This article was downloaded by: [North West University]
On: 01 September 2015, At: 02:58
Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: 5 Howick Place,
London, SW1P 1WG
Journal of Psychology in Africa
Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rpia20
Qualities of Work-Related Well-Being in Selected South
African Occupations
Lené Ilyna Jorgensen
a, Jan Alewyn Nel
a& David Johannes Roux
a aNorth-West University, South Africa
Published online: 01 May 2014.
To cite this article: Lené Ilyna Jorgensen, Jan Alewyn Nel & David Johannes Roux (2013) Qualities of Work-Related Well-Being
in Selected South African Occupations, Journal of Psychology in Africa, 23:3, 447-452
To link to this article:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2013.10820650
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained
in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the
Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and
are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and
should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for
any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of
the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
http://
www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Qualities of Work-Related Well-Being in Selected South African
Occupations
Lené Ilyna Jorgensen Jan Alewyn Nel David Johannes Roux
North-West University, South Africa
Address correspondence to Lené I. Jorgensen, School of Human Resource Sciences, Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, Private Bag X6001 (Internal box 114). Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa; e-mail: 10094598@nwu.ac.za
This study investigated the structure of work-related well-being in four occupational groups in South Africa. The participants were 4 006 employees, namely educators and administrative personnel (n = 2501), insurance industry personnel (n = 613), and correctional services personnel (n = 892) from across South Africa. The participants completed the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI-GS), the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, the Job Demands-Resources Scale and the Organisational Stress Screening Tool (ASSET). The data was analysed by employing the SPSS program version 20.0. Descriptive statistics were determined for each dimension and for each occupation, while product-moment correlations were conducted to determine the inter-relationships between the variables. The results showed that the dimensions of work-related well-being of personnel in different occupations in South Africa are commonly affected by high job demands and insufficient resources. The employees showed higher levels of exhaustion, indicating that job demands could contribute to burnout. The exhaustion levels could further be indicative of a lack of support from the organisations and inadequate growth opportunities
Keywords: stress, engagement, burnout, educators, tertiary staff, insurance personnel, correctional officials Employee well-being is important for organisational
compet-itiveness. Healthy employees make for an engaged and com-mitted workforce (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2001). Increasing demands are placed on employees of all age groups and all occupations to excel in the workplace (Devi, Sellappan & Gopalakrishnana, 2010). The overall purpose of this study was to determine the incidence of variables regarding
work-related well-being across South Africa. Jackson,
Rothmann and Van der Vijver (2006) found, in a study among educators in South Africa, that burnout mediated the relation-ship between high job demands and a lack of job resources. The correctional services are yet another particularly stressful sector in which to work (Schaufeli & Peeters, 2000). Futhermore, in South Africa, a study by Botha and Pienaar (2006) among correctional officials indicated that they experi-enced insufficient manpower.
From the aforementioned arguments, it is clear that well-be-ing is a vital aspect for different occupations. However, other qualities play an important role in how well-being is experienced and should therefore be investigated.
Job Characteristics and Well-Being
The existence of job resources can improve wellbeing in employees. It can be described as organisational support (sal-ary, career opportunities, job security, human resources, equip-ment to do the job and work ergonomics), growth opportunities (performance feedback, skill variety, task significances, auton-omy, learning and development (personal and career), and job rotation) and advancement (career advancement in the form of promotion, more accountability, achievement of career and per-sonal goals and growth) (Demerouti et al., 2001).
According to Schaufeli and Bakker (2004), job resources play a dual motivational role in shaping employees’ growth, learning and development while being instrumental to employ-ees in achieving work goals. Therefore, when job resources are available, the individual experiences a state of wellness that leads to engagement and commitment.
Burnout from work stress could result in exhaustion, cyni-cism and low professional efficacy. Exhaustion refers to feel-ings of overextension together with reduced emotional and physical resources. Cynicism is defined as a negative, cold, hard or detached response to various aspects of the work envi-ronment (Schaufeli, 2003). Professional efficacy can be de-scribed as the dimension entailing the self-evaluation of burn-out, at which competence and achievement at work is evaluated (Langelaan, Bakker, Van Doornen, & Schaufeli, 2006; Maslach, Jackson & Leiter, 1996).
