Implementation of Photovoltaic Technology in Rural Uganda

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Implementation of Photovoltaic

Technology in Rural Uganda

Investigating the social acceptance

Bachelor Thesis Date: June 27, 2017

Published by Renee Snoek 10761330

Bachelor: Future Planet Studies Major: Business Administration University of Amsterdam

Supervised by Dhr. W.H. Dorresteijn

Faculty of Business and Economics

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Acknowledgements

First, I would first like to thank my thesis advisor Dhr. W. H. Dorresteijn of the University of Amsterdam for his supervision and support. I would also like to thank all of my study participants who were involved during this process of my bachelor thesis. A special thanks to Laura Concoran, Sue Stevenson, Frank Neil Yiga, Clarice Fell and Tim Donkers for letting me interview them. Thank you for your enthusiastic participation and answers during this research.

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Statement of originality

This document is written by Renee Snoek who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.

I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it.

The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.

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Abstract

Rural areas continue to be home to the majority of the African population. Therefore, the importance of providing electricity to rural areas cannot be overemphasized. The unsustainable use of conventional energy sources is accompanied by environmental impacts and several negative health problems. As a clean modern energy source, photovoltaic technology (PV) can be an alternative solution. However, the implementation of PVs has not yet been successful. Although a lot of research has been done on technical improvements, they are not actually adopted in rural areas. To investigate the social influence of the implementation of PVs on rural communities, different variables are used: (1) Social, (2) Cultural, (3) Environmental, and (4) Political. Qualitative data conducted through semi-structured interviews are used. The results suggest six main recommendations solar companies should focus on when they want to implement their solar systems in rural areas in developing countries.

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1. Introduction

Future scenarios imply that in the year 2030, there will still be a considerable percentage of people (16%) without reliable access to electricity, especially in developing and emerging countries. Funding institutions like the World Bank and international governance consider access to electricity as being fundamental for poverty reduction and economic development (Schäfer, et all. 2011). Moreover, households’ limited access to electricity service leads to a debilitating state of environmental, economic, and health conditions. On the contrary, the benefits households derive from a better access to electricity use include lighting, running small income generation activities, entertainment, ecological, and health wellbeing. As a result, electricity access provides a change in welfare when households are able to engage in safer and more income generating activities (Abdullah and Jeanty, 2011).

Africa possesses an immense energy potential, because of their sunny climate. However, energy consumption in general and electricity consumption in particular is very low. Most of the people without access to electricity in 2030 will still be in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The world’s richest countries, with about 20 percent of the world’s population, account for more than 50 percent of energy use (Alazraque-Cherni, 2008). Moreover, the inequality of electricity consumption among African countries is enormous. For instance, in Ghana 48% of the rural population has access to electricity in 2013 and only 6,5 % of the rural population of Uganda (figure 1). Africa has only 23% of its population electrified compared to the world average of 73%. More than 500 million Africans are still without access to electricity. While the world electricity per capita consumption has been rising steadily over the past 30 years, Sub-Saharan Africa’s per capital electricity consumption has been stagnant (Wolde-Rufael, 2006).

Figure 1: The World Bank: Access to electricity, rural (%)

Renewable energy presents an attractive alternative to various conventional energy sources. Research suggests that photovoltaic technology (PV) is a good option when dealing with a variety of electric applications in rural areas. The costs of PVs are relatively cheap, it does not create environmental problems, and it adapts well to a wide range of electrical services (Hochmuth and Morris, 1998; García and Bartolomé, 2010). Other advantages regarding PVs are that they do not require complex high-level decisions, they are decentralized so they do

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not depend on other infrastructure, and these systems use the sun as a practical inexhaustible energy source and the electricity can be locally generated. Karekezi and Kithyoma (2002) also described PV energy as the most attractive renewable energy option. In spite of its multiple benefits, PVs have not enjoyed widespread success in Uganda, with low levels of successful implementation. The choice for Uganda as a location for this research was influenced by its low rate of electrification and by its great potential for solar energy use. In the academic literature, this issue regarding implementation has received only limited attention. Most research is related to the technical improvements of PVs (Tidjani, et al. 2014; Safitri, et al. 2016; Twaha et al. 2012). These developments based on technical aspects, often forget that technology is also an important social construct that forces implementation companies to consider a wider perspective that should include socio-cultural variables as well. This study aims at social aspects regarding implementation and use of PVs. Therefore, the research question is: To what extent should the implementation of photovoltaic technology

focus on different social aspects in rural Uganda?

The remainder of this paper is organized as follow. Section 2 begins with a literature overview of the energy policy in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) with the main focus on Uganda, followed by recent research regarding the social acceptance of small-scale PV installations. Section 3 explains the theoretical framework with regard to the used variables. After this theoretical framework the methodology is explained in the next section. The results from the qualitative interviews with different stakeholders regarding the relevant variables and their meaning for the implementation of PVs are discussed in section 5. Section 6 summarizes the major findings, and provides discussion points for future research. This section is followed by the conclusion, (section 7) which provides an overview of recommendations for future PV installations projects.

