the 1960’s. Flaring is a method to dispose of gasses associated with crude oil, through oxidation before being emission into the atmosphere. These associated gasses consist of methane, nitrogen, and sulfur amongst others. When combustion is incomplete, NOx, SOx and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are emitted, which causes severe environmental pollution. This pollution negatively affects agricultural yield, ability for livestock keeping and fish stocks in an area that is historically highly dependent on fishery and agriculture for food provision. Therefore, this study poses a literature review to determine the effects of flaring on food security in the Niger Delta. The main sources of pollution found in this review are acid rain and thermal pollution. A clear effect of flaring on decrease in agricultural yield and fish stocks was found, a relation between declined ability for livestock keeping and flaring could not be established. NOx and SOx deposition could be reduced by more efficient flaring, but the results also show a necessity for reduction of amount of gas flaring. These results are crucial for policy makers and could be used to make more stringent policies on flaring. This review could be used to make more stringent policy on flaring. However, national environmental policy in Nigeria has been proven to be inefficient in the past. Therefore, this review claims corporations should take responsibility and reduce flaring emissions.

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Introduction (WC: 961)

The Niger Delta is highly suitable for agriculture and fishery, which ensured self-sufficiency in food provision for the local inhabitants (Babatunde, 2020). However, this changed as the petroleum industry developed in the 1960’s (Boele et al., 2001). Migration of labor force, lack of state support and continued environmental degradation has led to declined agricultural production and thereby lower food security (Nwachukwu and Mbachu, 2018).

The environmental degradation can be partly ascribed to oil spills, of which over 6000 have been recorded in 40 years of oil exploration in Nigeria (Ahmadu and Egbodion, 2013). Oil spillage causes a decline in soil and water quality, as well as crop destruction (Ahmadu and Egbodion, 2013).

Additionally, pollution of soils, surface- and groundwater is caused by the deposition of SOx and NOx, either through dry or wet deposition, also known as acid rain (Mogaji et al., 2018).

The source of this latter form of pollution can be largely ascribed to flaring(Ite et al., 2013), which is a method to dispose of the natural gasses associated with crude oil (Soltanieh et al., 2016). The goal of flaring is to convert the substances within the gas to their safest form possible, which is done through oxidation (Ismail and Umukoro, 2012). With flaring, the gasses are burned, after which they are released to the atmosphere (Ite et al., 2013). The gasses associated with crude oil are nitrogen, sulfur, carbon dioxide (CO2), and other hydrocarbon gasses (such as CH4). These gasses are normally accompanied by volatile organic compounds (VOC) and inorganic salts (Soltanieh et al., 2016). Negative side effects of flaring are not limited to SOxand NOx deposition, as flaring also causes heat stress amongst plants (Mogaji et al., 2018). Also, during incomplete combustion (carcinogenic) polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are released, as well as volatile organic compounds (VOC) and black carbon, which may be causing respiratory diseases and leukemia (Ite and Ibok, 2013). There have been community efforts to force reduction of flaring (Gbemre v. Shell Petroleum

Development Company, 2005) and national regulation on reducing this practice (Eze, 2019).

However, corporations seem unaffected by these initiatives (Hassan and Kouhy, 2013) Currently, Nigeria is still amongst the highest ranking countries in quantity of gas flared yearly (Hassan and Kouhy, 2013). Moreover, flaring sites in Nigeria remains inefficient (Elvidge et al., 2009), which leads to the larger emissions of PAH, VOC and black carbon (Ite and Ibok, 2013).

Acid rain and thermal pollution has led to declined agricultural yield. Not only is a change in quantity of crop yield perceived, but also in nutritional value and variety of food (Babatunde, 2020). Although high domestic demand for agricultural products exists, the production is still falling behind (FAO, n.d.), in spite of the great potential for crop growth and keeping livestock in this area (Mogaji et al., 2018).

Besides impacting agriculture, flaring also affects fishery. Acid rain can cause damage to fish and other aquatic animals by reducing pH and overall quality of surface water (Ubani and Onyejekwe, 2013). As fishery is a major source of income for communities of the Niger Delta, a decline in fish stock or a disruption in the aquatic ecosystem largely influences the lives of the local inhabitants (Mogaji et al., 2018). Moreover, fish accounts for 50% of national protein intake (FAO, 2013).