Chronic exhaustion can cause employees to distance them-selves emotionally and cognitively from their work. As a result, they become less responsive to the needs of other people around them or the demands of the task at hand. A strong rela-tionship between exhaustion and cynicism is consistently found when consulting literature related to burnout (Maslach & Leiter, 1997). Chronic exhaustion ultimately will also lead to a depleted sense of efficacy. Furthermore, Maslach and Leiter (1997) indi-cate that the lack of efficacy seems to arise more clearly from in-sufficient relevant resources.
Maslach and Leiter (1997) also identified physical problems resulting from burnout, such as headaches, gastro-intestinal ill-ness, high blood pressure, muscle tension and chronic fatigue. Psychological ill health consists of symptoms that mainly entail
Printed in USA - All Rights Reserved Journal of
Psychology in Africa
ISSN 1433-0237
emotional reactions (e.g. emotional outbursts, crying, bouts of anger, depression and anxiety).
Work Engagement and Commitment
Maslach and Leiter (1997) characterise work engagement by means of energy, involvement and efficacy. According to Schaufeli and Bakker (2004), engagement is a positive, fulfill-ing, work-related state of mind, which is characterised by vigour and dedication. Vigour and dedication could therefore be seen as two dimensions of engagement.
Work engagement is positively associated with job re-sources and the aspects of the job, which hold the capacity to reduce job demands and functions in achieving work goals and
stimulating personal growth, learning and development
(Demerouti et al., 2001). The more job resources are available, the more likely employees would feel engaged. Engaged em-ployees view themselves as competent to deal with the de-mands of their jobs, are energetic and have a sense of effective connection with their work activities. Engagement is therefore seen as a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind. Once employees have reached this state of mind, they will move on to be committed to the organisation and to their career.
Blau and Boal (1987) explain commitment firstly as behav-iour according to which the individual is viewed as committed to the organisation because it is too costly to leave, and secondly, the individual’s commitment is derived from shared goals and the wish to maintain membership. Siu (2002) identifies commit-ment as a significant moderator of stress and therefore links it to work engagement. Organisational commitment is related to physical and psychological outcomes among workers and the moderating effects it has on the stressor-health relationship. According to Siu (2002), such an indirect (or moderating) com-mitment protects employees from the negative effect of stress, as it enables them to attach direction and meaning to their work. Organisational commitment provides individuals with stability and a feeling of ‘belonging’. However, being overly committed to the organisation can also inhibit personal growth and thereby prevent an employee from recognising the organisation’s faults – which could result in group thinking (Siu, 2002).
Goal of the Study
The goal of the study is to characterise work-related well-be-ing dimensions for different occupations across South Africa. Two questions guided the research:
•
Does a relationship exist between work-related well-beingdi-mensions for different sectors?
•
What are the levels of work-related well-being asexperi-enced in the different sectors?
Method
Participants and Setting
Participants were a random probability sample (N = 4006) from the following occupations: academic and administrative personnel (n = 2501), the insurance industry (n=613) and cor-rectional services (n = 892). The majority of the participants were white and female, while most of the participants has a high school education.
Measures
Participants provided data on their demographics. They also completed measures of work-related stress and engage-ment as set out below.
The Maslach Burnout Inventory – General Survey (MBI-GS; (Schaufeli, Leiter, Maslach, & Jackson, 1996) is a measure of burnout: exhaustion (five items, i.e., “I feel used up at the end of the workday”), and cynicism (seven items, i.e., “I have become less enthusiastic about my work”). All items are scored on a seven-point frequency scale, ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (daily). A previous study (Poshosyan, Aiken, & Sloan, 2009) reported an internal consistency of the MBI of 0.80 to 0.93 for exhaus-tion, and 0.71 to 0.82 for cynicism. Coetzer and Rothmann (2007) found an internal consistency of 0.86 for exhaustion and 0.79 for cynicism.
The Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES), developed by Schaufeli, Martinez, Pinto, Salanova and Bakker (2002), is a measure of work engagement. Only two of the subscales of the UWES were employed for purposes of this study, namely Vig-our (three items, i.e., “I am bursting with energy in my work”) and Dedication (five items, i.e., “I find my work full of meaning and purpose”). The 17 items are measured on a 7-point likert scale ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (everyday). Lekutle and Nel (2012) observed alpha coefficients of 0.90 for both Vigour and Dedication within the cement-producing sector in South Africa. The Job Characteristics Scale (JCS: Barkhuizen, 2005) is a measure of job demands and job resources of employees. It consists of 41 items. The questions are rated on a four-point scale ranging from 1 (never) to 4 (always). The dimensions of the JCS include the following: pace and amount of work, mental load, emotional load, work variety, opportunities to learn, work independence, relationships with colleagues, relationship with immediate supervisor, ambiguities of work, information, com-munications, participation, contact possibilities, remuneration and career possibilities. Barkhuizen and Rothmann (2008)
re-ported alpha coefficients as follows: overload (a = 0.75), growth
and advancement (a = 0.85), and structure and relations (a =
0.92). Coetzee and Rothmann (2005) also found alpha
coeffi-cients for the following for the dimensions; overload (a = 0.76),
and control (a = 0.81).