2. Literature review

This section discusses a literature review of the energy situation in Africa and more explicit the energy policy in Uganda. With only 23% of its population being electrified, Africa presents the lowest electrification rate among developing countries. More than 77% of the rural population in Africa has no access to electricity; this rate is even higher for SSA countries: over 88% (WEO, 2009). However, in recent decades increased energy access has always been linked to rising emissions. The challenge therefore lies in decoupling greenhouse gas emissions and energy so that decreasing emissions and more widespread energy use can be achieved simultaneously (Pegels, 2010). Nevertheless, Africa has a huge potential in natural energy resources. These resources can help the continent reaching their energy independence. Azoumah et al. (2011) argued that Africa has approximately 20% of the world wind energy production (1440 TWh/year potential in hydroelectricity), 25% of the world total biomass, and 74% of the continent receives an annual average of solar irradiation higher than 1900 kWh/m2/year (Europe between 700 and 1600 kWh/m2/year).

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particularly lack of supporting policy frameworks (Alazraque-Cherni, 2008). Looking at Uganda, its Electricity Sector is now run under a liberalized set up; it gained liberalization in 1997 and the enactment of the Electricity Act in 1999. Liberalization and enactment of the Electricity Act 1999 mandated the unbundling of Uganda Electricity Board (UEB), which was a monopoly, managing generation, distribution, sale, transmission, import and exportation of Uganda’s electricity. The enactment of the Electricity Act 1999 did not only end UEB’s almost 40 years of monopoly, but also liberalized the sector and provided the stimulus to create opportunities for involvement of private initiatives (Tickodri-Togboa, 2015). The electricity Act 1999 created a mandated Electricity Regulatory Authority (ERA). The ERA being a regulator of Uganda’s electricity sector and generated growth in the available generation capacity from 359.5 MW since the liberalization to 601.1 MW. This doubled the access to electricity in Uganda from 7% to 15% (ERA, 2017). Today Uganda’s generation mix consists of Hydro (459 MW), Thermal (100 MW), and Cogeneration (41 MW) (ERA, 2017). With the liberalization of the electricity supply, a new energy era can arise in Uganda. However, centralized grid-based electricity systems often do not reach rural areas and tend to offer services only to more privileged groups. Therefore, many poor households and individuals remain unconnected (Ulsrud et al., 2015).

Beside the governmental situation, the social acceptance should be taken into account. In the eighties, when the policy programs of renewable energy started, social acceptance as a part of renewable energy technology implementation has largely been neglected. Most developers, including authorities, energy companies, and private local investigators thought that implementation of renewables was not a problem, because the first surveys on the public acceptance of renewable energy revealed very high levels of support for the technology (Wüstenhagen et al. 2007). Later on, several studies showed that neither support from crucial stakeholders, nor public support could be taken for granted (Bosley and Bosley, 1988; Wüstenhagen et al. 2007). These studies focused on problems such as lack of understanding the roots of public attitudes, lack of support among key stakeholders, and hesitation among policy makers (Wüstenhagen et al. 2007). In more recent research Müggenburg et al. (2012) conducted a field study regarding the social acceptance of small scale PVs in Ethiopia. Müggenburg et al. (2012) argued that different approaches of technology design and implementation show that more factors should be taken into account than the technological aspects only. According to their field study, social and technical system elements should be weighed equally. They concluded that the approach should be human-oriented. Nevertheless, most of today’s projects regarding the implementation of technology give first priority to the technical aspects of systems.

As mentioned before, despite important technological advances in the last decades, the demand for electrification in developing countries remains high. García and Bartolomé (2010) argue that users are satisfied after the launch and installation of new systems that produce electricity. Once consumers experience better living conditions, they will welcome electrification projects. Some people argue that the programs would be more successful when developed in the context of the market instead of produced by Western companies, grants, or donations (García and Bartolomé, 2010). García and Bartolomé (2010) investigated failures regarding electrification systems based on renewable energy. For this research their variables regarding the cultural aspects are used. They state that electrification projects on renewable

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energy tend to focus too much on the technological aspects only. Instead, they argue that cultural variables such as the social and community dimensions should be taken into account. Hayssalo (2003) agrees that these variables also play a dominant role to explain the lack of success and he argues that the importance of analyzing and understanding user’s requirements has been one of the key factors for the failure and success of innovation. Therefore, this research will investigate the adopters’ perceptions and cultural factors that play a role in user’s requirements. However, there are more than these cultural factors and adopters’ perceptions regarding social acceptance that must be taken into account. As Wüstenhagen (2007) described, there are numerous features of renewable energy innovation that bring new aspects to the debate of social acceptance. In recent research, Otte (2013) investigated the social acceptance of sustainable solar cooking systems in developing countries. He states that although solar cooking systems have multiple benefits, they have not enjoyed widespread success, with low levels of successful implementation (Otte, 2013). In academic literature, the acceptation phase has received only limited attention. Most research is related to the technical improvements of solar cooking systems. Otte’s (2013) study about the social acceptance of implementation corresponds highly with this research. He argues that variables that are assumed to influence solar cooking systems are numerous. He conducted qualitative data from interviews with solar cooker practitioners in rural communities in developing countries. He used this qualitative data to divide the variables into six categories: (1) technical, (2) economical, (3) environmental, (4) cultural, (5) social and (6) political. Ottes’ (2013) list of variables is drawn from a literature review, which included articles written by both academics and practitioners about their experiences with the acceptance of the implementation of solar cookers. For this research four categories of Ottes’ framework are used: (1) social, (2) cultural, (3) environmental and (4) political. The technical and economical variables are left out, because of the limited time frame that makes serious research into these variables impossible. As mentioned above the adopters’ perception variable of García and Bartolomé (2010) that corresponds to the social variable of Otte (2013), is included as a sub-variable of this social variable. Variables out of both articles are used in this thesis because Ottes’ research has only focused on solar cooking systems. In his research people already had access to heat sources and Otte looked at different variables for transforming the heat sources into more sustainable ones. García and Bartolomé (2010) were looking at communities who have changed from no electricity access towards having electricity. In this research people who do not have energy access in the first place will gain energy access with the implementation of PVs. Additionally,

3. Theoretical framework

In this part the chosen variables will be explained. In order to provide a clear overview, the variables are divided into 4 categories relevant for this paper concerning the implementation of PV systems: (1) social, (2) cultural, (3) environmental and (4) political (figure 2).