Currently, the potential for freshwater and marine fisheries is not fully utilized and much fish is being imported. If protected, utilization of the Niger Delta could enhance self-sufficiency in food security for Nigeria (FAO, 2013).

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4 This study aims to identify the which aspects of pollution by flaring have the biggest impact on food security in the Niger Delta Region, through relating the environmental impact of flaring to food security. Food security can be described as all-time access to nutritious, sufficient, high quality and safe supplies of food, for both individuals and groups, capable of satisfying the energy required of all family members to live healthy, active and productive lives (Babatunde, 2020).

The effects of flaring on food security in the Niger Delta are studied through a comprehensive review of academic literature regarding the effects of flaring on the local environment, agricultural yield, and fish stock. Although this study will mainly on the environmental effects of flaring on food security, many causes for reduced availability of food can be found. However, these are outside the scope of this review.

Several aspects of crop growth, livestock keeping, and fishery were studied. The most important aspects influencing crop growth are soil quality, surface- and groundwater quality, amongst other environmental stressors such as temperature extremes and drought (Sadava et al., 2017). Flaring may influence each of these aspects (Seiyaboh and Izah, 2017) and they are therefore all examined for the systematic search. Regarding livestock keeping, the most important aspect to consider is vegetation growth (Seiyaboh and Izah, 2017) and surface water quality (Bamaiyi, 2013). Surface water quality may be affected by acid rain, which is also an important factor influencing fish stock (Ubani and Onyejekwe, 2013).

This review aims to show which gaps in literature still exist. Also, this review could help policy makers by quantifying the effects of flaring. Another goal of this review is to assist policy makers, by showing which aspects of flaring are most harmful for the local agriculture and aquaculture and require most immediate action.

This review is organized into five sections. Section one is the introduction providing information on oil and gas resources in Nigeria and shows how the research question came about. Section two shows the methodology used for this literature review. Section three shows the results of the literature review, which are then interpreted in section four. Section four also gives policy

recommendations and shows opportunities for future research. Lastly, section five summarizes this review and provides a final conclusion.

2. Methods (WC: 968)

As much research on the effect of flaring on fish stock and crop growth in Nigeria has already been carried out, this study poses a literature review to provide an overview on the known effects of flaring on food security. A schematic workflow of this review can be found in figure 1. To fully answer the research question, the effects of flaring for different aspects of food provision were given. The search strategy for the literature review will be described in the first paragraph. Then, an explanation will be given on how the results were gathered. Lastly, the specifications of the case area will be described.

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2.1 Search strategies

To carry out the literature review, strings were made for each aspect of fishery and agriculture flaring may influence. The aspects of crop growth which were included in this review are: vegetation

growth (e.g. development of leaves, roots, flowering), soil quality (including: soil structure, nutrient availability in the soil, presence of soil organisms and presence of heavy metals in the soils), local temperature and water availability and quality. To study the effects of flaring on livestock keeping,

the vegetation growth (and especially grass growth) and water quality were considered. For fishery, the following aspects were included: surface water quality, biodiversity, water pH. An overview of the aspects of food provision included in this review, along with the studied features of this aspects can be found in table 1.

Table 1: Table showing which aspects of food security were studied in this review, with the features on which the search strings were based.

Aspect of food security Feature

Crop growth Vegetation growth, soil quality, local

temperature, water quality, water availability

Fish stock Surface water quality, biodiversity, water pH

Livestock keeping Vegetation growth, surface water quality

With these aspects, search strings were formed which can be found in Appendix S.1. The strings were broken up into two parts. The first part consists of a query which sought in all searchable fields. The second part consists of a query which was sought in the Topic field, which encompasses the title, abstract and author keywords. The search strings were inserted in two search engines, ScienceDirect and WebofScience. These search engines carry peer-reviewed research articles and are therefore deemed of sufficient quality for this literature review. The search strings and number of articles found by each search engine can be found in Appendix S.1.

Formation of systematic strings based on

literature

Inserting the systematic strings in search engines, selection based

on title and abstract

Extracting information from the selected

articles

Using the referenced articles of the selected

articles to further complete the review Figure 1: Figure showing the workflow of this literature review.

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6 The outputs of these search engines were then critically revised based on title and abstract. This enabled the possibility to narrow down all relevant papers, without excluding any crucial

information. Their location was then determined to distinguish whether the study was carried out in the case area of this review, as described in paragraph 2.3. After this selection, the articles were fully read and their relevance for this study was decided.

