The psychometric properties of an emotional intelligence measure within a nursing environment

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THE PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF AN EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE MEASURE WITHIN A NURSING

ENVIRONMENT

S. van der Merwe, Hon. B Corn

Mini-dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master Commerce in Industrial Psychology at the North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus)

Study Leader: Dr. C.S. Jonker

Assistant Study Leader: Dr. W.J. Coetzer

November 2005 Potchefstroom

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COMMENTS

The reader should keep the following in mind:

The editorial style as well as the references referred to in this mini-dissertation follow the format prescribed by the Publication Manual (4' ed.) of the American Psychological Association (APA). This practice complies with the policy of the Programme in Industrial Psychology of the North-West University to use APA style in all scientific documents as from January 1999.

The mini-dissertation is submitted in the form of a research article. The editorial style specified by the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology (which agrees largely with the APA style) is used, but the APA guidelines were followed in constructing the tables.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would hereby like to express my gratitude to the following special individuals, without whom this mini-dissertation would not have been possible. I will be forever grateful to:

My Lord Jesus Christ, who blessed me with the opportunities and potential to be able to accomplish this achievement.

My family, who provided me with the opportunity to further my education, for their loving support and motivation, not only during this past year, but during every year of my life. Thank you!

My study leader, Dr. Cara Jonker, who provided me with the needed guidance, support, encouragement and a caring ear, even though I had a different approach to this study. For my assistant study leader co-supervisor, Dr. Wilma Coetzer, who helped me tremendously with the statistics.

Dr. Karina Mostert, for her contributions during the development of the questionnaire and data capturing.

All the participants in the research project for their hard work in the collection and capturing of the data.

All of the hospital matrons who took the time to listen to our requests and provided us with the opportunity to conduct research within their hospitals.

Thank you to Mr. Blaauw for the professional manner in which he conducted the language editing.

A special word of gratitude to Wihan, who kept me calm during those times when it was difficult to bear the stress, who coped with my mood swings and always stood by me, no matter what.

Lastly, I would like to acknowledge the financial assistance of the National Research Foundation (NRF; TTK2004062 1333 14) towards this research project. All opinions expressed and conclusions drawn are those of the author and not necessarily to be attributed to the NRF.

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 Description Page Research Article 1

Measures of Ability Emotional Intelligence 2 5

Measures of Trait Emotional Intelligence 27

Characteristics of the Population 33

Factor Loadings, Communalities (h2), Percentage Variance and

Covariance for Principal Factor Extraction and Oblique Rotation on EIS items 37 Descriptive Statistics, Cronbach Alpha Coefficients of the EIS Dimensions

( n = 511) 40

Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients between the EIS Dimensions 40 MANOVAS - Differences in the Emotional Intelligence Levels of

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ABSTRACT

Title:

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Key terms:

The psychometric properties of an emotional intelligence measure within a nursing environment

Emotional intelligence, measures, assessment, validity, nurses, health care environment

Nurses' working environment, together with their patient relationships, can elicit emotions which they will need to manage in order to perform successfully in their daily work activities. It is for this reason that it is crucial that sound emotional intelligence measures should be developed which hospitals can utilise to identify emotionally intelligent individuals for emotionally laden jobs or even to identify their developmental needs within the area of emotional intelligence.

The objective of this study was to investigate the psychometric properties of the Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) developed by Schutte and colleagues in 1998 within a nursing environment. A convenience random sample of 5 11 nurses was taken from hospitals located in the areas of Klerksdorp, Potchefstroom, Krugersdorp, Johannesburg and Pretoria. The EIS was used as a measuring instrument. Cronbach alpha coefficients, Pearson-product correlation coefficients and MANOVAS were used to analyse the data.

The results showed a 5-factor solution for the EIS, which explained 50,04% of the total variance. All of the five dimensions had adequate internal consistencies, except for the Negative Emotions dimension. Lastly, group differences were identified between personnel area and emotional intelligence, as well as between race and emotional intelligence levels.

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OPSOMMING

Titel:

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Die psigometriese eienskappe van 'n emosionele meetinstrument in 'n verpleegomgewing

Sleutelterme: Emosionele intelligensie, meetinstrumente, assessering, geldigheid, betroubaarheid, verpleegsters, gesondheidsorgomgewing

Verpleegsters se werksomgewing, tesame met hul pasientverhoudings, kan emosies ontlok wat hulle sal moet bestuur sodat hulle suksesvol in hul daaglikse werksaktiwiteite kan hnksioneer. Dit is om hierdie rede dat dit van die uiterste belang is om 'n grondige emosionele intelligensiemeetinstrument te ontwikkel wat hospitale kan gebruik om emosioneel intelligente individue te identifiseer vir emosioneel gelaaide poste, of selfs om hul ontwikkelingsbehoeftes binne die area van emosionele intelligensie te identifiseer.

Die doelstelling van die studie was om die psigometriese eienskappe van die Emosionele Intelligensieskaal (EIS) wat deur Schutte en kollegas in 1998 ontwikkel is binne 'n verpleegomgewing te ondersoek. 'n Ewekansige gerieflikheidsteekproef (n = 51 1) is onder

verpleegsters in die Klerksdorp-, Potchefstroom-, Krugersdorp-, Johannesburg- en Pretoria- omgewing geneem. Die EIS is as meetinstrument gebruik. Cronbach-alfakoeffisiente, Pearson- produkmomentkorrelasiekoeffisiente en MANOVAS is gebruik om die data te ontleed.