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Figure 2: Conceptual model

In the following part the 4 categories will be described in more detail. For future research more variables such as economic and technical can be taken into account. However, a lot of research has been done on these factors and unfortunately these variables would not fit in this research timeframe.

3.1 Social factors

Among the social factors there are two main variables to consider: (1) motivators and (2) adopters’ perceptions (Eder, et al. 2015; Otte, 2013). Questions of motivation include the type of motivation like economic, environmental and health. Perceptions can be behaviors, supply, satisfaction and positive and negative experience.

3.1.1 Motivation

Otte (2013) argues that motivation is contextual; it depends on the context and situation. In the situation of PV installation systems, two types of motivational factors can be identified: the economic benefits and an increased level of autonomy (Otte, 2013). Peter et al. (2002) included environmental protection as an extra motivational factor.

Using this knowledge to the context of PV installations, Otte, (2013) differentiates between economic and environmental types of motivations. Citizens can be motivated by the promise of protecting the environment or by the possibilities of saving energy costs. Moreover, solar energy is a renewable energy source and does not harm the environment in a way conventional energy does, future health perspective can be a potential motivator as well.

With these motivational factors identified, potential differences in the importance of those factors across rural communities must be considered. In previous research regarding the

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use of solar cookers in Tanzania people were willing to use a solar cooker only when it leads to additional income-generating activities besides cooking. This includes a research on solar cooking instead of PV devices. Nevertheless, it shows that economic benefits can be the main motivator (Otte, 2009).

3.1.2. Adopters’ perceptions

Another variable regarding social factors is the perception of adopters. Eder et al. (2015) state that adopters’ perceptions can be crucial. Shyu (2013), who investigated the mini-grid electricity supply in rural China, has confirmed this. This investigation indicated that diffusion from the end-users’ perspective includes multiple levels of social explanation such as behaviors, supply, satisfaction and positive and negative experience. In another study Shyu concludes that the users where not satisfied by the innovation because the provided electricity services were unreliable and insufficient. However, other recent studies have shown successful renewable energy adoption when a research team works directly with the local community to ensure their full participation in decision-making (Ahlborg, and Sjöstedt, 2015; Eder et al, 2015).

3.2 Cultural factors

Beside social factors there is one important cultural factor that influences the adoption of PVs. Mohammed et al. (2013) argued that cultural background is an important factor with the potential to influence either the failure or success of a renewable energy project; especially in the Sub Sahara Africa region with its diverse cultural heritage. This cultural factor includes the perception of Western Cultures. Additionally, education manners will be discussed. 3.2.1 Wrong perception Western Cultures

As García and Bartolomé argue, Western societies tend to convene a perception of technological products they consider being beneficial for developing countries, even if some are huge failures. In developed countries technological devices usually work correct because users are familiar with the technology, and resources are available for maintenance. Another factor regarding cultural differences is the amount of education and the way companies provide such education. Kandpal and Broman (2014) state that training and education in the area of energy in general, and renewable energy sources in particular are of prime importance. They argue that attitudes and preferences of communities as well as of the decision makers have to be changed in order to create more acceptance of renewable energy technologies. Specifically, Kandpal and Broman (2014) conclude that renewable energy education should have the entire community as its target audience. One specific factor they pointed out was that renewable energy education preferably should be provided in local languages for the best acceptance and efficacy (Kandpal and Broman, 2014).

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3.3 Environmental factors

Another important category of variables is environmental factors. These factors include: (1) availability of alternative fuels, (2) the level of solar radiation and (3) the level of infrastructure.

3.3.1 Availability of alternative fuels

Biomass is still the most important source of energy for the majority of the population in Uganda. About 90% of the total primary energy consumption in generated through biomass. Firewood is the main source (78,6%) followed by charcoal (5.6%) and crop residues (4.7%). Firewood is an expensive type of fuel and requires intensive labor for collecting wood (Alazraque-Cherni, 2008). Regarding electricity generation, Uganda has an installed capacity of 822MW, mainly consisting of hydropower (692 MW; 84%) (Energypedia, n.d.). Wood fuel is the main source of cooking and heating in rural and urban areas. This high demand of wood fuel resulted in the depletion of forests and land degradation (Tumwesigye, et al. 2011). Moreover, Twaha et all (2012), argue that where private industries try to supplement the existing grid power in Uganda, these industries mainly use electricity from diesel generators; this increases greenhouse gasses and environmental pollution.

3.3.2 Level of solar radiation

A further environmental factor includes the level of solar radiation. SSA countries are generally considered suitable for PV installation systems because of their high level of solar radiation. However, as the least electrified continent, rural Africa is often portrayed as the most important region for the expansion of PV technology. Therefore, many national renewable and rural energy strategies have often given priority to the expansion of PV technology. Almost every country in Sub Saharan Africa has a Solar PV project. This significant emphasis and investment on Solar PV, however, has not been matched by increased access to modern energy (Karekezi and Kithyoma, 2002).

