Decarbonizing Shenshen's water : water management in micro scale decarbonization projects

(1)

UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

DECARBONIZING SHENZHEN’S WATER

WATER MANAGEMENT IN MICRO SCALE DECARBONIZATION PROJECTS BY

BRYONY PHOEBE ELIZABETH MEIJER 10760962

bryonymeijer@gmail.com

MSC THESIS

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science at the University of Amsterdam

Human Geography (Environmental Geography)

THESIS ADVISORS Marco Bontje Ching-wen Yang SECOND READER Joeri Scholtens AUGUST 15, 2018 15.078 WORDS 

(2)

(3)

ABSTRACT

In the face of climate change, adaptation and mitigation techniques have become critical to the survival of urban deltas. Within China’s national low-carbon policy context, Shenzhen has developed a city-wide decarbonization project with an emphasis on green infrastructure, energy, transport and industry in order to become more sustainable. Low-carbon policies and developments have been shown to have a significant effect on water resources, which are scarce in the Pearl River Delta. Therefore, this thesis investigates how Shenzhen’s low-carbon development strategy influences water management. This is done through using low-carbon buildings as an instrument to analyze trade-offs and benefits between the development strategy and water. Three differently sized green projects are analyzed in this thesis. Policy analysis, combined with semi-structured in-depth interviews with various experts and stakeholders, have been conducted during a 6-week fieldwork period in order to assess the projects from a water management perspective.

(4)

(5)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Being part of this research project has expanded my horizons and challenged me personally in ways which I did not anticipate. An extensive support system of family and friends encouraged me all the way through, but a group of particularly patient individuals deserve a special mention.

To begin with, I would like to thank Marco Bontje and Ching-wen Yang for the all time they invested in supervising my thesis, and the trust they have demonstrated through their support. You challenged me when necessary, which I believe has contributed to a much stronger thesis. I also want to express my gratitude to Joeri Scholtens, my second reader.

I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to the countless individuals in Shenzhen, some of whom I have never met, who helped me complete this research — I could not have done it without your extensive and helpful networks. Thank you Liu Zongyuan and Justin Zhang in particular for opening doors and bringing me into contact with more people than I could have hoped for; the domino-eﬀect started with you.

Not to be forgotten in these acknowledgements are my former Shenzhen flatmates and thesis colleagues: Bert, Denise, Feija, Luke and Xiaoli. You all enriched this experience to an extent which can not be described, and made it unforgettable. I’m glad we got to do this together. Last but not least, a special mention for my mother and sister for listening to countless hours of ramblings. Your patience with me has been unwavering, whether I was at home or in China. Thank you both for your endless support.

(6)

(7)

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

GHG - Greenhouse gasses

IBR - Shenzhen Institute of Building Research ILCC - Shenzhen International Low Carbon City LLCP - Low-Carbon City Pilot

NGO - Non-governmental organisation PPP - Public-Private Partnership

PRD - Pearl River Delta

R&D - Research & Development

SEZ - Special Economic Zone

SWPDI - Shenzhen Water Planning & Design Institute Co., Ltd. SZSEZ - Shenzhen Special Economic Zone

(8)

(9)

1. INTRODUCTION

Currently also known as the ‘new oil’ and described as being ‘the ultimate commodity’ within economic spheres, water has taken an unexpected leap into the world’s spotlight. Investments in water have sky rocketed as climate change has become more widely accepted, and its eﬀects on water resources are widely felt across the globe. The surge of international interest in water resources — and the claiming of them — has lead to many questioning whether water wars are on the horizon.

The root cause of this struggle over water, can be considered to be climate change. More specifically, the GHG emissions in the atmosphere are accelerating global warming, which has a devastating eﬀect on water resources everywhere. As a result of the threat which climate change poses, many countries and cities have shown a major shift in environmental policy in order to become more resilient. The decarbonation of economies is considered to be a particularly eﬀective tool to increase resilience (Pearson, Newton & Roberts 2014).

With China moving into an increasingly powerful position on the world stage, the country arguably has the responsibility to serve as an example to the rest of the world. Recent developments in China include serious attempts to reduce their release of harmful emissions into the atmosphere, specifically through low-carbon development policies. Part of these policies focus on the construction of ‘green buildings’ throughout the city, whilst related incentives emphasize water related interventions. As a result, this research will focus on how Shenzhen’s green buildings can contribute to improved water management throughout the city.

1.1 Case: Shenzhen

As climate change progresses, so does the threat on coastal areas. Urban delta’s are particularly vulnerable due to their geographic location and characteristics (Wardekker et al. 2010). Extreme weather events, reduced river-storage capacity due to rapid urbanization, the salinization of aquifers due to brine water intrusion, and rising sea levels are only a few of the threats which comprise the flood risk of urban delta’s (ibid.; Dahm 2014).

Despite the water-rich geographic locations, many delta’s still experience severe water shortages. A prime example of this is the Pearl River Delta (PRD), which suﬀers from conflicts over water, a

“People kill each other over diamonds; countries go to war over oil. But the world's most expensive commodities are worth nothing in the absence of water. Fresh water is essential for life, with no substitute. Although mostly unpriced, it is

the most valuable stuﬀ in the world.”

(12)

high degree of pollution, and saltwater intrusion (Liu et al. 2018). Located near the opening of the PRD estuary, the city of Shenzhen is one of the fastest growing cities and ports in the world. In the 1980’s it became China’s first Special Economic Zone (SEZ). In 2010, Shenzhen regained its pioneering character, this time as a ‘low-carbon city pilot’ (LCCP) (Trencher et al. 2017). The city was chosen to reduce emissions along with seven others, due to its proven flexibility and adaptability as a SEZ. Within the LCCP programme, cities are incentivised to lower emissions in the “industry, traﬃc, buildings, energy production, lifestyles and land use” categories (ibid.:144). Based on the LCCP, the city of Shenzhen initiated the ‘Shenzhen International Low Carbon City’ plan (ILCC), in which the private sector is extensively involved. The ILCC, in contrast to the LCPP, has more specific indicatory categories, such as ‘green buildings’ and ‘low-carbon

transportation’. In order to pinpoint the trade-oﬀs and mutual benefits between decarbonization and water management, this research will specifically focus on the indicator low-carbon (‘green’) buildings as part of Shenzhen’s decarbonization strategy, as stipulated in the ILCC. However, within this research, a more flexible approach will be used pertaining the definition of low-carbon and green building.