Die resultate het 'n 5-faktoroplossing vir die EIS getoon, wat 50,04% van die totale variansie verduidelik het. A1 vyf die dimensies het geskikte interne konsekwentheid getoon, behalwe vir die Negatiewe Emosies-dimensie. Laastens is daar groepsverskille tussen personeelarea en emosionele intelligensie asook tussen ras en emosionele intelligensievlakke gei'dentifiseer.

Aanbevelings vir toekomstige navorsing is aan die hand gedoen.

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CHAPTER 1

1. INTRODUCTION

The mini-dissertation determines the Psychometric properties of the Emotional Intelligence Scale developed by Schutte et al. (1998), within a nursing population from in the areas of Klerksdorp, Potchefstroom, Krugersdorp, Johannesburg and Pretoria.

This chapter contains the problem statement and a discussion of the research objectives, which consist of the general objective and specific objectives. The research method is explained and the division of chapters is given.

1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The South African Health Care System has undergone massive changes since 1994 (Geyer, Naude & Sithole, 2002). These include changing laws, regulations and policies that affect daily health care practices (Ehlers, 2000). The way nurses cope with these changes is important since they comprise the largest group of all the health care professionals (Ehlers, 2000).

Nurses operate at primary, secondary and tertiary levels of care and employ a holistic view when treating patients. They focus not only on the medical treatment of the illness, but also on the human response of the patient to his or her problem. For this reason nurses form the backbone of the health care services (Geyer et a]., 2002) and can have a great impact on the individual's ability to overcome the initial medical problem (Anon, 2001).

Selye (1976) indicated that nursing is one of the most stressful professions, since the health care setting is seen as lacking in autonomy, physical comfort, role clarity and involvement in decision-making (Williams, Michie & Pattani, 1998); it also places more emphasis on work demands than non-health care settings. Furthermore, assault, threatening behaviour from patients and visitors, verbal aggression and violence are also reported by hospital staff members (Arnetz, Arnetz & Petterson, 1996; Winstanley & Whittington, 2004).

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Ln additional to the victimisation, nurses are exposed to long working hours, extended days and shift-work schedules and psychological strain, due to their permanent contact with human suffering and death (Poissonnet & Veron, 2000). Some staff members also experience profound psychological effects, such as post-traumatic stress (Rippon, 2000), anxiety (Ryan & Poster, 1993), fatigue, sleep disturbances and increased smoking and alcohol consumption (Whittington

& Wykes, 1989).

The occurrence of psychological distress, post-traumatic stress, smoking and alcohol consumption amongst hospital staff can be moderated by their level of emotional intelligence (EI). EI has been found to be negatively correlated with psychological distress (Slaski & Cartwright, 2002), and negative associations were found between EI and smoking and alcohol consumption in adolescents (Trinidad & Johnson, 2002). Furthermore, preliminary evidence suggests that some forms of emotional intelligence may protect people from stress and lead to better adaptation (Ciarrochi, Deane & Anderson, 2002). Thus, individuals with higher EI tend to experience less trauma-related symptoms (Hunt & Evans, 2004), and it is for this reason that nurses need to possess certain emotional and social competencies, in order for them to be able to cope within their chaotic and stressful work environments (Bellack, 1999).

Emotions (such as disappointment, happiness and dissatisfaction) form an integral part of any individual's work life (Humpel, Caputi & Martin, 2001) this is especially true for nurses who's work is loaded with emotions. For this reason, research is beginning to focus on understanding the causes and effects of emotions (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) by conducting studies within the field of emotional intelligence.

A number of researchers have suggested that emotional intelligence can have a positive impact on an individual's life. These positive outcomes include increased life satisfaction (Austin, Saklofske & Egan, in press; Ciarrochi, Chan & Caputi, 2000; Mayer, Caruso & Salovey, 1999; Palmer, Donaldson & Stough, 2002; Saklofske, Austin & Minski, 2003), stress tolerance (Parker, Taylor & Bagby, 2001), empathy (Ciarrochi et al., 2000), smoother interpersonal interactions (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2000a) with family members and peers (Mayer et al., 1999; Rice, 1999; Trinidad & Johnson, 2001) as well as increased job performance (Mayer et al., 2000a),

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which could be the result of a "better prioritising of life needs and goals", as speculated by Mayer and Salovey (1993, p. 437). Individuals and organisations as a whole can benefit from EI, but it is important to note that when reference is made to the construct, the construct will be conceptualised either as ability-based EI or trait-based EI.

An ability model of emotional intelligence was first presented by Salovey and Mayer in 1990. This was later followed by mixed models (ability and personality characteristics), particularly those of Goleman (1 995) Bar-On (1997).

Ability models define EI "as a set of conceptually related mental abilities to do with emotions and the processing of emotional information, that are a part of, and contribute to logical thought and intelligence in general" (Palmer, Manocha, Gignac & Stough., 2003). Salovey and Mayer considered El to contain four domains of ability: perception and expression of emotion, assimilating emotion in thought, understanding and analysing emotion and reflective regulation of emotion.