Uganda is gifted by nature with abundant energy resources, mainly renewables, which can eventually provide the country with enough energy supply to meet future growth in energy demand (Twaha, et al. 2016). Uganda is endowed with plenty of sunshine throughout the year; giving solar insolation of 4 to 5 kWh per square meter per year. This level is quite favorable, for the application of a number of solar technologies. The solar radiation is also up to 7 times greater than that for Scotland in the UK, and at least 4 to 5 times greater than for the majority of locations in Central and Northern Europe. Also it is available in huge supply, naturally decentralized, immune from supply or price uncertainty, falling in cost as the technology improves and reduce greenhouse gases (Deichmann, et al. 2011). Moreover, Uganda’s solar insolation level is quite favorable for all solar technology applications (Tumwesigye, et al. 2011). Solar energy applications include water heating, cooling and crop drying, and especially PVs. PV systems are generally required for applications where modest power needs exist and in very inaccessible areas that are not served by the national grid (Tumwesigye, et al. 2011).

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3.3.3. Level of infrastructure

Besides the importance of using local resources and local implementation, most Ugandans with electricity are connected to the centralized grid. However, the extension of centralized grid is often expensive and therefore various forms of decentralized energy supply options have gained influence for rural areas during the last 30 years (Schafer, et al. 2011). Another problem regarding the energy supply is Uganda’s extremely poor network of roads; and these roads become impassable, especially during the rainy season (Tickodri-Togboa, 2015). So here, decentralized energy supply can also be a solution. Decentralized electricity generation means ‘an electric power source connected directly to the distribution network or on the

customer side of the meter’ (Ackermann, et al. 2001). Alazraque-Cherni (2008) argues in

favor of decentralized energy supply systems: the high costs associated with distribution and transmission through the national grids can be avoided. Moreover, Ahlborg and Hammar (2014) state that using off-grid electrification is not just a temporary solution, in many cases, especially in SSA, it is necessary for the growth and health of local villages to have electricity within the coming decades.

3.4 Political factors

The implementation of PVs is assumed to enhance with renewable energy policies. Energy development and environmental damage are intricately related (Tumwesigye, et al. 2011). Tumwesigye et al. state that the energy sector has more environmental impacts than most other economic sectors. Moreover, Ahlborg and Hammar (2014) investigated off-grid solutions in Tanzania and Mozambique and they found out that the main drivers concerning renewable energy are political priorities and development policies. Renewable energy policies can include different types of strategies and financing schemes (Otte, 2013). In the next paragraph these types of policies will be described in more detail.

3.4.1. Political strategies

Regarding global impacts, like climate change and the temperature increase, Uganda completed an inventory of their greenhouse gas emissions. This means that Uganda is obliged to meet its commitments as a signatory to the UN’s Climate Change Convention (UNCCC). Therefore, the promotion of renewable energy is an important element, giving Uganda the opportunity to benefit from international sponsored projects (Kaijuka, 2007). However, previous energy planning in Uganda has emphasized supply-side issues such as attracting more private investors and increasing generation. Demand-side issues such as subsidies have received less attention (Tumwesigye, et al. 2011). This approach has tended to favor the urban population, while marginalizing the energy needs in rural areas – the majority of the population.

Moreover, Uganda has some governmental institutions regarding energy policies. When the state-owned Uganda Electricity Board was unbundled it was broken up into Uganda Electricity Generation Company Limited (UEGCL), Uganda Electricity

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import of electricity in Uganda. ERA is also responsible for ensuring that electricity companies comply with the conditions of their licenses and protecting the interest of consumers (RECP, n.d.)

3.4.2. Political financing schemes

Human and environmental damage, rising oil prices, and the growing energy security concerns are increasing the attractiveness of renewable alternatives compared to conventional fossil fuel-based energy sources and adding reasons the rethink the world’s energy future (Sonntag-O’Brien and Usher, 2006). Investment is at the core of the transition to a sustainable energy future, as massive amount of new capital will be required to meet commitments to large carbon emissions reductions and to cover the world’s growing energy demand (Sonntag-O’Brien and Usher, 2006.

Tumwesigye et al. (2011) studied ‘Key issues in Uganda’s energy sector’ and state that the Ugandan government has the challenge of expanding access to adequate, reliable and affordable energy supplies as a way to address poverty issues. In 2011, the country spends an estimated 212 billion Ugandan Shillings annually on power subsidy, despite its power tariff remains the highest in the East African region and the highest in the world after Sweden (figure 3).

Figure 3 Electricity consumer tariffs in three East African countries (AGECC, 2011).

4. Methodology

The focus of this paper is specific on local communities in rural Uganda. This data were collected through semi-structured interviews (see appendix 10.1). A set of questions was prepared and answered by all interviewees and additional questions were asked during the interviews to clarify and expand certain issues. All the interviews were conducted via Skype sessions. The questionnaire had two components: the first looking at general questions regarding the job of the interviewee and included: type of company, relation to renewable energy and in particular PVs and their connection to Uganda. With regard to social development of rural communities, the second component reviewed specific related questions

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about the used variables like: main motivators, cultural diversity, education of local communities, and influence of the government. Qualitative research has been chosen because the used research variables cannot be fully described by means of numbers.

After the interviews the data were structured in Microsoft excel through different codes. Axial and open codes were applied in order to make the transcribed interviews clear and to find structural differences or similarities. The axial codes were: general, social, cultural, environmental and political. The used open codes were: motivation, adopters’ perception, influences daily lives, education, maintenance, economic situation, finance, government, local community, and diversity.