1.2 Scientific and societal relevance

Previous research has demonstrated that low-carbon policies and water use intensity are strongly related to each other. This relationship is especially strong when coupled with growth in the high-tech industry and R&D, which is the case in Shenzhen (Cai, Yin & Varis 2016; Chen et al. 2011; Xu & Lin 2018). However, the effect which these low-carbon developments (such as low-carbon buildings) may have on water is unclear within the academic community. This research aims to contribute to existing academic research by expanding on this literature pertaining the relationship between energy and water. Within Shenzhen, a link between high-tech development and sustainable buildings can be observed. Examples of this are the Shenzhen Bay Eco-Tech Park and Sponge City projects; moreover, similar trends can be observed in smaller projects carried out by the Shenzhen Institute of Building Research (IBR) and other corporations. Some of the elements of government-driven initiatives are copied by private-public projects. Despite extensive explorations of the effects of micro development on macro development in other disciplines, it remains relatively unexplored within sustainability and related field. Therefore, this research will contribute to forming literature concerning the relationship between micro low-carbon projects and their effects on a macro level.

From a societal perspective, this research aims to contribute to improving environment-driven policies which are gaining international traction and attention. Due to climate change and its implications for urban and rural areas, an increasing number of cities and countries are considering policies which aim to reduce GHG emissions, of which carbon emissions are a small component. Target-specific policies are most eﬀective when they are cohesive and complement other sectors. Moreover, inter-sector cohesive policies generally strengthen climate adaptation and resilience (IPCC 2014). On a lower scale, Shenzhen and the PRD struggle with a severe water

(13)

resource shortage. Gaining an understanding of how current carbon incentives, such as green buildings, can contribute to alleviating the situation is therefore important for the quality of life of residents, as well as for sectors which depend on water.

(14)

(15)

2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Within the framework of climate change, coastal areas are considered to be of particular interest and vulnerability. Rising sea levels, storm surges, increasing temperatures and an increase in runoﬀ has the potential to hamper the production and transportation of electricity, and arguably more importantly, adversely impact the quality and quantity of accessible drinking water (Wardekker et al. 2010). Shenzhen and and the surrounding PRD region can be considered to be particularly vulnerable due to their geographic location and their underestimation of potential climate impacts (Chan et al. 2013). Low-lying locations suﬀer from high exposure to the elements, which is exacerbated by the region’s dependence on infrastructure (ibid.; Yang et al. 2014). Projections for the area entail a rise in temperature of approximately 3°C by 2100, an increase in precipitation along with an increase in extreme precipitation events, and a yearly sea-level rise of 1cm (Yang et al. 2014). Considering the potential impact which climate change may have on Shenzhen and the surrounding region, it is no surprise that Shenzhen has had a recent climate mitigatory policy shift towards low-carbon development in order to reduce emissions and contribute to fighting climate change, whilst simultaneously enhancing their climate resilience (Wu, Tang & Wang 2016).

2.1 Water in China

2.1.1 Resource management: Chinese context

Environmental protection in Chinese governance context can be considered to be multi-scalar. Task specific agencies are responsible for appointed sectors, but all fall under the same national urban planning law (Wu & Gaubatz 2013). On a regional and urban scale, municipalities, municipal bureaus and agencies have the freedom to work within the confines of the national environmental protection programme. This freedom has recently increased due to growth in decentalizing policies. This reform of environmental policy lead to an increase in the privitization of environmental and resource management, in addition to a rise in environment-oriented NGO’s. Therefore, municipal policy currently functions as an overarching framework in which agencies and firms coordinate. In terms of governance, decentralization enabled a higher degree of public participation, although it is unlikely that it has any influence over local policy (Wu & Gaubatz 2013). This would explain the high degree of civil unrest concerning environmental problems.

In order to successfully privatize resource management and attract investments, municipalities need to oﬀer incentives. Areas which are considered to be particularly problematic, and therefore in need of investment, are waste and wastewater treatment, methane gas management, energy eﬃciency and desalination techniques. Pilot programmes have been developed in order to provide tax incentives to businesses which invest in one of the aforenamed areas. ‘Green credit’ policies were implemented in 2007, which discouraged banks from providing financial support to polluting ventures, whilst simultaneously favouring sustainable enterprises (Wu & Gaubatz 2013). Directly related to this are policies which require companies to provide ‘green insurance’, which is

(16)

a liability mechanism in the case of industrial pollution. Companies are required to oﬀer compensation when the pollution is considered to be damaging. A more general albeit widely accepted policy instrument used by Chinese cities, is emission or carbon credit trading. As an additional strategy to mitigate the pressure on the environment, China has been rolling out so-called eco-city programmes on a national scale. Although some have been successful in their development, others have failed due to a lack of financial, administrative and political support (Wu & Gaubatz 2013).

From the above, numerous problems can be identified relating to Chinese resource management. Regarding most environmental policies, “promotion is emphasized over regulation” (Wu & Gaubatz 2013:236). The implementation can often be characterized as weak, which is in part due to the multi-scalar, decentralized style of resource management. Moreover, policy coherence is further complicated by the separation of resources in terms of management. Integrated management of resources is advocated by many in the academic field, as policy changes in sectors such as water, energy, and industry, tend to have an impact which exceeds the targeted sector (Benson, Gain & Rouillard 2015; Cheng & Hu 2012). Moreover, inter-sector cohesive policies generally strengthen climate adaptation and resilience (ibid.; IPCC 2014; Qin et al. 2015). Therefore, in order to create cohesive and implementable environmental policies, municipal bureaus, agencies and private firms need to collaborate. However, the bureaucratic structure of the management system (see Fig. 1) has led to a lack of transparency, from which a lack of accountability follows (Chan et al. 2013; Dabrowski 2016; Li et al. 2017; Wu & Gaubatz 2013). It complicates public participation, which results in a less resilient city. It also contributes to a lack of local autonomy. Moreover, the high degree of bureaucracy often results in environmental laws

FIG. 1: CHINA’S INSTITUTIONAL WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE (CHENG & HU 2012)

(17)

not being enforced. Moreover, the oﬀsetting of emissions through either physical relocation or virtual relocation (through emissions trading) remains a concern.