After having read the articles that were found through the systematic search, the articles these studies referred to were also read. This ensured confirmation of the correctness of the included studies, and to provide more information for this review.

2.2 Notation of the results

Several aspects of each article were noted, which van also be found in the results sheet in Appendix S.2. The noted aspects include: Reference author, publication year, paper type, the aspect for which the paper is relevant, method, a short summary of the paper, key points relevant for this review, author key words and (if available) location and the time period in which the research was carried out. The study types which were distinguished were ‘Observational’, ‘Review’ and ‘Experimental’. Moreover, the search strategy used per article was noted. If an article did not provide time and/or location, N/A was noted in the table cell.

A map was made to show where pollution due to flaring was found by the included articles. This was then related to flaring sites in the Niger Delta, extracted from Anejionu et al., 2013. Each location on the map was given a number which relates with the table found in Appendix S.3. This map was made in Google Earth. It should be noted that some criteria were set for studies to be included on this map, for practical reasons. Only studies which found polluted samples and had a clear description of the location where these samples were taken were included.

2.3 Case area dynamics

The Niger Delta is greatly equipped to meet food demand of the local inhabitants. With its

abundance of fresh water and arable land, the area is suitable for agriculture and freshwater fishery. Also, due to the mangrove forests in this delta, the region has a high biodiversity and many marine fish species can be found here (Adedeji and Elegbede, 2018).

The study area of this review, as pictured in figure 2, consists of the Rivers, Bayelsa, Akwa-Ibom, Delta, Ondo, Edo and the Igbo in Abia and Imo States. In this area, fishery and agriculture were major traditional occupations. Fishery and agriculture have potential for growing productivity, due to the availability of land, water, labor and a large internal market (Mogaji et al., 2018).

Despite this high potential, the area still is not able to meet domestic demand and a large portion of food is imported (FAO, n.d.). Currently, the area is facing decline in agricultural yield (Chukwuka et al., 2018), as well as in fish stock as a consequence of oil exploration (Adeyemo, 2003). This is a troubling development, as food availability, affordability and quality are all declining in Nigeria (“Global Food Security Index (GFSI),” 2020).

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7 0 1 2 3 4 5 1976 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2018 2019 2021

Publishing year of articles included in

review

Figure 2: Map showing the study area of this review, which consists of the rivers, Bayelsa, Akwa-Ibom, Delta, Ondo, Edo and the Igbo in Abia and Imo States. Map was made in ArcGIS Pro, using a shapefile from https://gadm.org/maps/NGA.htmln.

3. Results (WC: 1053)

In this section, the results of literature review are given. An overview of all the articles which were studied can be found in Appendix S.2.

In total, 25 unique papers were included from 21 different authors. Of these, 14 were found using the systematic search method. Below, a figure can be found which shows the publishing time distribution of the included articles. This shows most articles included were published in the last 13 years, which adds to the relevance of this review.

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3.1 The effects of flaring on crop growth

The figure below shows the number of articles which found an effect of flaring on each feature of crop growth.

Figure 4: Figure showing how many articles named flaring as the pollution source for different features of disturbed plant growth in Nigeria.

Most notably, six observational studies found samples with a soil pH lower than 7, meaning they can be classified as acidified soils (United States Department of Agriculture, 1993). Also, two sites showed groundwater pH below 6.5, meaning these can be classified as acidic (Emumejaye, 2012). Two sites also showed reduced soil moisture content, and reduced soil organic matter content was also found at two sites. Only one observational study specifically focused on the effect of flaring on the crop exterior. The map in figure 5 shows which type of pollution can be found at which sample site. The number of the site relates to the numbers of the table in Appendix S.3.

Figure 5: Map showing the distribution of flaring sites as stated by Elvidge et al. (2013). Also, the locations where groundwater and surfacewater pollution, heat stress, soil pollution and retarded vegetation growth were found. This map was made in GoogleEarth (2021).