The Organisational Stress Screening Tool (ASSET: Cart-wright & Cooper, 2002) is a measure of the risk of occupational stress among their workforce. The questionnaire consists of two sections; the first section assesses organisational commitment and the second section assesses general health. The first sec-tion comprises of 9 items that are scored on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (agree). The sec-ond section of this questionnaire comprises of 19 items and is measure on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) and 4 (often). Cartwright and Cooper (2002) found in an international validation study that reliabilities range from 0.60 to 0.91 for all dimensions.
Procedure
In this research, the necessary provisions were made to en-sure that all participants have the right to privacy to enen-sure the protection of their integrity and dignity. Regarding confidentiality and anonymity, all participants granted written consent and with assurances that the study was voluntary, anonymous and confi-dential. After informed consent was obtained, the booklet con-taining all the instruments, as well as the biographical question-naire, was sent by mail to selected participants. Participants were asked to return the completed booklet in a sealed enve-lope to the research team.
448 Jorgensen et al.
Data Analysis
The SPSS program version 20.0 (IBM SPSS, 2012) was employed for the analysis. Descriptive statistics (mean scores) were determined for each dimension and for each sector to es-tablish which sector experiences a particular dimension the most and the least. Additionally, product-moment correlations were conducted to determine the inter-relationships between the variables.
Results
Before descriptive and inferential statistics could be con-ducted, exploratory factor analysis was employed to determine the construct validity of the instruments. It was found that burn-out and engagement only consisted of two dimensions each and not three as theoretically asserted. It was found that the re-maining instruments measured the dimensions that it was de-signed to measure.
Tables 1 and 2 present the descriptive and inferential statis-tics for the data. Table 2 reports on the experience of the dimen-sions across the different sectors.
As shown in Table 2, the various occupations did not show any major differences in their scores when answering the ques-tionnaires. Nevertheless, some differences (however small) are reported. For instance, the insurance sector seems to have the highest burnout levels (exhaustion and cynicism), even though they experience the highest organisation support and advance-ment of all the sectors. Additionally, the insurance sector and correctional services seem to experience the highest levels of behavioural commitment. Academic staff indicate in their work the most growth opportunities of all the occupations in this study, but also the most demands. Teachers showed the high-est engagement levels (vigour and dedication) and affective commitment in their job and teaching experience. However, teachers seem to experience the highest level of job insecurity in their work. An university of technology shows the highest psy-chological and physical ill health of all the organisations.
Correctional services experience the least exhaustion, or-ganisational support and growth opportunities in comparison with the other sectors. Non-academic staff experience the low-est levels of cynicism. An university of technology reported the lowest levels of vigour, affective commitment and behavioural commitment. Within the insurance sector, it is reported that the participants experience the least amount of dedication, de-mands and insecurity. It seems in comparison that teachers ex-perience the least amount of advancement in their work and are the least prone to psychological ill health. Academic staff are the least prone to experience physical ill health in comparison with the other sectors.
Discussion
The work-related well-being of members in different occu-pations within the South African society is mostly affected by an environment of high job demands and inadequate resources. The employees show higher levels of exhaustion, which indi-cates that job demands may contribute to burnout. The lack of support from the organisation and inadequate growth opportu-nities may also lead to such forms of extensive exhaustion. These findings are confirmed by Rothmann (2003), who found that high job demands and a lack of resources (organisational support) are strongly related to exhaustion.
Lower levels of dedication may be due to higher levels of cynicism. According to Schaufeli and Buunk (2003), the
deple-tion of emodeple-tional resources can be considered the ultimate price that has to be paid for the individual’s active attempts to regain resources or to prevent the loss of these resources. The results further indicate that the employees across all sectors felt more dedicated to their jobs when the organisation provided support and growth opportunities.