Mixed models of EI, in comparison, define EI as a mixture of emotion-related competencies, personality traits and dispositions (Palmer et al., 2003). Goleman (1995) also proposed five key areas consisting of intrapersonal and interpersonal skills, adaptability scales, stress management scales and general mood. Bar-On (1997) proposed five key areas: knowing one's emotions, managing emotions, motivating oneself, recognising emotions in others and handling relationships.

According to Mayer, Caruso and Solovey's (2000b) ability model, emotional intelligence refers to the abilities used to process information about one's own and others' emotions. This ability model consists of:

Emotional perception, which refers to the ability to register, attend to and decipher

emotional messages that are expressed within a variety of contexts, including facial expressions, tone of voice and works of art.

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a _{Emotional integration, which refers to an individual's ability to assess and generate}

feelings that facilitate thought.

a Emotional understanding, which is the ability to comprehend the implications of emotions. Individuals with well-developed emotional understanding skills can understand how one emotion leads to another, how emotions change over time and how the temporal patterning of emotions can affect relationships.

a _{Emotional management, which is the ability to regulate emotions. Individuals can choose}

whether they want to be open to the experience of an emotion, and are able to control the way in which they express their emotions.

Thus, emotional intelligence involves "the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions" (Salovey & Mayer, 1990, p. 1 89).

Results regarding emotional intelligence and gender differences have been replicated on various occasions. This is significant for this study, since women dominate and lead in the nursing profession (Van der Merwe, 1999). Empirical research indicates that women score higher in measures of EI than males (Charbonneaux & Nicol, 2002; Ciarrochi et al., 2000; Mayer & Geher, 1996; Mayer et al., 2000b; Petrides & Furnham, 2000; Van Rooy & Viswesvaran, 2003). Van Rooy and Viswesvaran (2003) further state that this occurrence is not surprising since women have better emotional and interpersonal skills than males. However, these gender differences appear to be more pronounced in studies examining ability-based EI (Day & Carroll, 2004).

Discrepancies regarding age differences in EI are also found in the literature. Research conducted by Bar-On ( 1 997) found that EQ-i and scales scores were positively and significantly related to age. Age was broken into 10-year blocks, with the 40-49 year-old age group consistently having the highest mean values across domains. This finding was replicated by Derkesen, Kramer and Katzko (2002) and can also be supported by research conducted by

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Hemmati, Mills and Kroner (2004). Mayer et al. (1999) found that adults score higher on EI, while Roberts, Zeidner and Matthews (2001) found no significant age differences.

Emotional intelligence models include a range of subcomponents covering inter- and intrapersonal emotional skills (such as mood regulation and emotion perception), with the broad measure of emotional capabilities provided by the overall EI playing an analogous role (Austin, 2004). The most appropriate method of measuring EI is currently an area of controversy (Austin, 2004). This could be ascribed to the scarcity of published studies or scientific evidence on emotional intelligence (Barret, Miguel, Tan & Hurd, 2001).

Since Salovey and Mayer's conceptualisation of emotional intelligence, a number of different EI models and measures have been developed (e.g. ability and mixed). These models and measures all share a common feature, namely a hierarchal structure (Austin, 2004). The Emotional Intelligence Scale of Schutte et al. (1 998) is a unidimensional self-report measure of EI, which is based on Salovey and Mayer's (1990) ability model of EI (Van Rooy, Alonso & Viswesvaran, 2005) and is widely used for research purposes.

The 33-item emotional intelligence scale (EIS; Schutte et al., 1998) assesses EI based on self- report responses tapping the appraisal and expression of emotions in self and others; regulation of emotions in self and others; and utilisation of emotions in problem solving. Three of the scale's items (5, 28 and 33) are reverse-scored (Petrides & Furnham, 2000) and participants respond by indicating their agreement to each of the 33 statements using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A high score reflects a high level of emotional intelligence (Venter, 2003).

Validity of the EIS

Validity refers to the extent to which a measure accurately reflects the concept that it is intended to measure (www.iffgd.org~GIDisorders/glossary.html). Validity implies reliability (accuracy). A valid measure must be reliable, but a reliable measure need not be valid (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validity(statistics)).

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Schutte and colleagues demonstrated the measure's good reliability and predictive validity. But before the predictive validity of an EI measure can be tested empirically, the construct validity of the EI measure must first be established (Day & Carrol, 2004). Various methods can be used to demonstrate a measure's construct validity:

A specific measure of EI can be correlated with existing measures of the same construct, referred to as convergent validity (Crocker & Algina, 1986). In the case of emotional intelligence it would be difficult to determine its convergent validity due to the fact that very few valid measures of EI exist (Day & Carrol, 2004).

A measure's factor structure can be examined. The measure's factor structure should comprise the theorised number and pattern of factors (Crocker & Algina, 1986).

The measure's discriminate validity can be determined. Discriminate validity can be established by showing that the specific measure does not correlate with theoretically unrelated constructs. The EIS should demonstrate low or non-significant correlations with personality (Day & Carrol, 2004) if it is to be consistent with the ability-based EI model of Mayer et al.'s (2000a). It should be noted that the EIS has consistently been found to be significantly related to measures of personality (Saklofske, Austin & Minslu, 2003; Schutte et al., 1998). Furthermore, evidence suggests that emotional intelligence has substantial and significant correlations with theoretically related constructs such as alexithymia, mood repair, optimism and impulse control (Schutte et al., 1998).