Drought Water quality Heat Stress Soil quality Vegetation growth 0 2 4 6 8 10

Number of articles that found flaring as a source of pollution for crop development, per feature

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3.1.1 The effects of heat stress and drought on vegetation growth

Flaring increases soil and atmospheric temperature around the flaring site (Anejionu et al., 2015) due to thermal radiation (Okedere et al., 2021). Several review papers found that found crop yield can be affected by thermal pollution (Chukwuka et al., 2018; Anejionu et al., 2015; Chukwuka et al., 2018; Okedere et al., 2021). Anejionu (2015) found that heat stress could lead to reduced

chlorophyll content in plants (Anejionu et al., 2015). Chukwuka (2018) claimed high temperature could lead to impaired plant growth and reduced photosynthesis, scorched plants and withering of young crops (Chukwuka et al., 2018). Moreover, Dung et al. (2008) reported lower levels of amino acid in cassava near flaring sites which could be attributed to thermal pollution (Dung et al., 2008)Besides increasing soil and atmospheric temperature, flaring also increases groundwater temperature and is related to low soil moisture content (Ezeigbo et al., 2013; Uzoho, 2019).

3.1.2 The effects of soil pollution on vegetation growth

Flaring affects soil quality, with acidification found as the most common source of pollution. pH of rainwater lowered due to the emission of NOx and SO2 during the flaring process (Ubuoh et al., 2021). The acidification of soil leads to lower microbial activity, nutrient deficiency and poor soil organic matter content ( Uzoho et al., 2010), which leads to lower agricultural yield (Ubuoh et al., 2021).

Another source of soil pollution is contamination by polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), which are released when incomplete combustion occurs during the flaring process. However, although PAH in soil samples were found in the Niger Delta region, they pose no ecotoxicological risk (Sojinu et al., 2010).

3.1.3 The effects of groundwater pollution on vegetation growth

This area knows high vulnerability for groundwater pollution (Hassan et al., 2019), which can be seen in the higher acidity of well-water caused by acid rain (Emumejaye, 2012; Nwanosike et al., 2014). Moreover, metal levels in groundwater near flaring sites were higher than samples taken further from the flare (Emumejaye, 2012; Nwankwo and Ogagarue, 2011).

3.2 The effects of flaring on livestock keeping

Figure 6: Figure showing how many articles named flaring as the pollution source for different features of livestock keeping in Nigeria.

0 1 2 3

Surface water quality Vegetation growth

Number of articles that found flaring as a source for reduced possibility of livestock keeping, per feature

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10 There were no articles that specifically claimed that flaring leads to reduced ability of livestock keeping. However, the reduced quantity and quality of natural flora (Chukwuka et al., 2018) could be an indicator that flaring does affect livestock keeping (Seiyaboh and Izah, 2017).

3.3 The effects of flaring on fishery

Figure 2 shows the number of articles which found an effect of flaring on each aspect of crop growth.

Figure 7: Figure showing how many articles named flaring as the pollution source for different features of reduced fish stock in Nigeria.

At six sites, surface water pH levels below 6.5 were found, which classifies these sites as acidic (Emumejaye, 2012). Acidified sediments were also found, of which the pH often was lower than of the accompanied surface water. Sites closer to the gas flare showed lower pH levels than those further away from it. Also, metal pollution was found at two sites. The map in figure 8 shows which type of pollution can be found at which sample site. The number of the site relates to the numbers of the table in Appendix S.3.

Water Quality Biodiversity

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Number of articles that found flaring as a source of pollution for fish stock, per feature

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11 Figure 8: Map showing the distribution of flaring sites as stated by Elvidge (2013). Also, the locations where reduced biodiversity and surface water (in relation to fish stock) were found in the included studies of this review.

3.3.1 The effect of reduced water quality on biodiversity

One cause of reduced fish stock is acidification of surface water. Acidification is caused by dry deposition of NOx (Anejionu et al., 2015) and soot (Zabbey et al., 2021). Moreover, soot (Zabbey et al., 2021) and NOx (Anejionu et al., 2015) also contribute to acid rain formation, which also causes acidification of surface waters. The pH is too low to be tolerated by some fish species which causes fish migration (Dirisu and Mafiana, 2016). Moreover, some fish species die, lowering the local fish stock (Anejionu et al., 2015). Also, lower pH in rainwater relates to lower microbiological activity in the surface water (Efe, 2010). This could be related to the scarcity of fish near flaring sites (Ubuoh et al., 2021). Water quality is also affected in other aspects. Due to soot deposition, oxygen levels in surface water may drop. Soot deposition also leads to reduced possibility for light penetration, leading to lower photosynthesis activity levels by primary producers (Zabbey et al., 2021).