2.1.2 National and regional water

Throughout the country, water quality, quantity and allocation are pressing issues. Water provision doesn’t match the demand in more than 60% of Chinese cities; moreover, 75% of urban well water is unfit for consumption, and 90% of the waterways are contaminated with harmful substances (Wu & Gaubatz 2013). Growing demand, triggered by a growing economy based on industry, changing lifestyles, and ineﬃcient water management are considered to be the main causes of China’s current water shortages. The problems, however, seem to be self-reinforcing. Due to the lack of water, aquifers are at risk of being over-pumped, thus leading to land subsidence (ibid.). As a result of depleted subterranean water levels, saltwater intrusion may occur, leading to saline aquifers. Costly desalination techniques would need to be applied in order to make the water usable. Water quality is further degraded by the lack of treatment of both industrial and household (waste)water. The problems concerning water quality and quantity become even more pressing when considering the Chinese allocation model. The country works under an underdeveloped ‘rights to water’ model, which entails the “orderly allocation and sustainable use of valuable water resources, and provide an eﬀective mechanism for ensuring the proper management of water resources” (Cheng & Hu 2012). Regional, abstractor and user rights are currently granted, however, the volume of water, the duration of the rights, the conditions and attached formalities are not clearly stipulated. In other words, once water rights are granted, there is no way of exercising control over the user.

Overall, Chinese cities have been making a considerable effort in order to improve water provision within current systems (Wu & Gaubatz 2013). Shenzhen has experienced an increase in energy and water efficiency throughout the years (Wen-jiang et al. 2013). This can, according some researchers, be accredited to the area’s rapid urbanization and industrialization. It has lead to a decrease in (inefficient) agriculture and an increase in other sectors. On the other hand, industry, construction, residents and services consume 90% of all water. As a result, Shenzhen’s rapid industrialization process is framed as being “a very effective way to save water and energy for modern cities” (Wen-jiang et al. 2013:1347).

Within the context of Chinese cities, the movement towards becoming more sustainable whilst simultaneously stimulating economic development can often be seen (Wu & Gaubatz 2013). These areas are classified as ‘eco-economic zones, and are specifically focussed on protecting natural resources in the developing area whilst generating economic growth. Examples provided in the literature entail (eco)tourism, the construction of eco-towns, and the growth of the high-tech industrial sector. An additional goal to this green development is the attracting of FDI’s, which may be a symptom of Chinese ‘zone fever’. This so-called fever can be defined as a development strategy where land use planning is used as a stimulant to investments (such as SEZ’s). This

(18)

emerging link between Chinese cities and sustainability can, in part, be accredited to ‘image marketing’, which enhances the international prestige of a city (Wu & Gaubatz 2013).

2.2 Shenzhen and water

Despite their water-rich location, Shenzhen and the Pearl River Delta (PRD) suffer from a severe water resource shortage (Wen-jiang et al. 2013). Water in the region can be characterized by conflicts, a high degree of pollution, and saltwater intrusion (Liu et al. 2018). As a result, effective regional development is hampered (ibid.). Despite recent efforts to improve the city’s water, Shenzhen had the lowest-ranking offshore water quality among Guangdong’s coastal cities in 2014 (IPE 2014). This is exacerbated by the prominence of acid rain in South and Southeast China (Wu & Gaubatz 2013). The coastal waters were classified as only being suitable for industrial and transport functions. With regards to surface water, scores were equally poor. Shenzhen River’s estuary fell into the lowest category.

When considering pressure on water resources in the PRD, industry is a prominent factor. There are many large cities located in the region, which, combined with the PRD’s transport function, has resulted in most of the industry being located alongside the river. This allows the

manufacturing and energy industries in particular to use the relatively cold river water for their cooling systems, whilst simultaneously using the river as a place to dump waste. In addition to a booming economy, however, Shenzhen’s municipal population also plays a substantial role in the present state of water. The current population of the municipal area is estimated at 11,025,000 inhabitants (World Population Review 2018). From this point onward, it is estimated that the area’s population gains more than 100.000 inhabitants every year. The highest amount of population growth can be seen within the city, which coincides with Chinese development patterns.

Combined with a growing middle-class, the water demand in Shenzhen and the Delta as a whole are increasingly pressurized.

2.2.1 Shenzhen’s decarbonation and water

Overall, Shenzhen has experienced an increase in energy and water eﬃciency throughout the years (Wen-jiang et al. 2013). Shenzhen’s rapid industrialization process is framed as being “a very eﬀective way to save water and energy for modern cities” (ibid.:1347). This can, according some researchers, be accredited to the area’s rapid urbanization and high-tech innovative parks. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i n d u s t r y,

construction, residents and services consume 90% of all water. Resource use may be more eﬃcient, however, overall, it may be the case that more resources are being used.

In SEZ’s, water standards are more strongly correlated to economic

FIG. 2: LAND USE IN SHENZHEN AREA (ADAPTED FROM CHEN ET AL 2011).

(19)

conditions than land use patterns (Chen et al. 2011). Therefore, it is important to consider economic activities in Shenzhen, Which can be seen depicted in Figure 2 below. What becomes clear is that most of the area appears to be classified as either forest or built-up. Not much cultivated areas or grassland can be seen within the figure. Within the framework of Shenzhen’s the low-carbon policy, the secondary (manufacturing) and tertiary industry dominate the developing economy, comprising of 39.5% and 60.5% of the GDP respectively (Hong Kong Trade Development Council 2017). All of these sectors contribute to the ‘built up’ area. Food, fuel and chemical processing, along with the production of transportation materials, electrical machinery and communications equipment, have been shown to contribute to decreasing carbon emissions in Chinese cities (Chen et al. 2016). Combined with water eﬃciency policy incentives, the water intensity has the potential the decrease drastically.

In the case of Shenzhen, high-tech (secondary) industries are on the rise and are stimulated through policy incentives. Significant investments are being made in the R&D sector, along with planned investments in biology, pharmaceuticals, internet services, new energies and materials, and information technologies (Wu & Gaubatz 2013). In part, this development is made possible by a large pool of educated and skilled labour, combined a beneficial political and economic climate (ibid.; Clarens & Peters 2016). This, in turn, has lead to Chinese cities with a large R&D sector becoming more attractive to foreign direct investments (FDI’s). In addition to being beneficial to the local economy, the aforenamed industries are set to be located in specially constructed industrial areas and parks, which have been shown to be beneficial for CO2 emissions due to their use of energy eﬃcient technologies (Clarens & Peters 2016; Xu & Lin 2018). Moreover, the parks popularize the low-carbon lifestyle and promote the decarbonization of the economy. The impact of this particular phenomenon was shown to be intensified through investment in R&D. In turn, these combined developments are shown to decrease water use and increase the quality. Overall, these industry-based interventions contribute to increasing Shenzhen’s GDP. This trend has been analyzed by Liu et al. (2007), who have demonstrated that this development supports the Environmental Krutznet’s Curve. In order words, as interventions and investments continue in the industrial sector (production-induced pollution), the GDP rises; and as the GDP rises, pollution decreases due to changing lifestyles and technology.