The extent to which the measure differentiates between groups, on theoretical grounds, can be established, which can also support inferences about construct validity (Day & Carrol, 2004). Roberts et al. (2001) conducted one of the few studies that evaluated ethnic group differences in EI and found conflicting results. In the light of their mixed findings, Roberts et al. (2001) state that there is currently an urgent need for studies exploring group differences in EI.

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Research conducted by Petrides and Furnham (2000) suggests that the scale has face validity, as well as some evidence of construct, predictive and discriminate validities.

Reliability of the EIS

Reliability refers to the extent to which a measurement instrument yields consistent, stable and uniform results over repeated observations or measurements under the same conditions each time (www.jrsa.org/jjec/resources/definitions.html).

Studies conducted by Ciarrochi and colleagues indicate that the reliability of the EIS factors are considerably lower than the reliability of the full measure, which has proven to be very reliable (Ciarrochi et al., 2002). Furthermore, the EIS has demonstrated high internal consistency (Cronbach cr ranging from 0, 87 to 0, 90) and good two-week test-retest reliability (r = 0, 78)

(Schutte et al., 1998).

Even though studies conducted on the psychometric properties of the EIS indicate that it possesses some form of validity and reliability, the major criticism against the usability of the EIS is its factor structure. Schutte et al. (1998) proposed that their scale was unidimensional, but in contrast research conducted by others suggests otherwise. A factor analysis of Canadian data resulted in a three-factor structure for the EIS (Austin et al., in press). Petrides and Furnham (2000) settled on a four-factor solution after finding evidence for two-factor and ten-factor structures, while stating that they might have overestimated the number of factors. Ciarrochi et al. (2002) replicated a four-factor structure but there were differences in some of the item loadings and classifications. Similarly, Saklofske et al. (2003) replicated a four-factor solution, but again, not all of the items loaded on the same factors. Results attained by Chan (2004) through the use of an exploratory item factor analysis indicated that the 33 items emerged in meaningful clusters, describing four dimensions of perceived emotional intelligence.

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Based on the research and findings of Petrides and Furnham (2000) a four sub-scale structure is proposed for the EIS:

Optimism/mood regulation

This sub-scale indicates the extent to which an individual expects that he or she can overcome a problem and be successful in performing activities and tasks. These individuals have the ability to seek out activities that will enable them to experience positive emotions. Furthermore, they are able to motivate themselves by imagining that a task has a positive outcome (Venter, 2003).

Appraisal of emotions

This sub-scale indicates the extent to which an individual is aware of the emotions he or she is experiencing. It also includes the awareness of the individual regarding the non-verbal messages he or she is sending to others, as well as the individual's ability to appraise non- verbal communication of others (Venter, 2003).

Social skills

This sub-scale indicates the extent to which an individual feels comfortable in sharing his or her emotions with others, whether he or she can sense when to share emotions and when not to. At the same time it indicates the extent to which the individual is available or open so that others can share their emotions with the individual. Lastly, it indicates the individual's ability to exhibit empathy (Venter, 2003).

Utilisation of emotions

This subscale indicates the extent to which the individual utilises positive emotions to identify new possibilities, solve problems and generate good ideas (Venter, 2003).

Petrides and Furnham (2000) suggest that both the factor scores and a total score be used due to the clear evidence of the scales' multidimensionality when interpreting the EIS.

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Even though the idea of emotional intelligence and its measurement is an appealing one, additional research on its psychometric properties and predictive validity is required (Austin et al., in press). A reliable and valid instrument is required in the measurement of emotional intelligence in order to conduct empirical research, and is also needed for the purpose of individual assessment.

In terms of the individual assessment. a valid and reliable EI measure can be used to:

Understand an individual's own important characteristics so that they can better set goals and work toward these goals;

Determine problems experienced in areas related to emotional intelligence (such as impulse control); and

Determine for which careers or settings emotional intelligence would be a prerequisite (Schutte et al., 1998).

A valid and reliable EI measure is not only important for the individual, but also for organisations who whish to incorporate emotional intelligence within their selection criteria and training and development programs.

The following research questions emerge from the above-mentioned problem statement:

How are emotional intelligence and the importance of emotional intelligence within a nursing environment, conceptualised in the literature?

How are the most important measurements of emotional intelligence and the nature thereof conceptualised in the literature?

What is the construct validity and internal consistency of the Emotional Intelligence Scale within the health care environment?

What is the relationship of emotional intelligence with various demographic characteristics?

What recommendations can be made regarding the use of an emotional intelligence measure?

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What recommendations can be made regarding future research on the psychometric properties of an emotional intelligence measure?

1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The research objectives can be divided into general and specific objectives.

1.2.1 General objective

The general objective of this research is to determine the construct validity and internal consistency of the EIS for nursing staff situated in the areas of Klerksdorp, Potchefstroom, Krugersdorp, Johannesburg and Pretoria areas.

1.2.2 Specific objectives

The specific objectives in this research are as follows:

To conceptualise emotional intelligence and the importance of emotional intelligence in a nursing environment.