Another source of pollution found around flaring sites is metal pollution (Dirisu and Mafiana, 2016). This could be due to acid rain causing metals to enter the surface water, by mobilizing metals in groundwater and streams (Dirisu and Mafiana, 2016).

Increased levels of PAH were also found in sediments. Sojinu et al. (2010) found widespread pollution of PAH in the whole Niger Delta, which disperse through the river system (Sojinu et al., 2010). PAH’s have been reported to reduce growth rate, reproduction and have an adverse effect on survival of fish (Tongo et al., 2017).

However, the PAH pollution found in the studies included in this review could not be traced back to flaring as the PAH-structures of flaring PAH’s are similar to those of fuel and wood burning (Sojinu et al., 2010). Moreover, according to Sojinu et al. (2010), they pose no ecotoxicological risk (Sojinu et al., 2010). They do appear to bioaccumulate in the fish, which may cause carcinogenic PAH to enter human diet (Tongo et al., 2017).

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4. Discussion (WC: 1214)

4.1 Interpretation of the results

This review found flaring mainly affects food security through pollution of soils and surface water, as well as thermal pollution. Babatunde (2020) reported that local inhabitants also perceived a lower food security due to oil production practices (Babatunde, 2020). Respondents claimed that they perceived a lower fish stock, and some species were now completely absent (Babatunde, 2020). This fits with the findings of this study, as the review showed that flaring was the source of a variety of pollution found in surface water which leads to lower biodiversity.

However, not only a change in quantity of crop yield perceived, but also in nutritional value and variety of food (Babatunde, 2020). Dung et al. (2008) measured reduced vitamin C content and starch levels near flaring sites (Dung et al., 2008), which shows nutritional value is indeed affected by flaring. This shows flaring affects the quantity, safety, quality and nutritional value of food produced in the region, and therefore affects food security (Babatunde, 2020).

4.2 Limitations of the study

This review had to be carried out in a short amount of time, which meant that certain shortcuts had to be taken. By only using ScienceDirect and WebofScience, articles published in journals not covered by these search engines were automatically excluded. Moreover, unpublished data was not included, which may have led to publication bias (Pullin and Stewart, 2006).

Secondly, because search strings were used it is inevitable that some articles were excluded for not fitting within these search strings. This was explicitly evident when looking at the articles which were not found within the systematic search. These often contained more general ‘author key-words’ or abstracts which did not specify the location of the study. Therefore, future reviews on this topic should include these articles with more ‘general’ keywords, as they could still contain crucial information on the effect of flaring on food provision.

Thirdly, most articles included were published in 2008 or later. Articles on gas flaring in Nigeria have been published earlier, but they did not come up in the searching process. By introducing a different search approach, these older articles could be used in a review as well.

Lastly, a problem found during this study was many articles having similar results, and little new information being found with some articles. A future review on this topic could be executed by multiple people instead of one. This would reduce the subjectiveness of the chosen search strings and ensure a more complete overview of the effects of flaring on food security (Pullin and Stewart, 2006).

4.3 Policy recommendations

This review found flaring to be the source of multiple forms of pollution, but most importantly the reduction of soil and water quality. Deposition of black carbon, NOx and SO2 have been shown to lead to acidification of soils and water quality. The emission of these particular substances can be ascribed to incomplete combustion (Giwa et al., 2019). Complete combustion would only result in emission of CO2, H2O and SOx (Leahey et al., 2001). Although SOx would also cause acidification, crude oil in Nigeria does not contain much sulfur (Okedere et al., 2021) and therefore the acidification could likely be reduced by ensuring more efficient flaring.

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13 Incomplete combustion can be attributed to a low flaring efficiency (Ite and Ibok, 2013), which can be ascribed to high contents of methane or hydrogen sulfide, heating value, increased wind speed and stack exit velocities (Leahey et al., 2001). Stack exit velocity can be adjusted by introducing a different flare tip design (Emam, 2015). Quantity of flaring must also be reduced. One solution would be to convert the associated gas to LNG gas, which could then be used as an energy source for the local inhabitants (Emodi and Boo, 2015). Although Emodi and Boo (2015) advocate for government action on the use of associated gas (Emodi and Boo, 2015), the author of this review believes governance action may not be sufficient in this region.