Contradictory to the above, longitudinal research has shown that in the Guangdong province, there is a high correlation between high intensity water use and high carbon intensity within both the secondary and tertiary sector (Cai, Yin & Varis 2016). Moreover, high urban development levels combined with economic development have a significant negative impact on water quality (Chen et al. 2011). Therefore, Shenzhen’s outspoken focus and preference for industries within the aforenamed sectors could be considered problematic when considering the city’s low-carbon, ‘clean’ development agenda (Wu, Tang & Wang 2016). Moreover, aside from industrial needs, the urban demand for water should also be addressed. Supplying water to of urban areas demands a significant amount of energy, and thus generates emissions. Therefore, in order to achieve a low-carbon city, water provision needs to be optimal. Research by Smith, Liu & Chang (2015) has

(20)

shown that water leakage and loss rate are strongly related to increases in GHG emissions across the country. Chinese authorities estimate the loss of water through leaking pipes at 20% (Wu & Gaubatz 2013). Therefore, in order to achieve a low-carbon city, water wastage of this particular kind needs to be minimized. That can be achieved through either renovating existing structures, or building new ones.

On the other hand, low-carbon energy sources, along with decentralised water supplies, government monitoring systems, and policy incentives regarding water eﬃciency, were shown to successfully contribute to decreasing emissions (ibid; Wang et al. 2012). In terms of energy production, low-carbon alternatives such as solar, wind, small-scale hydroelectric plants, and geothermal sources have been found to reduce both water demand and consumption (Revel 2012). This is due to these particular technologies requiring less water for production than other non-coal sources, such as nuclear and biomass. Therefore, in terms of policy, it follows that fiscal incentives for these types of low-carbon energy production would contribute to decreasing water demand and consumption.

2.2.2 Relationship between water and energy

As can be deducted from the above, there is a clear link between low-carbon development and water. Whether the relationship is positive or negative, however, seems to depend on how decarbonization policies are implemented. Overall, a pattern can be deducted. According to Dou (2013), Shenzhen’s and Chinese low-carbon development in general can be classified as being ‘technology driven development’ (see fig. 2). Although the goals of both types of development are the same, which is the lowering of emissions, the paths of development are diﬀerent. Shenzhen’s developmental focus does not seem to be on the preservation and conservation of natural areas. Rather, it is about creating green infrastructure, technology parks, and increasing the reliance on renewable energies (as opposed to coal). Moreover, it is classified as being imposed development, where there is a focus on dealing with major pollution sources, transport-related emissions and preserving tourism. This can be considered to be the direct opposite of induced development, where energy saving, recycling, and the governance of ecological areas are considered to be key.

2.3 Micro decarbonization: low-carbon buildings

On a city level, ‘green buildings’ are considered to be key to successful decarbonization (Trencher et al. 2017; Wu & Gaubatz 2013). This is due to the perceived co-benefits which it can provide, such as increased resilience and climate mitigation, as well as health benefits (Balaban & de Oliveira 2017; Champagne & Aktas 2016). According to several authors, Chinese green buildings can be characterized as being energy eﬃcient, environmentally friendly in construction and operation, resource eﬃcient, and low in emissions and pollutants (Haiyan et al. 2011; Liu et al. 2012). Other academic work on green, low-carbon, and sustainable building, coincide with similar definitions.

(21)

2.3.1 Optimizing for water

Low-carbon buildings have enormous potential with regards to effective water management. The water environment system plays an integral part in green buildings (Haiyan et al. 2011). According to previous research, the water footprint (the consumption of water) of a building can reduce by 40-50% if water is recycled and efficiently managed (Cheng et al. 2016; Schuetze et al. 2013). Managing freshwater resources, e.g. rainwater, can be done through using “retention, harvesting, collection, utilization, evaporation and infiltration”, which, in turn, results in lower costs after the initial investment in eco-technologies (ibid.:1123). Measures such as leakage-proof pipes can have a large impact, as illustrated earlier in an earlier paragraph. Green roofs, low-water energy systems, and natural purifications, combined with design features which optimize the use natural elements and resources, all contribute to effective water management in green buildings (Haiyan et al. 2011). Moreover, the integrated systems which combine water and energy efficiency could have a high financial yield whilst simultaneously reducing emissions (Schuetze et al. 2013). In other words, the design of the building, technology and recycling capacity of a building determine how effectively water can be managed. Despite the clear benefits of green buildings for a city which struggles with water resources, some challenges need to be addressed.

2.3.2 Barriers and opportunities

Previous research has shown that investment costs are perceived to be one of the most prominent barriers to low-carbon construction (Balaban & de Oliveira 2017; Chan et al 2009). Firstly, the high start-up costs can be accounted to green technologies being relatively new and innovative, and therefore, expensive. Additionally, there is a high degree of uncertainty and risk in the green real estate sector, such as the reliability of technology, financial benefit and building performance (Li & Colombier 2009; Singh & Sharma 2013). This is despite green buildings often performing better than initially estimated in terms of resource use (Balaban & de Oliveira 2017). Therefore, a policy approach which may contribute to alleviating initial investment pressure would be to subsidize the use of green technologies, or to discourage the use of high carbon technologies through increases taxes on these products. Other options include providing financial support to companies paying back investments, and using cost-savings in order to pay back loans. Legislation could also be changed to oblige companies to exclusively use sustainable materials. In other words, political and juridicial support is integral in stimulating companies to become more sustainable.

On the other hand, political and juridicial frameworks are also considered to be possible barriers to low-carbon construction. High degrees of bureaucracy and time-consuming processes may discourage companies from building sustainably (Balaban & de Oliveira 2017). In some instances, in-house experts are needed in order to navigate through policies and regulations, making it diﬃcult for smaller companies to take part in the low-carbon transition. Operating as a

(22)

public-private partnership may contribute to circumventing the problem. Another barrier which many countries experience issues with, is the implementation of sustainable building policies (ibid.; Jiang & Tovey 2009; Singh & Sharma 2013). The lack of mandatory involvement and compliance with green building programmes leads to low participation and ‘greenwashed’ projects, which use sustainability as a marketing strategy. Moreover, green building policies are can often be considered to be reactive, and not proactive, leading to weaker policies. This is exacerbated by an inexperienced workforce (Singh & Sharma 2013). Therefore, focussing policy towards modernizing the construction sector and trainings, coupled with mandatory compliance with green building standards and regulations, can significantly contribute to successful micro decarbonization.