To conceptualise the most important measurements of emotional intelligence and the nature thereof.

To determine the construct validity and internal consistency of the Emotional Intelligence Scale in a health care environment.

To compare the relationship of emotional intelligence with various demographic characteristics.

To make recommendations regarding the use of a standardised emotional intelligence measure.

To make recommendations regarding future research on the psychometric properties of an emotional intelligence measure.

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1.3 RESEARCH METHOD

The research method consists of a literature review and an empirical study. The results are presented in the form of a research article. Because separate chapters are not targeted for literature reviews, this paragraph focuses on aspects relevant to the empirical study that is conducted. The reader should note that a brief literature review is compiled for the purpose of the article.

1.3.1 Research design

A cross-sectional survey design is used to collect the data and to achieve the research objectives. Cross-sectional designs is used to examine groups of subjects in various stages of development simultaneously, while surveys involve a technique of data collection in which questionnaires are used to gather data about the identified population (Burns & Grove, 1993). This design is best suited to the descriptive and predictive functions associated with correlation research, whereby the relationships between variables are examined (Shaughnessy & Zechmeister, 1997).

1.3.2 Study population

The participants used in the research are selected randomly from the population, and this random process increased the accuracy of the conclusions drawn regarding the whole group (Spector, 2000). A convenience random sample (n = 51 1) is taken from hospitals in the Klerksdorp,

Potchefstroom, Krugersdorp, Johannesburg, Pretoria and Vanderbijlpark areas.

1.3.3 Measuring battery

A biographical questionnaire is included in order to describe the population, while the EIS is used to measure Emotional Intelligence.

The Biographical Questionnaire is included to describe the population. It includes basic

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employed, the number of years they have been employed and whether or not they were working on contract terms, as well as their educational level and the hours they worked per week.

The Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (EIS) (Schutte et al., 1998) comprises 33 items, three of which (5, 28 and 33) are reverse-scored. Participants rated themselves in terms of how much they agree or disagree with each statement on a 5-point Likert scale (l=strongly disagree; 5=strongly agree) and a total score was derived by summing up the item responses. Validation studies included correlations with theoretically related constructs (e.g. alexythimia, pessimism, and depression), t-tests between various groups (e.g. therapists, prisoners, clients in a substance abuse program) and correlations with each of the Big 5 higher-order factors (Petrides & Furnham, 2000).

1.3.4 Statistical analysis

The statistical analysis is camed out with the SPSS programme (SPSS, 2003). The dataset is studied to identify bivariate and multivariate outliers. To identify bivariate outliers, the data is standardised (to z-scores). Values higher than 2,58 are inspected to decide whether they should be deleted from the dataset. An inspection is also made of the anti-image scores of the different items. Items with scores lower than 0,6 are problematic and may therefore be excluded in the rest of the statistical analysis.

Furthermore, missing values are analysed and replaced where possible. Principal factor extraction with oblique rotation is performed on the measuring instrument to determine the factor structure. Principal component extraction is used prior to principal factor extraction to estimate the number of factors, presence of outliers and factorability of the correlation matrices. The eigenvalues and scree plot are studied to determine the number of factors underlying the specific measuring instrument. A second-order factor analysis is also computed on the extracted factors.

Descriptive statistics (e.g. means, standard deviations, range, skewness and kurtosis) and inferential statistics are used to analyse the data. In terms of statistical significance it is decided

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to set the value at a 95% confidence interval level (p 10,05). Effect size (Steyn, 1999) is used to decide on the practical significance of the findings. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients are used to specify the relationship between the variables. A cut-off point of 0,30 (medium effect) (Cohen, 1998) is set for the practical significance or correlation coefficients. T- tests, ANOVA and MANOVA are used to determine the differences between groups.

Cronbach alpha coefficients are used to determine the internal consistency, homogeneity and unidimensionality of the measuring instrument (Clark & Watson, 1995). Coefficient alpha contains important information regarding the proportion of variance of the items of a scale in terms of the total variance explained by the particular scale.

1.4 OVERVIEW OF CHAPTERS

In Chapter 2, the psychometric properties of the Emotional Intelligence Scale are discussed. The chapter also deals with the empirical study and the results obtained will be given in table form and discussed briefly. Chapter 3 deals with the discussion, limitations and recommendations for this study.

1.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY

In this chapter the problem statement and research objectives were discussed. The measuring instruments and research method used in this research study were explained. Lastly, a brief overview of the chapters was given.

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THE PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF AN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE MEASURE WITHIN A NURSING ENVIRONMENT

S. VAN DER MERWE C.S. JONKER W.J. COETZER

Workwell: Research Unit for People, Policy and Performance, Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences, Potchefstroom Campus, North- West University

ABSTRACT

The objective of this study was to investigate the psychometric properties of the Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) developed by Schutte and colleagues in 1998 within a nursing environment. A convenience random sample of 51 1 nurses was taken from hospitals located in the areas of Klerksdorp, Potchefstroom, Krugersdorp, Johannesburg and Pretoria. The EIS was used as a measuring instrument. Cronbach alpha coefficients, Pearson-product correlation coefficients and MANOVAS were used to analyse the data. The results showed a 5-factor solution for the EIS, which explained 50,04% of the total variance. All of the five dimensions had adequate internal consistencies, except for the Negative Emotions dimension. Lastly, group differences were identified between personnel area and emotional intelligence, as well as between race and emotional intelligence levels.