The first interview was conducted with Laura Corcoran from Aptech Africa (appendix 10.2), a solar system installation company specialized in solar design, supply, installations of PV systems: both large and small scale and their head office is based in Uganda. The reason for choosing Corcoran was because of her work at a solar system installation company cited in Uganda. Aptech Africa has the reputation of effectively installing quality solar projects of any scale. At the website of Aptech Africa state: ‘We provide complete services from energy assessments to after-sale maintenance’.

Clarice Fell (appendix 10.5) was the second interviewee. Fell had worked as the Marketing director for G-teck; a leading provider of customized solar PV, high quality LED lighting, solar generators and batteries for both business and personal use. G-teck headquarter and sales office is based in Kampala, Uganda. Fell specific role was to lead the African Solar Summit (ASS) in October 2016. However, the summit did not go ahead due to a lack of funding. This event was supposed to showcases products from Power & Energy industry in Renewable Energy focusing on Solar. Fell is chosen as an interviewee because of her work experience and great interest in solar systems in Africa, especially Uganda.

Frank Yiga (appendix 10.6), chief executive officer at Anuel Energy Uganda, was the third interviewee. Anuel Energy Uganda is a privately held renewable energy company based in Kampala, Uganda. The company hopes to become the number one partner of choice for off-grid installations in the Household, Commercial, and Institutional Solar segments in Uganda. Yiga was chosen as an interviewee because of his experience with off-grid solar installation systems and his enthusiasm with renewable energy, and in particular solar energy. The main goal of Anuel Energy Uganda is to impact 1 million Ugandans by 2020.

The fourth interview was with Sue Stevenson (appendix 10.3), director of strategic partnership and international development by the Barefoot Project based in India. The Barefoot College works in over 80 countries and Uganda is one of them. The Barefoot College educates middle-aged woman from rural villages all over the world to become solar engineers. These trainings lasts 6 months and then these woman return back to their community with solar equipment, which can be locally build and stored. Stevenson was chosen because of her expertise on educational level and because of the solutions the Barefoot Project could bring.

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research some general information about Uganda should be included and therefore was Donkers chosen as an interviewee. Donkers background regarding the renewable energy courses was taken into account.

5. Results

Access to modern energy services is necessary for socioeconomic development of rural areas in developing countries. In Uganda the pace of renewable energy is slow and the majority of rural people still lack access to electricity, although the worldwide recognition that access to electricity substantially improve development and wellbeing (Ahlborg and Hammar, 2014). The theoretical framework above (figure 2) has attempted to collect variables relevant for the small-scale implementation of PVs regarding rural Uganda. The list of variables and sub variables can be overwhelming. Therefore, the variables are divided in 4 categories: (1) social, (2) cultural, (3) environmental and (4) political. Thus far, the variables have only been presented with the explicit focus on Uganda and without paying attention to the way they interact.

In the following, the results conducted through interviews are presented. For some variables information from only one or two interviewee can be used. This is due to the differences between the interviewees. For example, the Barefoot Project is located worldwide and is not capable of deliver specific information about the Ugandan government. However, they excel in information about local education programs and solar installation systems. Another example, with respect to Donkers: this interviewee is capable of giving general information about Uganda but he has no access to specific information about PV installation systems.

Firstly, the environmental factors with respect to the implementation of PVs will be described in section 5.1. Subsequently, in 5.2 the social factors are discussed. In section 5.3 the cultural factors that might influence the use of PVs will be described. In 5.4, the influence of the political factors will be looked at more closely.

5.1 Environmental factors

First of all, the environmental factors will be described here because these represent the external necessary conditions regarding the implementation of PVs. Looking back at the environmental factors three sub-variables are included: (1) availability of alternative fuels, (2) level of solar radiation and (3) level of infrastructure.

5.1.1 Availability of alternative fuels

Taking the first sub-variable into account, availability of alternative fuels, Uganda’s main energy source is still firewood. This high demand of wood fuel resulted in the depletion of forests and land degradation. The excessive use of biomass makes Uganda one of the least developed countries in the region. These negative effects concerning the environment make renewable energy an important alternative. As Donker mentioned: ‘Deforestation is a main problem. If solar panels can prevent deforestation in one way or another it would be a big help for Uganda.’ Concoran added another advantage of an increased use of renewable energy that it also reduces the pollutant fumes from kerosene lanterns, which leads to more

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environmental sustainability. Moreover, Fell stated: ‘UMEME, the current power supplier in Kampala, Uganda, can be quite unreliable and therefore village are very welcoming the idea of solar power.’ Other villages, as Fell continue, ‘have currently no power at all, so the thought of having power is very welcome’.

5.1.2 Level of solar radiation

Looking at the second sub-variable, level of solar radiation, Concoran mentioned that Uganda has an abundance of sunshine that is fairly spread throughout the country, which makes it ideal for solar installations. Fell state that the sun, without doubt, one of the most reliable and abundant natural resources in SSA. Moreover, Fell argues that although the solar industry is relatively new within SSA it is important to recognize the amount of solar radiation that SSA has compared to other parts of the world and furthermore, to recognize the increased potential this has for solar PV developments to be successful.

5.1.3 Level of infrastructure

Taking the last sub-variable into account, level of infrastructure, this differs throughout Uganda. Some areas are easier to reach than others. This should be taken into consideration when implementing PV installations. First of all, decentralized energy supply would be a better option in rural areas contrary to centralized grids; it is less costly compared to the high costs associated with distribution and transmission. Secondly, much of the electricity network at present is poorly maintained and therefore the country experiences frequent power cuts. Fell argues that centralized energy systems generate a greater benefit as population increases, but show a significant loss with small community sizes. Moreover, the Ugandan population is spread out therefore expanding the power grid outside major towns is expensive. So, in rural areas decentralized energy supply will be a better solution because it is easier to install and less costly.