(23)

3. METHODOLOGY

As this research focuses on multiple examples of low-carbon micro development, it can be considered to be a multiple case study. This choice was made due to green building projects of diﬀerent sizes being located throughout the city. Moreover, this research can be considered to be both explanatory, as it studies the relationship between low-carbon buildings and water

management, as exploratory, due to the low degree of research which has been conducted on the relationship in general (Yin 2014).

3.1 Research questions and Structure

Based on the theoretical framework in the preceding chapter, and academic and societal considerations, this research will evolve around the question:

How can the water management of low-carbon buildings contribute to improved water management in Shenzhen?

In order to answer the research question as eﬀectively and thoroughly as possible, the research question has been divided into several sub-questions which all respectively deal with other aspects pertaining the questions. These questions are:

1. How do Shenzhen’s low-carbon buildings currently manage water?

This descriptive question will analyze how three chosen sustainability-related projects currently deal with their water issues.

2. How can the management of water be improved within Shenzhen’s low-carbon buildings?

To elaborate on the first sub-question, which is descriptive, this question will consider which improvements can be made in terms of water management within the buildings. This will be done with consideration for contextual factors which may inhibit or encourage eﬀective water management.

3. How can Shenzhen’s low-carbon buildings assist in improving local water management?

In order to understand how the buildings can contribute to water management throughout the city, a smaller scale needs to be considered. Therefore, this question will focus on how the buildings can impact water management on a meso scale.

Considering the research questions, the thesis has been structured as follows. The research paper kick oﬀ with a short introductory chapter, including societal and academic relevance. This chapter was followed by an extensive theoretical framework, which has dealt with current academic debates which are relevant to the research. Some of the theories found here will recur

(24)

in the later Discussion chapter. The theoretical framework chapter has been succeeded by the methodology, including the research design, research questions, and final research methods. A table of the respondents has been provided for the reader’s clarity. The analysis of the results will follow, which will be divided into two parts. Firstly, the current water management within low-carbon buildings and how it can be improved will be considered. This will be done per project. Following this, the projects will be placed in Shenzhen’s context pertaining to barriers and opportunities. After a full analysis of the research data, the discussion chapter will follow. Within this chapter, the findings are shortly discussed relating to forementioned academic literature. Moreover, suggestions are made for further research and the limitations and ethics of the research is highlighted. Following the discussion is the final chapter, the conclusion. Herein, all findings and conclusions will be synthesized per research question.

3.2 Concepts

This research leans on three core concepts which can be further defined. The first and most prominent concept is low carbon development and decarbonization. Low carbon development is considered to be one of the main instruments to mitigate climate change (Urban & Nordensvärd 2013). Moreover, it can be considered to be a crossover concept between sustainable development, green growth, and climate compatible development. In terms of Shenzhen’s development plan, low-carbon constructions are described as ‘green buildings’, however, no clear description of the term ‘green’ is provided. However, within the literature, green buildings and low-carbon buildings are used interchangeably as their aim is similar: to reduce emissions and be more environmentally sustainable. Therefore, low-carbon buildings and green buildings will also be used interchangeably within the thesis.

The second concept which this research leans on, is water management. Within the academic community, there is no consensus on which type of management is superior. There is a trend which advocates water governance, which is society-driven, however, this does not seem to be the case in Shenzhen. Throughout China, water is overwhelmingly formalized (Dai 2014). In other words, government has precedence over governance (Norman & Bakker 2015). Moreover, the low-carbon building projects on which this research focuses are often carried out as public-private partnerships (PPP’s). Therefore, water management, not governance, is a suitable concept for this research.

In terms of defining water, there is a general consensus that water can be divided into three diﬀerent categories, although this is usually reserved for virtual water analyses (see Chapagain & Hoekstra 2011; Mekonnen et al. 2011). These three categories entail blue water (ground- and surface water), green water (evapotranspiration and rainwater), and grey water (polluted water). For the purposes of this research, the distinction between the types of water as provided above will be made in order to build a more comprehensive understanding of how water management can be optimized within green buildings.

(25)

3.3 Research design

In order to successfully answer the research question, this research requires a ‘mixed methods’ approach as outlined by Bryman (2012). This approach is considered to be a mix of qualitative and/or quantitative research methods, thus enabling the researcher to “draw on the strengths” of diﬀerent methodologies through oﬀsetting (ibid.:633). Moreover, mixed methods can contribute to the completeness of a research, as well as enabling more diverse research questions, explanations, and results. Triangulation is a prime example of how qualitative and quantitative methods can be combined in order to enhance research and provide more balanced data. Therefore, due to the nature of this research, it will be both deductive and inductive in nature. The theoretical framework will be applied to the case, after which the research results will be used in order to expand on existing theories.

3.4 Methods

With regards to methods, extensive desk research with the use of secondary data will provide a limited degree of clarity on current water policy in Shenzhen. A fuller understanding will be gained by expanding on the desk research through interviews. Desk research may entail the collection of policy and academic documents, as well as blog content and newspaper articles. Content analysis will be used in order to summarize, organise, and interpret the data. These aspects will combine into a comprehensive literature review. Relevant policy documents are available in English via the Shenzhen Low Carbon Initiative Forum, the Shenzhen Government website and via C40 Climate Cities Leadership Group.

This has also provided the context needed in order to apply the second method, which consists of semi-structured interviews. The interviews will enable in-depth insight into why and how certain phenomena occur (Bryman 2012). These interviews have mainly be obtained through snowball-sampling, which can usually be considered to be a random sample (ibid.; Yin 2014). However, in this particular research the sample can not be considered to be random due to the place-bound nature of this research. Moreover, issues such as accessibility needed to be taken into account. Translators have made themselves available for interviews with non-English speakers.

3.4.1 Units of Analyses

The unit of analysis for this research are individuals and corporations who have created a sustainable or green building or construction-related project. Therefore, the units of observation include the buildings themselves, water and policy experts, and policy (and policy-related) documents. The targets for interviews consist mainly of individuals, companies and corporations who concern themselves with green buildings, policy experts, and researchers. In the table below all the interview respondents have been listed, in addition to the interview method. One respondent wished to remain anonymous, and will simply be referred to as ‘the respondent’ throughout the research. Language has also been factored into the table in order to provide

(26)

transparency as to where translators were used. This particular aspect has also been anonymized for the respondent.