OPSOMMING

Die doelstelling van die studie was om die psigometriese eienskappe van die Emosionele Intelligensieskaal (EIS) wat deur Schutte en kollegas in 1998 ontwikkel is binne 'n verpleegomgewing te ondersoek. 'n Ewekansige

gerieflikheidsteekproef (n = 51 1) is onder verpleegsters in die Klerksdorp-, Potchefstroom-, Krugersdorp-,

Johannesburg- en Pretoria-omgewing geneem. Die EIS is as meetinstrument gebruik. Cronbach-alfakoeffisiente,

Pearson-produkmomentkorrelasiekoeffisiente en MANOVAS is gebruik om die data te ontleed. Die resultate het 'n 5-faktoroplossing vir die EIS getoon, wat 50,04% van die totale variansie verduidelik het. Al vyf die dimensies het

geskikte interne konsekwentheid getoon, behalwe vir die Negatiewe Emosies-dimensie. Laastens is daar

groepsverskille tussen personeelarea en emosionele intelligensie asook tussen ras en emosionele intelligensievlakke gei'dentifiseer.

* The fmancial assistance of the National Research Foundation (NRF) towards research is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed and conclusions drawn are those of the authors and are not necessarily to be attributed to the NRF.

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Human service occupations are sometimes called "direct person-related jobs", since their primary task is to modify a patient physically or psychologically. Human services comprise occupations such as counsellors, social workers, nurses and teachers. Individuals who find themselves within the nursing profession possess qualities of dedication, care, nurturing, comfort; concern for others, and they are also motivated by their desires to help people (Davies, 1994) and to preserve life (Brysiewicz, 2002).

Since the elections in 1994, there have been major changes in the nursing profession. In November 1996, the South African Nursing Association dissolved and transferred its assets to the Democratic Nursing Organization of South Africa (DENOSA) to form a unitary, non-racial professional association. Even though the South African Nursing Council's members are now more representative of the general population and legal discrimination has been removed, nurses still find themselves working under very difficult conditions (Jewkes, Abrahams & Mvo, 1998).

In many parts of South Africa, hospital overcrowding and staff shortages persist (Jewkes et al., 1998). The health care setting can be described as lacking in autonomy, physical comfort, role clarity and involvement in decision-making (Williams, Michie & Pattani, 1998). Furthermore, nurses are also exposed to long working hours, extended days and shift-work schedules (Poissonnet & Veron, 2000), which increase the burden of balancing their work and home lives (Jewkes et al., 1998).

The increase in the occurrence of violence is another serious problem for South Africa, and it is affecting the nursing profession too. Jewkes et al. (1998) state that violence on taxi routes, including the indiscriminate shooting of commuters, is an ever-present problem for many nurses who lack own transport. Criminal violence is pervasive, with very high rates of rape and murder. In addition many nurses, as lots of other South African women, have to contend with very high levels of domestic violence (Jewkes et al., 1998). This permanent contact with human suffering and death causes psychological strain (Poissonnet & VCron, 2000).

Nurses' working conditions, along with their unique characteristics, knowledge, skills, motivation and expectations as well as the behaviour of patients (Dollard, Dormann, Boyd,

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Winefield & Winefield, 2003) will determine the quality of the care provided by the nurse. It should be remembered that the performance of human service professionals is inextricably related to strain and emotions (Oginska-Bulik, 2005), which are caused by both the interaction with others and the working conditions experienced. These inherent factors could lead to stress (Oginska-Bulik, 2005) and other psychological effects, such as post-traumatic stress (Rippon, 2000), anxiety (Ryan & Poster, 1993), fatigue, sleep disturbances and increased smoking and alcohol consumption (Whittington & Wykes, 1989). Thi Lam and Kirby (2002) believe that the specific emotions experienced and their interpretation and regulation, rather than their presence per se, may cause problems for task performance.

Emotions (such as disappointment, happiness and dissatisfaction) form an integral part of any individual's work life (Humpel, Caputi & Martin, 2001), but the presence of emotions in itself can be stressful. Such is the case with human service occupations, for example the nurse-patient relationship, which requires the expression of positive, and sometimes negative, emotions towards clientslpatients (Oginska-Bulik, 2005). Human service professionals frequently display emotions, usually positive, that are incongruent with those genuinely felt (neutral or negative). This frequent experience of emotional dissonance leads to the loss of the capability to regulate one's own emotions (Oginska-Bulik, 2005), which according to Ciarrochi, Deane and Anderson (2002) increases the likelihood of experiencing depression, hopelessness and suicide ideation when under stress.

Individuals do not cause or have control over the emotions that they experience (Thi Lam & Kirby, 2002), because the "connections from the emotional systems to the cognitive systems are stronger than connections from the cognitive systems to the emotional systems of the brain" (LeDoux, 1996, p.19). However, once emotions occur and are recognised by the cognitive system (Thi Lam & Kirby, 2002), individuals are able to identify and control their own and others' emotions and be less likely to become paralysed by fear and strangled by anxiety (Seipp, 1991); they are also more likely to be able to channel their positive emotions and use them to achieve maximum personal engagement and productivity within themselves and others (Thi Lam & Kirby, 2002).