Looking at the environmental variables the level of solar radiation is not a problem in Uganda. The conventional alternative fuels, like biomass, have concerning negative effects on the environment, which makes renewable energy sources attractive. Remote rural areas can increase their electrification rate mainly through decentralized electrification options like off-grid PV systems.

5.2 Social factors

There are two social sub-variables that are considered here. The first variable is (1) the kind of motivation and the second variable is (2) adopters’ perceptions by recent implemented areas.

5.2.1 Motivation

First the kind of motivation will be discussed. Concoran mentioned that the main motivator for citizens in rural Uganda to decide the kind of electrification is the economic motivator:

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energy costs. Another aspect can be the increased living standards. As Concoran mentioned the use of PVs allows families to work after dark, reduces the pollutant fumes from kerosene lanterns, provides light for studying students, provides a way for families to charge phones for communication and electricity for TVs, news, refrigerators, vaccinations, street lights, and increases the safety of the local communities. Yiga argues that access to electricity has a positive influence on social interaction and the extension of working hours at night. According to Stevenson the main motivation is the difference that installations of PVs are going to make in people’s daily lives. She state that the most important differences are: having clean energy, the ability to see at night, to work at night, better health conditions because they are not breathing the fumes of kerosene anymore, better education outcomes because children are able to work after sunset, empowerment of woman and girls, environmental sustainability and livelihood development. With regard to the Barefoot Project economic motivators are less important. This can be concluded though their way of managing the financial part. When the Barefoot Project connects with a rural community they will look for input of the whole community. Their first step is arranging a meeting with the entire community. From the headman down they need agreement from the whole village. Their most important agreement is that everybody must pay a proportion of what they presently spend on electricity into a village fund. Through this kind of system communities will not paying more for electricity than they are presently doing. So, according to Stevenson the main motivator is the increased level of living standards. Furthermore, environmental protection can also been seen as a serious motivator. This answer contradicts Concoran, Donker, Fell and Yiga’s answers. Donkers argues that environmental motivators are not something people are aware of in rural Uganda and they mainly look at economic benefits, which are still low because of the high investment costs of solar panels in rural Uganda. According to Fell: ‘Economic factors and sustainability would be the main motivators for the installation of solar power, especially in lower socio economic areas’. Fell argues is favor of sustainability that it is going to save money in the long run and will be cost effective.

5.2.2 Adopters’ perceptions

Regarding the second sub-variable, adopters’ perceptions, Concoran argue that the satisfaction of PV users is directly correlated to the quality of the system they are buying. If local communities choose for less quality systems that breakdown in the first year, the consumer’s confidence decreases immediately. According to Concoran the most common negative experiences local communities faced are issues with upfront cost, poor quality products flooding the market, lack of quality control standards, and lack of technicians to provide after sales maintenance. There are also issues with stolen products or vandalism. Yiga argues, similar to Concoran: ‘Customers who choose for more qualitative products are satisfied with the independence of energy supply and the cost saving solar systems can bring’. On the other hand, the negative experiences arise when solar systems break down. As Yiga mentioned: ‘Most people throw defective equipment immediately away. People do not believe that warranty works’. However, Anuel Energy provides comprehensive warranty terms. These terms enable clients to return defective parts for repair or replacements. Stevenson argues that with regard to her experiences, local communities have the most problems with Western companies when those companies may not understand local politics

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and the way things are locally done. Stevenson suggests that ownership is the key to social success. The community owns the equipment and the technological knowledge. They are not dependent on NGOs or Western companies; they have support of the whole community. This ownership ensures that equipment does not get stolen or vandalized, and the whole community feels responsible for that. Moreover, as mentioned by Stevenson, if the village choose some kind of committee to ensure local interest people are more willing to cooperate. Another important aspect Stevenson mentioned was that women should play a more critical role. Research has shown that women, compared to men, are more willing to share information and skills within the local communities. Stevenson also mentioned that woman should have access to village funds and should be involved in decision-making.

As mentioned above cost effectiveness is the main motivator when local citizens decide what type of electricity they buy. People are mainly motivated by the possibilities of saving energy costs. After the implementation phase, the maintenance of the equipment is of great

importance. Once communities cooperate and own the solar equipment it leads to less violation and systems breakdowns.

5.3 Cultural factors

5.3.1 Wrong perception Western Cultures

Once the relevant environmental and social factors have been taken into account, cultural factors should be considered. The sub-variable that is included here is about the wrong perception of Western Cultures. Companies need to keep in mind that every local village has its own values and these values can differ easily across communities. Concoran argues that education and customer satisfaction are related. The more educated the community is, the better the maintenance of the PV system, and the higher the customer satisfaction. Fell state that education is the key for successful acceptation of renewable energy products. Stevenson argues that one of the problems concerning the implementation of PVs is that NGOs basically deliver equipment. ‘What might be an easy job for an engineer, building PV systems, might be a real problem for a local.’ Stevenson argues that the main challenges are often that Western companies may not understand local politics and the way things are locally done. Companies are trying to bring in Western manners, which may not be the best way of implementing systems in local Ugandan communities. Although Stevenson argues that different forms of education can ‘overrule’ this lack of Western empathy. Stevenson: ‘We are giving them (local villages) the skills of the technology and the knowledge of the technology’ (…). ‘We do not give the communities fish, we give them a fishing line’. Stevenson continues with: ‘The most important fact of our education system is the fact that we teach people how to build and understand solar technology. It is the technology transfer and I think we do this in a very unique manner.’ However, profit organizations like, Aptech Africa, have also training and maintaining programs. Concoran: ‘Someone at the local level is usually