Furthermore, exhaustion impacted on the psychological and physical ill health of the employees in all the sectors. This find-ing corresponds with the research by Faragher, Cooper and Cartwright (2004). Previous studies indicated that prolonged exposure to stress can lead to long-term health issues and physical problems (Faragher et al., 2004; Maslach & Leiter, 1997). These findings are also in line with the results of Jackson et al. (2006), who found that the dimension exhaustion medi-ates the relationship between job demands and ill health.
It seems that psychological ill health is significantly corre-lated with physical ill health in the present results. Where the sectors provided more support and advancement opportunities to employees, and those employees experienced the organisa-tion as committed to them, they would be less prone to psycho-logical ill health. This finding is supported by the study of Siu (2002), who identified commitment as a significant moderator of stress and links it to work engagement and physical and psy-chological outcomes among employees. Employees attach di-rection and meaning to their work when the organisation is com-mitted to them, and as a result protects employees from the negative effect of work stress. Organisational commitment pro-vides individuals with stability and a feeling of ‘belonging’.
Job insecurity and work stress were higher in the insurance industry, as compared to the rest of the sectors. In addition, teachers are the least prone to suffer psychological ill health, while academic staff are the least prone to experience physical ill health – in comparison with the other sectors. In Tytherleigh, Webb, Cooper and Rickets (2005), a similar finding is reported where education staff experienced lower levels of physical ill health.
The results further revealed that the academic staff experi-enced the largest growth opportunities of all the sectors, yet also the more strenuous demands in their work. Barkhuizen and Rothmann (2008) found a similar result in their study, which in-dicated that academic staff experience high levels of job de-mands, especially more so the senior staff. In their study, they also found high levels of psychological and physical ill health, which is also confirmed by the findings of the present study among the academic personnel at a university of technology. Implications of the Study
This study confirms the view that interventions to improve the well-being of employees are essential to combat exhaus-tion. Typical interventions might include proper job design, and ensuring the availability of enough resources in the form of manpower through adequate workforce planning. In addition, focused training needs to be provided and development stimu-lated to ensure a competent workforce. Organisations should focus on developing wellness programmes to establish a bal-anced work life and train employees who are skilled in personal mastery to manage the polarities of work and life demands. Ho-listically, it will help to ensure that sectors have motivated em-ployees by guarding against an overload of job demands and to provide adequate job resources, which would help employees to maintain a healthy balance between the work environment and life outside of work.
450 Jorgensen et al. Table 1 Mean Scores, C ronbach A lpha Coefficients and Pr oduct-Moment Correlations Between the C onstructs S c a le M e a n a 123456789 1 0 1 1 1 2 1. Exhaustion 13.65 0.83 * *********** 2. Cynicism 8.22 0.70 0.30* ++ *********** 3. Vigour 14.43 0.71 0.02 -0.24* ********** 4. Dedication 22.43 0.85 -0.31* + -0.51* ++ 0.60* ++ ********* 5. Organisational support 60.78 0.91 -0.31* + -0.37* + 0.30* 0.45* + ******** 6. Growth opportunities 22.53 0.85 -0.24* -0.42* + 0.37* + 0.60* ++ 0.59* ++ ******* 7. Demands 22.36 0.76 0.41* + 0.17* 0.10* 0.03 -0.13* 0.13* ****** 8. Advancement 10.10 0.75 -0.23* -0.23* 0.14* 0.27* 0.38* + 0.41* + -0.11* ***** 9. Insecurity 7.98 0.89 0.01 0.10* 0.01 0.04* -0.04* -0.04* 0.03* -0.08* **** 10. Psychological ill health 22.46 0.89 0.57* ++ 0.43* + -0.24* -0.39* + -0.37* + -0.27* 0.28* -0.19* 0.03* *** 11. Physical ill health 16.28 0.82 0.45* + 0.31* + -0.14* -0.25 -0.27* -0.18* 0.24* -0.19* 0.14* 0.68* ++ ** 12. Affective c ommitment 21.02 0.83 -0.35* + -0.42* + 0.36* + 0.54* ++ 0.47* 0.43* -0.15* 0.32* -0.02 -0.36* -0.23* * 13. Behavioural commitment 17.68 0.71 -0.2* -0.34* + 0.34* + 0.47* + 0.37* 0.35* -0.07* 0.25* -0.06* -0.28* -0.18* 0.74* ++ Note .* p < 0 .05 s tatistically significant; + d > 0 .30 p ractically significant (medium effect); + + d > 0 .50 p ractically significant (large effect)
Table 2
Descriptive Statistics Between the Different Sectors
Group Mean Std. Dev Diff. Group Mean Std. Dev Diff.