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According to Oginska-Bulik (2005), the ability to regulate your own emotions, together with the ability to recognize others' emotions (defined as emotional intelligence), seems to be very important in human service work. Emotional intelligence encompasses the human skills of empathy, self-awareness, motivation, self-control (Reynolds & Scott, 2000) and adeptness in relationships, all of which are recognized as being central in effective clinical nursing practice (McCormack, 1993; Taylor, 1994).

Empathy forms the basis of the therapeutic relationship. The nurse-patient relationship will be without care or compassion if empathy is lacking or if there is no sense of another person's need or despair (Reynolds & Scott, 2000). This will result in the non-realisation of the beneficial clientlpatient outcome (Cadmann & Brewer, 2001 ; Reynolds & Scott, 2000). Thus, to ensure the successful and effective job performance of nurses, they must be able to respond with empathy, warmth and communicate genuine concern (Cadmann & Brewer, 2001), in short, be emotionally intelligent.

When the focus is shifted from the therapeutic relationship between the health care worker and the clientlpatient towards working conditions, research indicates that emotional intelligence plays a significant role. Svyantek and Rahim (2002) indicate that EI may be an important adaptive mechanism for helping individuals interact with their environment, including their work environment. Furthermore, Goleman (1998) states that EI is twice as important as technical skills and more important than IQ for success in jobs at all levels. Weisinger (1998) also supports this statement by suggesting that EI is related to success at work and plays a significant role in certain aspects of effective team leadership and team performance.

Within the human service environment, work overload, lack of rewards and social relations were found to be most stressful (Oginska-Bulik, 2005). A study conducted by Cadmann and Brewer (2001) amongst health service professionals indicates the buffering role of emotional intelligence in relation to stress. They found a significant negative relationship between emotional intelligence and perceived workplace stress. Supporting research evidence provided by Bellack (1999) states that nurses need to possess certain emotional and social competencies in order for them to be able to cope within their chaotic and stressful work environments.

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When referring to emotional intelligence, recognition should be given not only to the ways in which people differ in their ability to understand and make use of their own and others' emotions (Austin, 2005), but also to the way individuals differ demographically in terms of EI.

A demographic variable widely analysed in organizational research is gender differences (Dietz- Uhler & Murrell, 1998; Eagly, 1995; Fiske, 1993; Gutek, 1988; Hyde & Plant, 1995). Gender differences regarding emotional intelligence have been replicated on various occasions. Empirical research indicates that women score slightly higher in measures of EI than males (Charbonneaux & Nicol, 2002; Ciarrochi, Chan & Caputi, 2000; Mayer, Caruso & Salovey, 1999; Mayer & Geher, 1996; Petrides & Furnham, 2000; Van Rooy, Alanso & Viswesvaran, 2005; Van Rooy & Viswesvaran, 2003). Van Rooy and Viswesvaran (2003) further state that this occurrence is not surprising, since women have better emotional and inter-personal skills than males. However, these gender differences appear to be more pronounced in studies examining ability-based EI (Day & Carroll, 2004).

Differences in EI levels within gender groups were also identified. Studies conducted by Block (1995) indicate that men with high levels of EI are more socially poised, outgoing and cheerful, and not prone to worry. Furthermore, they exhibited a notable capacity for commitment to people (caring and sympathetic in their relationships) or causes, for taking responsibility, and for having an ethical outlook. Emotionally intelligent women tended to reach out to people due to their social poise and expressed their feelings more directly towards others. They also exhibited assertiveness and were able to adapt well to stress (Block, 1995).

In terms of the demographic variable of "age" both Bar-On (1997a) and Mayer et al. (1999) created age categories in order to determine the relationship between age and emotional intelligence. They separately found that, unlike cognitive ability that remains relatively stable beyond the teenage years, EI scores were found to increase with age. The same findings were also replicated by Derkesen, Kramer and Katzko (2002), and can also be supported by research conducted by Hemmati, Mills and Kroner (2004) and Van Rooy et al. (2005). In contrast Roberts, Zeidner and Matthews (2001) found no significant age differences, but they speculated that their findings were attributable to sample range restrictions.

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Several studies have reported ethnic group differences in the field of psychometric evaluation. Ethnic group differences were documented in cognitive ability tests (e.g. Schrnitt et al., 1997) and integrity tests (Ones & Viswesvaran, 1998). Sub-group differences in test-taking motivation, test performance and selection rates were also documented (Ployhart & Ehrhart 2002). Given that EI is increasingly being used in the workplace as a predictor, it is imperative that it's potential for adverse impact and other legal implications be assessed (Van Rooy et al., 2005).

Conflicting results were reported by Roberts et al. (2001), who conducted one of the few studies that evaluated ethnic group differences in EI. A study conducted by Van Rooy et al. (2005), making use of an ability-based EI measure, identified existing group differences for ethnicity, with minority groups scoring higher in EI than majority groups. In the light of the mixed findings, Roberts et al. (2001) state that there is currently an urgent need for studies exploring group differences in EI.