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Project insures that locals will repair PV systems, Aptech Africa brings in their own technicians. Concoran said: ‘If there is a serious system problem we send our technicians to repair the system’. Moreover, the Barefoot Project has a monitoring and evaluation system in a digital cloud. They do a baseline testing and then they measure at 6, 12 and 18 months. Stevenson: ‘We look at the whole range of qualitative and quantitative indicators: both from a social and economic point of view.’ Additionally, Barefoot College educates women, local village members, to educate others; Aptech Africa gives locals only training on maintaining the systems. Looking at the results the Barefoot Project really invests in the education of woman. As Stevenson mentioned: ‘The Barefoot Project educate women because research shows that woman are better in making decisions that involves the whole community.’ When the Barefoot Project educated women they will be capable of disperse this information back home in their own language.

Wrong perception of local values can lead to serious implementation and acceptation problems. Therefore, education of local village members is important from the implementation all throughout the maintaining phase. After the implementation, monitoring and evaluation systems will reduce serious system breakdowns.

5.4 Political factors

The last variable includes political factors. These renewable energy policies can include different types of strategies and financing schemes. Thus, what types of strategies are involved in energy policies and how will this be financed?

5.4.1 Political strategies

First of all, this research looks into the types of strategies. As mentioned above the state-owned Uganda Electricity Board was unbundled. This leads to more innovation and private projects. Concoran argued that there is support from governmental institutions concerning the use of solar energy and institutions are increasing their support as part of the rural electrification strategy. Fell state that the Ministry of Energy is very welcoming the energy alternatives, whether these alternatives coming from small or large companies. Yiga said that the government plays a proactive role. However, there are no agreements on taxes and quality control. Anuel Energy Uganda believes that strategies for these two areas should be improved.

Stevenson states that she is not in the position to comment directly on the Ugandan government, but in more general terms she describes that in the majority of the countries the Barefoot Project works, they receive governmental support. There is a lot of communication between the Project and the ministries. The Barefoot Project encourages governments to include clean energy in their national policies, but and Stevenson said: ‘Obviously, we do not have direct control over them.’

5.4.2 Political financing schemes

For the financing schemes different financial support systems will be discussed. As Concoran mentioned: ‘There is a current push by the Uganda government to promote solar, as evidenced by solar products being tax-free and the government is implementing projects that

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provide solar to public health centers and solar powered water pumps through the ministry.’ However, most projects are still financed by NGOs or local governments that receive funding and Concoran state that companies or locals do not get private subsidies for renewable energy. The energy planning in Uganda is still more focused on the supply-side, making solar products tax-free, instead of motivate the demand-side with subsidies.

The Ugandan government includes renewable energy in their policies. These policies include for instance tax-free solar products. However, even with the governmental support, the energy tariffs remain high.

6. Discussion

Renewable energy sources, like PVs, are expected to play a crucial and expanding role in meeting the energy demand of the developing countries. Their penetration and contribution will depend on technological development. However, social factors should be included as well. This research aims to develop a comprehensive list of variables that influence the social acceptation of PVs, and to analyze the main points within these variables.

Figure 4: Variables necessary for implementation of PV systems.

Looking back at the used variables, all the different steps of the model should be used in order to answer the research question: To what extent should the implementation of

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crucial regarding the implementation (Figure 4). Without sufficient solar radiation, implementation of PV systems will loose efficient value. Radiation is locally determined and therefore impossible to increase.

Secondly, companies must understand the local motivations and provide communities with the knowledge of renewable energy sources. The main motivator in rural Uganda depends on the economic costs of equipment. The Barefoot Project, in collaboration with NGOs and funds, makes it possible for rural communities to increase their economic position. This is possible because the communities only have to pay a certain amount of what they are presently spending on conventional energy into a village fund. Communities are then capable of buying the equipment and decrease their spending on electricity supply, which will lead to economic benefits. For local communities buying equipment from profit-based organizations the financing part will be more difficult. Therefore, small-scale loans can be a solution. This will decrease the upfront costs and spread the costs over a longer time frame. Another problem Concoran and Yiga mentioned was that low quality products are flooding the market; using a payment plan more sustainable products can be bought.

Moreover, concerning the social variable involvement of the whole community increases the trust in renewable energy and decreases the damage of equipment. The Barefoot Project even state that when communities own the equipment they are more willing to maintain. This is in line with the studies mentioned in the theoretical framework section. The success rate of adaptation of renewable sources depends on full-participation in decision-making of the local communities (Alhborg, and Sjöstedt, 2015; Eder et al, 2015). As Schweizer-Ries (2004) argues participation processes are relevant: ‘In order to guarantee an

equivalent consideration of technical and social aspects, people who will operate technology should be involved early on in the project’. Moreover, the role of woman should be included

with respect to the social variable. The Barefoot Project already mentioned that research shows women, compared to men, are more willing to share information and skills within the local communities. The Hunger Project, a global, non-profit, strategic organization committed to the sustainable end of world hunger, also works with this aspect. Although, the Hunger Project’s main mission is to end hunger and is not primary focussed on renewable energy, they have a clear vision on the role of woman. In practice it turns out that investments in the position of woman the most effective is in the fight against poverty. Research shows that the whole community improves when woman become leaders.