Although regulations on increased flaring efficiency may be a starting point to reduce environmental pollution, another problem which can be found is the lack of government support to solve the problem. This can be ascribed to corruption amongst the Nigerian government, which leads to inadequate action against pollution (Boele et al., 2001). One example is the case of Gbemre v. Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd. and Others., where the Federal High Court of Nigeria judged that flaring by Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC) violates the right to life and the right to dignity of a human person (Gbemre v. Shell Petroleum Development Company, 2005). Although this judgment clearly states SPDC violates several constitutional rights, the Nigerian government has not taken consequent action from this judgment (Hassan and Kouhy, 2013). The lack of governmental protection in Nigeria can be ascribed to a new type of governance, called ‘corporate governance'. In this framework, human rights protection has trickled down from governments to businesses (Beckers, 2020). Businesses are treated as governance actors and have responsibilities under the international (soft) law of human rights (Beckers, 2020).

Therefore, the author of this review encourages oil exploration companies to inform themselves on the harm of flaring and have reduced flaring be an integrated part of the future of this industry. Companies themselves must act in this matter and use the available technologies to dispose the associated gas during crude oil extraction in a less harmful manner.

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4.4 Future research

This review focused on environmental pollution related to food security. Food security entails more than merely the ability to produce food, as not only the supply-site of this matter is of concern (Pinstrup-Andersen, 2009). A reduced possibility to obtain food should also be considered. This could, for example be ascribed to a lack of purchasing power caused by lower income levels (Sen, 1981). In the Niger Delta region, agricultural production will not improve in the near future due to lack of state support. Moreover, emigration causes a lack of labor power (Nwachukwu and Mbachu, 2018). However, these causes of food insecurity are beyond the scope of this study, but should be considered in future research.

The scarce literature on the effect of flaring on livestock keeping should also be addressed by the field. As it is known that livestock keeping is an important part of protein provision (Turton et al., 1982), the high possibility for livestock keeping (Mogaji et al., 2018) should be protected. Although it is clear that flaring affects the local vegetation growth and surface water quality, this has not yet been linked to livestock keeping. Addressing this literature gap could encourage policy makers to carry out policies on flaring in Nigeria.

Moreover, this review mainly showed the effect of flaring on freshwater. As the mangrove forests are greatly affected by flaring, there is a disruption in the ecosystem which means marine fish may also be affected. Therefore, this must also be considered in a future review fish.

Lastly, the author proposes this review be part of a bigger study field where the effect of flaring on overall quality of life is assessed. This could be useful to further enhance the urgency of addressing this problem adequately, for both policy makers and corporations.

Conclusion

This review showed that flaring largely affects food security in the Niger Delta, with the main causes being soil- and surface water pollution, as well as thermal pollution. The deposition of NOx, SO2 and soot causes acidification in soils, groundwater, and surface water. Pollution by PAH’s was also found, but this only posed ecotoxicological risks in surface water. The review proposes reducing flaring as a solution, as well as increasing flaring efficiency. However, national environmental policies have not been proven efficient in Nigeria in the past. Therefore, the author of this review proposes

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20 Appendix S.1.

Crop growth

Aspect String Search Engine Number of Articles

Soil Conditions ALL= (("Soil Quality" OR "Soil Productivity" OR (Soil AND (Agriculture OR Crop)))) AND TOPIC: ((Flaring OR Flare OR "Natural Gas" OR "Associated Gas") AND (Nigeria OR "Niger Delta"))

ScienceDirect 24

WebofKnowledge 4

Water Quality ALL= (("Water Quality" OR "Groundwater Quality" OR (Water AND (Agriculture OR Crop)))) AND TOPIC: ((Flaring OR Flare OR "Natural Gas" OR "Associated Gas") AND (Nigeria OR "Niger Delta")) ScienceDirect 29 WebofKnowledge 6 Groundwater availability ALL= ("Water Availability" OR (Drought AND (Agriculture OR Crop))) AND TOPIC: ((Flaring OR Flare OR "Natural Gas" OR "Associated Gas") AND (Nigeria OR "Niger Delta")) ScienceDirect 5 WebofKnowledge No Results Local Temperature ALL= ((Agriculture OR Crop) AND (Temperature OR Heat OR “Temperature Increase” )) ScienceDirect 26 WebofKnowledge 4

(21)

21

AND TOPIC ((Flaring OR Flare OR

"Natural Gas" OR "Associated Gas") AND (Nigeria OR "Niger Delta"))