Exhaustion A staff 14.27 7.16 2 Organisation A staff 61.37 11.02 2
Correct 12.17 7.99 1,3,5 support Correct 58.45 12.45 1,3,4,5
Insure 15.11 6.77 2,4,5,6 Insure 62.71 10.28 2,6
Non acad 12.92 7.57 3 Non acad 60.61 11.45 2
Teacher 14.04 7.31 2,3 Teacher 62.27 10.16 2,6
Technol 13.38 7.75 3 Technol 59.29 12.51 3,5
Cynicism A staff 7.63 5.46 2,3,5 Growth A staff 24.42 4.52 2,3,4,6
Correct 8.82 5.57 1,4 opportunities Correct 21.16 5.49 1,5,6
Insure 9.16 5.56 1,4,6 Insure 21.30 4.64 1,5
Nonacad 7.16 5.32 2,3,5 Nonacad 21.86 5.28 1,5
Teacher 8.49 5.28 1,4 Teacher 24.29 4.75 2,3,4,6
Technol 8.03 5.46 3 Technol 22.11 5.34 1,2,5
Vigour A staff 14.68 3.17 2,5,6 Demands A staff 23.87 3.56 2,3,4,5,6
Correct 13.76 4.40 1,5 Correct 21.68 4.52 1,3,5,6
Insure 14.30 3.55 5 Insure 20.75 3.76 1,2,4,5,6
Nonacad 14.33 3.84 5 Nonacad 21.95 4.35 1,3,5
Teacher 15.88 3.63 1,2,3,4,5,6 Teacher 23.20 4.07 1,2,3,4
Technol 13.66 3.82 1,5 Technol 22.69 4.04 1,2,3
Dedication A staff 23.29 5.29 3,4,5,6 Advancement A staff 10.46 3.01 5
Correct 22.74 7.18 3,5 Correct 10.03 3.86
Insure 20.69 6.65 1,2,3,4,5 Insure 10.51 3.34 4,5
Nonacad 22.05 6.92 1,3,5 Nonacad 9.84 3.09 3
Teacher 24.27 5.76 1,2,3,6 Teacher 9.70 3.22 3
Technol 21.54 7.13 1,5 Technol 10.09 3.02
Affective A staff 20.99 5.17 1,5,6 Insecurity A staff 6.33 3.11 2,3,4,5,6
commitment Correct 21.96 5.46 1,3,6 Correct 8.85 2.60 1,3,4,5,6
Insure 21.12 4.52 2,5,6 Insure 7.50 2.82 1,2,5,6
Nonacad 21.10 5.29 5,6 Nonacad 7.63 3.16 1,2,5
Teacher 22.22 4.97 1,3,4,6 Teacher 9.44 2.73 1,2,3,4,6
Technol 18.73 5.97 1,2,3,4,5 Technol 8.15 2.92 1,2,3,5
Behavioural A staff 18.05 3.93 6 Psychological A staff 22.82 6.65 5
commitment Correct 18.14 3.86 5,6 ill health Correct 22.34 7.60 5
Insure 18.14 3.50 5,6 Insure 22.89 6.67 5
Nonacad 17.93 3.85 6 Nonacad 22.26 6.94
Teacher 17.54 3.69 2,3,6 Teacher 21.19 6.92 1,2,3,6
Technol 16.28 4.75 1,2,3,4,5 Technol 23.25 6.95 5
Physical ill A staff 15.34 4.85 2,3,5,6
health Correct 16.44 5.01 1
Insure 16.53 4.80 1
Nonacad 15.66 5.07 6
Teacher 16.49 4.90 1
Technol 17.23 5.10 1,4
Note. Institution and Abbreviation used as follows: Academic Staff – A staff; Correctional services – Correct; Insurance Sector – Insure; Non-Academic Staff – Nonacad; Teachers – Teacher; A University of Technology – Technol
Limitations and Conclusion
The sample sizes in the diverse occupations that were re-searched differed, which could have influenced the outcome of the study. Secondly, the research design was a cross-sectional survey design, which makes it difficult to prove causal relation-ships. A longitudinal study would have been more applicable, where different measurements in a single organisation are done at chosen intervals to determine how the factors are influenced over time. In conclusion, the results of this study established the fact that the dimensions depicting work-related well-being are invariant for the different sectors and, therefore, these dimen-sions have predictability value in different sectors.