3.4.2 Operationalisation and Conceptual Model

The analysis of water management improvement within green buildings will run along the lines of the theoretical framework. Design, recycling and technology will be considered, such as green roofs, natural air cooling, sustainable recycling systems, and eﬃcient/integrated energy systems. Moreover, this research will consider the implementation and planning of the projects in order to gain more clarity into barriers and opportunities. This will be done along the lines of blue, green and grey water, as described in 3.2 Concepts. The initiatives named in this conceptual model are examples with illustrative function; other initiatives or only a selection of initiatives may be discussed if depending on the respondents.

Respondent Institute, title Interview type Language Linda Vlassenrood International New Town

Institute, programme director Shenzhen

Semi-structured via telephone

English

*Anonymized *Anonymized Semi-structured *Anonymized *Various researchers Institute of Building Research Semi-structured via

WeChat group

English and Chinese

Liu Zongyuan Institute of Building Research, assistant director of board

Semi-structured English

Fish Yu The Nature Conservancy, Shenzhen conservation director

*Various researchers and stakeholders

LOFT1980, The Nature Conservancy

Semi-structured, lunch panel

Chinese Sun Xiang Shenzhen Water Planning &

Design Institute Co., Ltd., Planning dept. Manager and engineer

(27)

4. RESULTS

In order to better understand the context within which Shenzhen is developing, the city’s current carbon management needs to be understood better. Under Shenzhen’s International Low Carbon City project, 103 laws have been developed. The laws are aimed at reducing carbon emissions through stimulating low-carbon industries, creating certifications, the integration and construction of greener buildings, decarbonizing transport systems, increasing recycling and the enhancement of the natural environment (Zongyuan 2018; Xiang 2018; Trencher et al. 2017; Vlassenrood 2018). Of these laws, only 9 concern regulative measures.

Currently the Green Building Information Gateway has identified 93 buildings and projects certified as being ‘green’ in Shenzhen, of which approximately 50 have been mapped as can be seen in Figure 3. The distribution of the mapped green buildings and projects can be found below. The numbers in the figure indicate the number of green projects located within the proximate area. Although the map is only half complete, it can be seen that the mapped projects are located in areas proximate to Shenzhen’s metro system. Moreover, the areas which enjoy a relatively high share of green building projects, are the Futian (under ‘12’) and Shenzhen Bay (under ‘8’) area. This is particularly striking as these areas also happen to be the richest and the most desirable for expats.

In order to answer the research questions, three green building projects have been chosen to illustrate the situation. To construct a comprehensive and complete image of how green buildings

FIG. 3: LOCATION OF 50% OF GREEN PROJECTS AND BUILDINGS IN SHENZHEN, 2018 (GREEN BUILDING INFORMATION GATEWAY 2018).

(28)

can contribute to better water management in the city, diﬀerently sized projects have been chosen. The projects will be discussed in ascending order according to size. Therefore, the first project which will be discussed is an individuals’ project who is an aﬃliate of the Shenzhen Open Innovation Lab (SZOIL). The second project highlighted is the Fools’ Urban Mountain, a community and Sponge City project located in the LOFT1980 building, close to Futian. The final project which will be analyzed is Institute of Building Research (IBR) green building, which is large and multi-purposed in nature.

4.1 SZOIL: Aquaponic open rooftop

The smallest case which will be discussed in this subchapter concerns the open roof of a privately owned apartment. The initiator of this project is affiliated to SZOIL, which is a “space and platform for worldwide makers to communicate and cooperate” (SZOIL 2016). Within the organisation, designers, researchers, innovators and so-called creators collaborate on issues encountered within Shenzhen’s production sector and the city’s development. The respondent has a background in engineering and an interest in sustainable living. This case can be considered to be a grassroots project as there was no government interference. Therefore, the low-carbon building principles as stipulated in Chapter 2.3 will be approached slightly with more flexibility than in the other two cases. (energy efficient, environmentally friendly in construction and operation, resource efficient, and low in emissions and pollutants (Haiyan et al. 2011; Liu et al. 2012).

4.1.1 Design

With the respondent’s project, the goal was to create a micro-environment which enables minimal electricity use and lowered personal resource use, whilst simultaneously transforming the apartment’s water management on a micro scale. With this in mind, the respondent created an aquaponic urban farm a year ago, which can essentially be described as a closed loop or recirculating system which combines hydroponic (soilless plant growing) systems with aquaculture (Goddek et al. 2015). Simply put, the system mimics the natural processes which take place in rivers.

In order to reduce the stress on energy use throughout the complete apartment, the original closed roof was replaced with horizontally placed slatted wood planks (see Figure 4 below; the open slats can be seen in the top of the picture). The planks have been placed in a 90°, directly upright position. According to the respondent, this ‘opening up of the roof’ provides several benefits in terms of energy use. Firstly, the positioning provides continual areas of shade, whilst simultaneously ensuring the plants receive enough direct sunlight which is needed in order for the aquaponic system to function. This resulted in the respondent not having to invest in any grow lights, whilst simultaneously increasing natural daylight into the respondent’s apartment. Secondly, the roof enables precipitation to fall directly into the catchment systems, or so-called grow beds. Although the aquaponic system does not require additional fresh water — as it provides this itself through feedback — any excess post-filtration water is siphoned oﬀ by the

(29)

respondent and used for cleaning, thus reducing household water use. Thirdly, the open roof allows more heat to escape from the apartment and increases natural air circulation. According to the respondent, this particular benefit resulted in less use of the air conditioner, which has had an impact on overall energy use.

Located under the open roof are the grow beds, which contain edible plants and vegetables. This choice was made in order to reduce the buying of commercial food, which the respondent believes to have a significant negative impact on the environment. Since completing the project a year ago, the respondent has grown lettuce, pak choi, tomatoes and various herbs, among other things. What can be grown partially depends on the ‘soil’ which is used, although it must always be highly permeable in order for the water to seep through. According to the respondent, gravel, small rocks and clay pebbles are the most practical choice due to their durability, permeability and size, which allows the roots of the plants optimal growth. The respondent opted for a gravity feed system, which uses a media-based grow bed, as can be seen in Figure 5 (Goddek et al. 2015). These particular growth beds are supplied water contaminated with ammonia and nitrite through an ebb and flow system, which is powered by a small pump located in the fish tank below. This serves two purposes, as it removes rich fish waste from the tank thus keeping their environment relatively clean, while simultaneously supplying the growth bed with essential nutrients which the plants need to grow. The pump dictates the water supply rhythm and has been set to mimic ebb and flow, where the grow bed is flooded for a short amount of time, after

(30)

which the supplied water is allowed to filter down. As the water permeates the roots and pebbles, the ammonia and nitrite are converted into nitrate, which fish can tolerate at relatively high levels. After the filtration process, the non-toxic water drips into the fish tank located directly beneath the growth bed. The tanks contain Tilapia fish, which are widely used in aquaponic urban farming due to their climate tolerance, resistance to deceases, and overall resilience (Goddek et al. 2015). Moreover, the breed is fit for human consumption, which was an important consideration for the respondent.