Plant Exterior ALL= (("Plant Growth" OR "Crop Growth" OR Crop OR Vegetation) AND (Leaves OR Roots OR Flowering OR Stem OR Fruit)) AND TOPIC= ((Flaring OR Flare OR "Natural Gas" OR "Associated Gas") AND (Nigeria OR "Niger Delta"))

Science Direct 14

(22)

22

Fishery

Aspect String Search Engine Number of Articles

Water Quality ALL= (("Surface Water" OR (Wate r AND (Fisheries OR Aquaculture O R Fish)))) AND TOPIC= ((Flaring OR Flare OR "Natural Gas" OR "Associa ted

Gas") AND (Nigeri a OR "Niger Delta"))

ScienceDirect 20

WebofKnowledge 3

Biodiversity ALL= (Ecosystem

OR Biodiversity) AND (Fisheries O R Aquaculture OR Fish)))) AND TOPIC: ((Flaring OR Flare OR "Natural Gas" OR "Associated Gas") AND (Nigeria OR "Niger Delta")) ScienceDirect 14 WebofKnowledge 1 Water pH ALL=((pH OR “Acid Rain”) AND (Fisheries O R Aquaculture OR Fish)) AND TOPIC ((Flaring OR Flare OR "Natural Gas" OR "Associated Gas") AND (Nigeria OR "Niger Delta")) ScienceDirect 9 WebofKnowledge No Results

(23)

23

Livestock keeping

Appendix S.2.

The link shows the excel sheet in which the results of the literature review can be found:

https://amsuni-

my.sharepoint.com/:x:/g/personal/milou_deschrijver_student_uva_nl/Ef7bPykg5j9Gm-OM_itSDwYBDMMHendYErtre5-bnt6zqw?e=kyKOWf

Aspect String Search Engine Number of Articles

Vegetation growth ALL= ((‘Vegetation growth’ OR Vegetation) AND (Livestock OR Cattle OR Agriculture)) AND TOPIC: ((Flaring OR Flare OR "Natural Gas" OR "Associated Gas") AND (Nigeria OR "Niger Delta"))

ScienceDirect 15

WebofKnowledge 1

Water Quality ALL= (("Water Quality" OR "Surface water Quality" AND (Livestock OR Cattle OR Agriculture)) AND TOPIC: ((Flaring OR Flare OR "Natural Gas" OR "Associated Gas") AND (Nigeria OR "Niger Delta"))

ScienceDirect 1

(24)

24 Appendix S.3.

Crop growth

Pin number Location Article + Ref. Author Measurements

1 Eleme, near multiple

flaring sites

The effects of gas flaring on crops in the Niger Delta, Nigeria, Dung

Pepper plants: leaves near flaring sites were shorter, flowering decreased near flaring sites.

Waterleaf plant: average lengths and widths, height of plants, population density and flowering response all highest near flaring sites.

Cassava plant: lengths and widths of tuber decreased near flaring site, but aminoacids and sugar content was higher

2 Area of port Harcourt,

near multiple flaring sites

Hydrochemical Facies Classification and Groundwater Quality Studies in Eastern Niger Delta, Nigeria, Amadi

Groundwater, mean water pH: 5.46

Groundwater, mean silica concentration: 8.38 mg/L Groundwater, temperature: 28.7 C Groundwater, mean Cl: 275.2 mg/L Groundwater, mean sulfate level: 98.62 mg/l

3 Eleme, not directly in

flaring sites but near multiple flaring sites

Environmental risk factors and health outcomes in selected

communities of the Niger delta area, Nigeria, Godson

Soil pH: 6.78 ± 1.47 SOM content (%):30.6 ± 1.96

C content (%): 17.2 ± 1.80

4 Irri Effects of Gas Flaring

On Surface and Ground Water in Irri Town and Environs, Niger-Delta, Nigeria, Emumejaye

Surface water pH: 6.76 Rainwater pH: 6.8 Borehole pH: 6.47 Pb level surface water: 0.195 mg/l

Pb level rainwater: 0.245 Pb level borehole: 0.181

5 Warri Effects of gas flaring

on surface and ground waters in Groundwater pH: 6.47 Groundwater Pb: 1 mg/l Groundwater Fe: 0.01 mg/l

(25)