The next step would be the education of the locals. If they are more educated about the solar systems rural electrification will increase. This leads to the cultural variable. Once companies will understand the local habits and not just install PVs regarding the western techniques the installations will perform better and breakdowns can be repaired quicker. For successful implementation it will be better to educate the communities from the implementation phase instead of educate them only with regard to the maintenance. Thereby, communities will understand the whole system. Reinikka and Svensson (2011) researched education policy in developing countries and concluded that a country’s ability to improve education outcomes is not only determined by what happens at the last link in the service delivery chain: maintain the equipment, but also by the behavior of various actors and agencies involved in the design and implementation of education policy. This can be related

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to the education cycle of communities when they will be informed throughout the whole process.

Finally, not only companies play a role in the electrification of rural communities; governmental policies are just as important. Governmental policies are trying to promote renewable energy and with energy planning they try to attract more private investors. In this research the specific attention is on rural households. Therefor, governmental policies should move their main focus on power tariffs and demand-side energy management; the power tariffs are still the highest in the East African region. However, demand-side issues, like subsidies, can combat the very high end-user power tariffs and can lead to more area coverage (Tumwesigye, et al. 2011).

6.1 Limitations of research

The results described in the previous sections, show that there are some main issues concerning the implementation of PVs in Uganda. Because of time restrictions, the qualitative information is limited. This research only conducted Skype interviews with Western or Ugandan companies which makes it a focused on the supply-side. Nevertheless, these interviews show a trend and can be added to the information presented in current literature that used the same variables.

In this research the focus was on the social variables necessary when companies implement PV systems in rural areas. It did not investigate the economic values and the main motivator of profit organizations: making profit. In reality, profit organizations normally do not have the time and finances to educate local communities. Therefore, this implementing approach will be easier for non-profit organizations that mainly focus on increasing energy supply. Although, profit organizations, when selling their products, should definitely take the used variables into account.

7. Conclusion & Recommendation

Taking the results into consideration some main recommendations can be drawn. Decentralized PVs are considered to be an adequate alternative for households in rural areas in Uganda. It can be concluded that the use of PVs correlates with increased living standards of local communities. Here an overview of the recommendations will be provided.

(1) Selling of solar equipment to neighborhoods or even local communities instead of only targeting single households.

(2) Inform the local community from the beginning and involve them throughout the whole process.

(3) Education in local languages will result in increased understanding and village members who provide information towards other village members can be really helpful.

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As this research shows feelings of autonomy and community ownership are one of the most important social factors. When comparing the answers of the Barefoot College with Aptech Africa substantial differences appear concerning vandalism and repair of equipment. For profit and non- profit organizations it can be recommended (1) to install PV systems for larger groups, if possible the whole community, and not only in single households. This makes the whole community responsible and decreases violations concerning the equipment. Hereby, village funds and or small-scale loans can be a solution. Also, as seen by the Barefoot Project more education regarding solar systems helps communities to be able to implement more sustainable systems. Communities should not only be educated about the maintenance of the equipment, but they should be involved throughout the whole process. So, when organizations want to implement PV installations they should inform the local community from the beginning (2). After the information phase, locals should be educated about the working of the PV systems. When companies provide the education in local language it will be most successful (3). The next step will be that local people who are trained regarding solar energy systems will educate other village members. The Barefoot Project is already doing this and this course of action leads to successful implementation. Moreover, woman should be integrated in community boards and should have power regarding decision-making and access to villages funds. Women are extra focused on the community as a whole, compared to men, and act concerning a more total view (4). The Barefoot Project and the Hunger Project confirm this in real life practice. Moreover, with conducted data from this research, the evaluation systems seem to be of huge importance (5). Where NGOs maintain some loose contracts, Barefoot College has an important monitoring and evaluation system that looks at a whole range of qualitative and quantitative indicators. This evaluation system is based in a digital cloud and using these monitoring systems companies can easily observe direct problems. As Concoran mentioned this can be an important aspect after the implementation phase because the adopters’ perspective can drastically decrease when systems breakdown in less than a year. So, another recommendation for solar companies concerns the monitoring systems; better monitoring can lead to more user satisfaction and less technical problems. Concerning the political variable governmental policies should be more focused on the demand-side when rural villages are taken into account (6). Subsidies can be a useful tool to make renewable energy supply more attractive in poor communities. This can lead to a reduction of the current high-end power tariffs.

8. Future Research

Further research should also be focused on demand-side of renewable energy. Regarding this research time frame only five interviews with different stakeholders are conducted. With respect to the interviewees, this can lead to lack of information on different crucial points; like the overall maintenance policies, level of authority in communities, and local reaction regarding different companies. In further research, for a more total overview, more

stakeholders should be involved. As mentioned before, future research should be focused on the demand-side of renewable energy implementation. Fieldwork in rural areas must be done. Questionnaires with the local communities should be involved. Eventually, locals should use

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the solar system and their assumptions will be crucial. Evaluation systems concerning different solar companies should be involved. This will provide a better overview on the positive and negative aspects of installation systems. Also, political stakeholders are of great importance. They have substantial influences regarding the energy policies. Therefore, their motivations and alacrity should be investigated as well. However, although the social aspects are of great importance, technical improvements should not stagnate. So, technical and economical developments should be integrated. As seen in the introduction, electrification leads to more economic development. Therefore, the relation between the economic situation and the level of energy supply should be integrated in future research.

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Implementation of Photovoltaic Technology in Rural Uganda