References
Barkhuizen, E. N. (2005). Work wellness of academic staff in South African higher education institutions (Unpublished doctoral thesis). North West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa.
Barkhuizen, E. N., & Rothmann, S. (2008). Burnout of academic staff in South African higher education institutions. South Afri-can Journal of Higher Education, 22(2), 439–456.
Blau, G. J., & Boal, K. B. (1987). Conceptualizing how job in-volvement and organizational commitment affect turnover and absenteeism. Academy of Management Review, 12, 288–300.
Botha, C., & Pienaar, J. (2006). South African correctional
offi-cial occupational stress: The role of psychological
strengths. Journal of Criminal Justice, 34, 73–84.
Cartwright, S., & Cooper, C. L. (2002). ASSET: An Organisa-tional Stress Screening Tool – The management guide. Manchester, UK: RCL
Coetzer, W. J., & Rothmann, S. (2006). Occupational stress of employees in an insurance company. South African Journal of Business Management, 37(3), 29–39.
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. Jour-nal of Applied Psychology, 86, 466–512.
Devi, P. P., Sellappan, R., & Gopalakrishanan, G. (2010). Role stress of employees in life insurance companies. Global Management Review, 4(4), 87–92.
Faragher, E. B., Cooper, C. L., & Cartwright, S. (2004). A short-ened stress evaluation tool (ASSET). Stress and Health, 20, 189–201.
IBM SPSS Inc. (2011). SPSS 20.0 for Windows. Chicago. IL: Author.
Jackson, L. T. B., Rothmann, S., & Van de Vijver, A. J. R. (2006). A model of work-related well-being for educators in the North West Province. Stress and Health, 22, 263–274. Langelaan, S., Bakker, A. B., Van Doornen, L. J. P., &
Schaufeli, W. B. (2006). Burnout and work engagement: Does individual difference make a difference? Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 521–532.
Lekutle, M., & Nel, J. A. (2012). Psychometric evaluation of The Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) and Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI) within a cement factory. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 22(4), 641–656.
Maslach, C., Jackson, S. E., & Leiter, M. (1996). Maslach Burn-out Inventory: Manual (3rd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. P. (1997). The truth about burnout. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Poshosyan, L., Aiken, L. H., & Sloane, D. M. (2009). Factor structure of the Maslach Burnout Inventory: An analysis of data from large scale cross-sectional surveys of nurses from eight countries. International Journal of Nursing Stud-ies, 46(7), 894–902.
Rothmann, S. (2003). Burnout and engagement: A South Afri-can perspective. South AfriAfri-can Journal of Industrial Psy-chology, 29(4), 16–25.
Schaufeli, W. B. (2003). Past performance and future perspec-tives of burnout research. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 29(4), 1–15.
Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2004). Job demands, job re-sources, and their relationship with burnout and engage-ment: A multi-sample study. Journal of Organizational Be-haviour, 25, 1–23.
Schaufeli, W. B., & Buunk, B. P. (2003). Burnout: An overview of 25 years of research and theorizing. In M. J. Schadracq, J. A. M. Winnubst, & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), The handbook of work and health psychology (pp. 383–425). West Sussex, UK: John Wiley.
Schaufeli, W. B., & Peeters, M. C. W. (2000). Job stress and burnout among correctional officers: A literature review. In-ternational Journal of Stress Management, 7(1), 19–20. Schaufeli, W. B., Leiter, M. P., Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E.
(1996). MBI-General Survey. In C. Maslach, S. E. Jackson, & M. P. Leiter (Eds.), Maslach Burnout Inventory Manual (3rd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Schaufeli, W. B., Martinez, I., Pinto, A. M., Salanova, M., &
Bakker, A. B. (2002). Burnout and engagement in university students: A cross-national study. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 33, 464–481.
Siu, O. L. (2002). Occupational stressors and well-being among Chi-nese employees: The role of organizational commitment. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 51, 527–544.
Tytherleigh, M. Y., Webb, C., Cooper, C. L., & Ricketts, C. (2005). Occupational stress in UK higher education institu-tions: A comparative study of all staff categories. Higher Ed-ucation Research and Development, 1, 41–61.
452 Jorgensen et al.