In terms of energy, the gravity drip system from the grow bed into the tank can considered to be energy eﬃcient and relatively low-tech. However, the pump located in the fish tank does require energy. The

respondent has indicated that the pumps in the systems currently run on household electricity or battery in the case of power loss, however, energy generated by solar panels are being explored as an alternative. The placement, costs and reliability associated with solar powered pumps form the main barrier, as the fish population may suﬀer if the water supply regime suddenly changes. 4.1.2 Planning and implementation

The planning and design of the garden took place in collaboration with others with similar interests and fields of expertise. According to the respondent, the use of various WeChat group 1

chats was integral to the success of the project. The Shenzhen groups with a focus on sustainability, such as the Makers group and the Green Action group, are strictly accessible — and findable — via a personal invite, thus making the use of contacts and the trust between them essential. Within these groups, each containing approximately 300 members, events such as workshops and demonstrations are planned and shared with fellow members. Moreover, personal tips and tricks are shared for creating a more sustainable lifestyle. This enabled the respondent to gain contacts who had established aquaponic farms.

All the changes needed in order to ensure the success of the project were financed by the owner of the apartment. As the overall structure does not require much technology, the materials needed to implement the design were relatively cheap and accessible. The respondent estimates that approximately 70% of the materials are recycled or reused, and were therefore either cheap or free. The cost of breaking open the roof was the highest and was also the most time consuming part of the project. The grow beds, clay pebbles, tanks and Tilapia fish were all oﬀered to the

WeChat is a multi-purpose social media application commonly used in China for chatting, socialising, and payments. 1

(31)

respondent for free by members from the WeChat groups with well-established aquaponic farms. Therefore, the relative investment costs were kept very low.

It should be mentioned that the success of the project may have hinged on the respondent not requesting planning permission. Upon the advice of individuals who opted for a similar process and open-roof construction, the respondent did not inquire with the local government whether the restructuring of this particular area was permitted. Possible infringement on building regulations and designated zoning may result in legal action against the respondent.

4.2 LOFT 1980: Fools’ Urban Mountain

Project Fools’ Urban Mountain is located in the urban village of Gangxia and is a product of the collaboration between The Nature Conservancy (TNC), the Urban Planing & Design Institute of Shenzhen (UPDIS), Glocal Investment and Associated Architecture Design Association. The aim of the project was to contribute to “nature and comfort” within the urban village, whilst simultaneously preserving the typical character of the urban village (LOFT1980 2017). Renovating the LOFT1980 building instead of demolishing and subsequently rebuilding is considered to contribute to “protecting” the character of the urban village (ibid.:2). Moreover, the project resulted in attracting residents with diverse backgrounds, thus “enrich[ing] neighbourhood culture” (ibid.: 3). On a larger scale, the project served as a demonstration site to improve both the living conditions and the image of urban villages within Shenzhen. The building itself consists of 6 floors

(32)

— of which the top two are the garden — and can be considered to be a mixed use project due to the combination of residential spaces and recreational areas (see Figure 6).

4.2.1 Design

The LOFT1980 building was chosen as one of the six Sponge City demonstration sites by TNC (TNC 2018). According to the project planning document, the entire project has generated a retention rate of “about three to five times higher” than the city-wide Sponge City requirements, which aims to retain 70 - 90% of the precipitation which falls on the site (LOFT1980 2017: 2; Li et al. 2017). Extra Sponge City requirements can be found in the table on the next page (Figure 7). The most apparent aspect of the implementation of the Sponge City principles, is the building’s ‘green roof’. The rooftop garden contains 350 planting cubes, in which residents and local villagers are encouraged to grow their own organic produce. Moreover, the cubes also have a social and ceremonial function. After the completion of the project, project stakeholders and local residents were invited

to write their LOFT1980 aspirations and expectations on a piece of paper, put the paper in one of the cubes, and subsequently plant and grow their own plant or produce within the same box. This served as a medium to ensure that stakeholders and local villagers would return to the Fools’ Mountain regularly, thus eﬀectively increasing public participation, communication between planners and residents, and strengthening social relations between LOFT1980 residents and the direct surrounding area (Yu 2018).

The cubes simulate a rainwater catchment system, which is then used to water the other boxes through gravity-driven drip irrigation, see Figure 8 (ibid.). This is made possible through the stairlike multilevel positioning of the boxes. An added benefit of the boxes is that it decreases the flood risk within the building during periods of heavy rain, as the top two floors of the building and the adjacent stairwell have an open, wall-less structure. This, in turn, increases natural ventilation, daylight within the building, and decreases the temperature within the building during the hot months. Moreover, the moisture in the boxes and the shade they provide contribute to lowering the temperature in the rooftop recreational space located within the ‘mountain’. During chillier periods, the boxes provide natural insulation for the top of the building.

Aside from the roof, Sponge City elements were applied to the pavement surrounding the building. The original pavement, which was non-pervious concrete, was replaced by a cobblestone pavement, thus increasing porosity. This was done in order to increase rain penetration and subsequently decrease runoﬀ and flooding. The precipitation which seeps

(33)

through the pavement is not caught underground due to the project’s financial restrictions (Yu 2018). Although residents are encouraged to limit water and energy use, technological gadgets could not be installed due to the same issue.

4.2.2 Planning and implementation

Special attention needs to be paid to how the project was implemented due to several aspects. Firstly, there is the matter of placement of LOFT1980. As it is located in an urban village, the pre-renovation building was not owned by the government but by locals. The project stakeholders were aware that the location in an urban village may be a barrier in its own right “due to their complex social networks and extensive historical attachments” (TNC 2018: 2). Initially, local residents were not convinced that the project would be beneficial to the neighbourhood, considering the location being close to Shenzhen’s CBD (Yu 2018). However, it is not unusual for green development in particular to spark controversy, as citizen participation and involvement can be lacking (Nadin 2018). In the particular case of Gangxia, any renovations in the area were considered to contribute to the risk of gentrification. As a result of the locals’ apprehension, the negotiations were long-winded but comprehensive, as surrounding residents became highly involved with the design, planning and execution of the project. Continued participation has been encouraged through personal planting cubes, as described in the design section.