25 Delta State Nigeria,

Nwankwo

6 Abraka Effects of gas flaring

on surface and ground waters in Delta State Nigeria, Nwankwo Groundwater pH: 6.81 Groundwater Pb: 1 mg/l Groundwater Fe: 0.05 mg/l 7 Izombe, 10 m from flaring site Microbiological Effects of Gas Flaring on Agricultural Soil at

Izombe Flow-station, Imo State, Nigeria , Ezeigbo

Soil pH from flaring site: 4.0 (pH increases further from site)

Soil Temp: 48 C

(Temperature decreased further from site) SOM content: 5.32% Hydrocarbon content: 4.8 (increases further from flaring site) Bacterial count: 3.0 x 10^1 Fungal count: 2.3 x 10^1 Coliform count: 2.0 x10^1 8 Izombe, 10 m from flaring site Microbiological Effects of Gas Flaring on Agricultural Soil at

Izombe Flow-station, Imo State, Nigeria , Ezeigbo

Soil moisture content: 16.84 % (increases further from flaring site)

9 Eleme, not directly in

flaring sites but near multiple flaring sites

Environmental risk factors and health outcomes in selected

communities of the Niger delta area, Nigeria, Godson

Soil moisture content (%): 12.7 ± 1.90

10 Egbema, 30 m from

flaring site

Maize (Zea mays) Response to Phosphorus and Lime on Gas Flare Affected Soils, Uzoho

Soil type: Typic Tropaquent Soil pH: 4.6

11 Egbema, 400 m from

flaring site

Maize (Zea mays) Response to Phosphorus and Lime on Gas Flare Affected Soils, Uzoho

Soil Type: Haplic Dystrudept Soil pH: 5.6

12 Izombe, 100 m from

flaring site

CHANGES IN S OIL PHYS ICO- CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AS AFFECTED BY DIS

Soil pH < 4.5

Aluminium saturation from the surface layer

(26)

26 TANCE FROM A CAS

FLARE S TATION IN IZOMBE, S OUTHEAS TERN NIGERIA, Uzoho

Fish stock

Pin number Location Article + Ref. Author Measurements

1 Omoku, surrounded

by multiple flaring sites

LEVEL OF pH IN DRINKING WATER OF AN OIL AND GAS PRODUCING COMMUNITY AND PERCEIVED BIOLOGICAL AND HEALTH IMPLICATIONS, Dirisu Stream pH: 5.54+0.035 Well water pH: 6.06+0.21 Private borehole pH: 4.74+0.49 Public borehole pH: 5.06+0.20 Rainwater pH: 6.40+0.42

2 Irri, one flaring site Effects of Gas Flaring On Surface and Ground Water in Irri Town and Environs, Niger-Delta, Nigeria, Emumejaye

Surface water pH: 6.76 Rainwater pH: 6.8 Borehole pH: 6.47 Pb level surface water: 0.195 mg/l

Pb level rainwater: 0.245 g/l

Pb level borehole: 0.181 g/l

3 Eleme, not directly in

flaring sites but near multiple flaring sites

Environmental risk factors and health outcomes in selected

communities of the Niger delta area, Nigeria, Godson

Surface water Cl: 22.3 ± 2.62

Surface water SO4: 0.11 ± 0.04 mg/l

Surface water PO3: 0.08 ± 0.04 mg/l

Surface water Pb: 0.75 ± 0.06 mg/l

4 Warri, near one flaring

site

Effects of gas flaring on surface and ground waters in Delta State Nigeria, Nwankwo Surface water pH: 5.05 Surface water Pb: 7 mg/l 5 Iguoriakhi, in proximity to multiple flaring sites Levels, distribution and characterization of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Surface water pH: 5.72 ± 0.23 Sediment pH: 5.77 ± 0.34

(27)

27 (PAHs) in Ovia river,

Southern Nigeria, Tongo

6 Iguiye, in proximity to

multiple flaring sites

Levels, distribution and characterization of Polycyclic

Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Ovia river, Southern Nigeria, Tongo Surface water pH: 5.99 ± 0.12 Sediment pH: 5.76 ± 0.45 7 Ekenwan, in proximity to multiple flaring sites Levels, distribution and characterization of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Ovia river, Southern Nigeria, Tongo

Sediment pH: 5.70+/- 0.46 Surface water pH: 5.92 +/- 0.33

8 Abraka, near multiple

flaring sites

Effects of gas flaring on surface and ground waters in Delta State Nigeria, Nwankwo

Surface water pH: 6.04 Surface water Pb: 1 mg/L

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