Secondly, directly related to the first aspect, is that the project is not government owned and 2

subsequently had to find private investors. Securing funding was experienced to be one of the largest challenges in the project as Sponge City subsidies were found to be . As a result, the renovation took place on a tight budget. This severely limited the degree to which water recycling and water reuse technologies could be acquired and implemented throughout the building itself. 

The collaboration with UPDIS pertained strictly to Sponge City regulation standards and had no other involvement 2

with the project (Yu 2018).

(34)

4.3 Institute of Building Research HQ

The IBR headquarters building, completed in 2009, is arguably one of the most well-known green buildings in Shenzhen. IBR can be considered to be a company which works on the built

environment, and has a focus on cost effective “green renovation” (Zongyuan 2018). IBR is partially owned by the government, with other shares owned privately. The building, marked as “1” in Figure 3, is 12 floors high with a surface of 18,000m2. The goal in the creation of the building was to design “mixed use spaces” whilst implementing “green principles”, including Sponge City aspects (IBR 2018). In terms of uses, the building contains research labs, office spaces, residential spaces and auditoriums. Moreover, various residential and office facilities are offered, such as conference rooms and a kindergarten.

4.3.1 Design

With regards to green principles, the design of the building is centred around both energy and water eﬃciency. According to the IBR, “multidisciplinary, integrated management on a micro level” has contributed to achieving eﬃciency in both resources (IBR 2018; Zongyuan 2018). In order to achieve this, large teams of water, energy, engineering and planning specialists were integrated, after which smaller teams were assigned to optimize water and energy use on a set amount of floors within the building. Particularly notable features can be listed regarding IBR’s water management strategy, which is two-pronged. Firstly, there is a focus on rainwater harvesting, thus generating more water resources throughout the building (see Figure 9). Secondly, wastewater recycling through various treatment methods is applied in order to maximize the reuse of contaminated water (see Figure 10). These two prongs will be used as guidelines within this description of the building’s design features.

Before addressing the design features inside the building, the exterior should be addressed, which is where the rainwater harvesting takes place. Overall, from the almost 3 thousand gallons

(35)

of water consumed by the building per year, 40% originates from the harvested rainwater (Diamond et al. 2014; IBR 2018). Directly outside the building and in the surrounding area , 3

Sponge City principles have been implemented. The pavement has been made porous through the use of small tiles, which allows the water to filter through and thus contribute to (flash) flood prevention. In IBR’s case, the water is caught underground in several large tanks and stored for usage. In addition to the permeable pavement, the catchment of precipitation is done within the roof garden, where solar panels are also located. This collected water passes through a network of vertical pipes — which require no energy — after which this water is combined with the collected water in the tanks. In order to make the water useable for the housing units and the landscaping at various levels throughout the building, the water is fed into a constructed wetland within the building (IBR 2018). This filters the water naturally, after which it passes into a clean water tank. At this stage of harvesting, the water is used for the water- and flora landscapes throughout the building, and for cleaning the outside area. Any unused water passes back through the constructed wetland in order to prevent it becoming stagnant.

The use of energy and water is minimized throughout the building by implementing several design features, including over 40 water and energy saving technologies (IBR 2018; Diamond et al. 2014). For example, within the building and housing units, water-saving appliances such as aerated faucets have been installed in order to minimize both water use and waste. In addition to being more user friendly than regular faucets, the aerated versions consume less water and energy. The building itself has an open structure, which allows wind to pass through and provide natural ventilation, thus reducing the use of energy-intensive air conditioners (ibid.; see Figure 11). The vertical gardens serve a similar function, as they provide shade and moisture which cool the underlying areas. Moreover, the combination of the abundance of vegetation and the open structure contribute to minimizing the impact the building has on the local ecology. Skylights have

A larger area surrounding the IBR building was included into the Sponge City feature after its positive eﬀects were 3

explained to surrounding building owners (Zongyuan 2018).

(36)

been installed on the ground level, under which plants grow as part of constructed wetland, which naturally filters water. The fountains outside sits on a glass base, which also enables natural light to filter through. Reclaimed air conditioning water is used to supply the fountain — moreover, the constant flow of water keeps the underlying glass cool, thus reducing the temperature beneath. Although waste water generation is minimized throughout the building, the waste that is generated passes through the building’s own sewage network, after which solid waste is separated with the use of gravity in the septic tank. This waste outflows into the municipal sewage pipes. The remaining waste water passes through the constructed wetland, is naturally filtered, and ends up in the clean water tank. From that point, it is used to water the landscaped vegetation and to flush toilets.

Overall, when compared to buildings of a similar size in Shenzhen, the IBR building consumes 43% less water on average and 39% less energy (Diamond et al. 2014). The low water consumption can be attributed to the rainwater harvesting and waste water recycling, whilst the low energy consumption can be attributed to the use of various low-carbon technologies paired with relatively low-tech ideas, such as using gravity to transport water. This has lead to the IBR building winning the first place in three national ‘Green Building’ awards.

4.3.2 Planning and implementation

In order to understand the planning and implementation process of the project, it is imperative to understand which company stakeholders were involved. During an interview with an IBR spokesperson, Zongyuang, concerning the technicalities of constructing these large-scale projects, it was mentioned that projects of this particular size need a lot of financial, political and juridicial support in order to succeed. As a result, the success of this particular project was in part accredited to the ownership of IBR, which is divided between the government, private parties, and the public.The firm went onto the public market, thus selling company stocks, due to the increasing value of high-tech companies. The selling of stocks, alongside the funds of private investors and financial pledges from potential occupants, provided suﬃcient initial financing for the project to receive planning permission. Reports on costs per square meter vary. According to Zongyuan, investment costs were 430 USD as opposed to the average 600 USD per square meter, whilst an analytical article by Diamond et al. (2014) on the IBR building sets costs at 690 USD per square meter. According to the authors, this is still “lower than the average new commercial structures in Shenzhen” (ibid.:18). Although the exact numbers fluctuate, the consistent message is that sustainable building is cheaper per square meter than regular constructions, which can be attested to green development being cheaper than regular development (Nadin 2018). In terms of technical support, IBR is aﬃliated with the TU Delft in the Netherlands, and also serves as a sustainability advisor to several of Shenzhen’s large construction and housing corporations, such as Vanke.

Despite the government backing IBR, the actual construction of the building posed many challenges. Firstly, despite the involvement of government oﬃcials, Zongyuan stipulated that

Decarbonizing Shenshen's water : water management in micro scale decarbonization projects

UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.

INTRODUCTION

2.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

3.

METHODOLOGY

4.

RESULTS