Even though controversial research evidence in EI exists, the use of EI measure in personnel selection contexts is increasing (Wong & Law, 2002). This can be attributed to the beliefs that emotional intelligence has positive real-life consequences (Austin, 2005), such as the ability to manage occupational stress and the maintenance of psychological well-being (Cadmann & Brewer, 2001). According to Goleman (1996), emotionally intelligent individuals excel in human relationships, show marked leadership skills and perform well at work. Therefore it seems reasonable to assume that emotionally intelligent individuals would contribute positively in the workplace, thereby addressing current concerns such as quality, improved client outcomes, recruitment and retention of staff for organisations (Cadmann & Brewer, 2001).

When deciding on which EI measure to include in a selection battery or even for research purposes, it is important that the conceptualisation of a measurement (Davies, Stankov & Roberts, 1998) of emotional intelligence be understood.

Emotional intelligence can be classified into two distinct groups, namely "ability or information- processing models" (Mayer & Salovey, 1997) and "trait or mixed models" (Bar-On, 1997b;

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Goleman, 1995; Weisinger, 1998). All EI models have a common feature, namely a hierarchical structure that includes a range of subcomponents covering inter- and intra-personal emotional skills, such as mood regulation and emotion perception, with overall EI playing an analogous role to general ability in providing a broad measure of emotional capabilities (Austin, 2005, July).

Ability models of emotional intelligence

The ability models conceptualise emotional intelligence as a mental ability that is separated from social-emotional personality traits (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Emotional intelligence is defined as a series of conceptually related mental abilities that can be divided into four branches: ( I ) perception of emotion, (2) emotional facilitation of thought, (3) understanding emotions, and (4) managing emotions (Freudenthaler & Neubauer, 2005).

To measure these branches empirically, the Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS; Mayer et al., 1999) and the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso & Sitarenios, 2003) have been developed, which consist of performance tasks requiring responses that are evaluated against predetermined scoring criteria (Freudenthaler & Neubauer, 2005).

Table 1

Measures of Ability Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence Measurement Description of the Measurement

A. Emotional Accuracy Research Scale developed by Internal consistencies: low internal

Mayer & Geher (1996) (EARS) consistencies were reported by Mayer and

Geher (1996), with target scoring having an

internal consistency of a = 0,24 and consensus

scoring an a = 0,53. But a study conducted

by Geher, Warner and Brown (2001) indicated that internal consistencies could be increased if

some items of the measure were deleted ( a =

0,75 for target scoring and a = 0,80 for

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Table 1 (continued)

Measures of Ability Emotional Intelligence

A. Emotional Accuracy Research Scale developed by Discriminant and convergent validities: Small

Mayer & Geher (1996) (EARS) and unstable correlations with self-report

empathy.

B. Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale developed Sub-scales include:

by Mayer et al. (1999) (MEIS) i. Ability to perceive,

ii. Assimilate,

iii. Understand, and

iv. Manage one's own and that of others Make use of consensus scoring. Legree (1995) states that the judgments of experts are equivalent to those of non-experts, except for the fact that the non-experts will be less consistent and therefore less reliable.

C. Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test Consists of 141 items to which the participant

developed by Mayer, Salovey, Caruso and Siteranios responds on a five-point Likert scale (1= no

(2003) (MSCEIT) happiness; 5 = extreme happiness).

Sub-scales include:

i . Emotional Management ( a = 0,82)

ii. Emotional Understanding ( a = 0,73)

. . .

nl. Emotional Interpretation ( a = 0,76)

iv. Emotional Perception ( a

-

0,87) (Mayer

et a]., 2003).

Full scale split half reliability ranging from r =

0,91 to r = 0,93.

Full scale internal consistency of cx = 0,92.

Excellent face validity and good content validity (Mayer et a]., 2003).

Low or non-significant correlation with

personality (Day & Carrol, 2004).

A correlation with other intelligences serves as an indication of an ability EI measure's convergent and discriminant validities. According to Mayer and Salovey, ability EI should be moderately correlated with other intelligences in order to demonstrate that it belongs to a domain

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of "intelligences", but that it is also sufficiently distinct from traditional intelligences (Freudenthaler & Neubauer, 2005). Supportive research evidence has found that performance EI measures do show positive correlations with intelligence measures (Matthews, Zeidner & Roberts, 2002; Mayer, Caruso & Salovey, 2000b; Roberts et al., 2001).

Mixed models do not claim EI to be intelligence (Van Rooy et al., 2005). These models define emotional intelligence with a much broader and expansive meaning of the construct by integrating a wide range of personality characteristics under the umbrella term of emotional intelligence (Freudenthale & Neubauer, 2005). Thus emotional intelligence, according to the mixed model conceptualisation, refers to the combination of cognitive, motivational, and affective constructs (Van Rooy et al., 2005).

In contrast to ability models' performance-based measures, the mixed or trait models' strongly rely on self-report measures (e.g., Bar-On, 1997a; Goleman, 1995; Schutte et al., 1998), which raises the issue whether individuals can accurately self-report their own emotional skills (Austin, 2005).

Table 2

Measures of Trait Emotional Intelligence

A. Trait Meta Mood Scale developed by Salovey, A self-report measure consisting of 45 items,

Mayer, Goldman, Turvey & Palfai (1995) (TMMS) with several reversed-keyed items..

Makes use of a five-point scale (1 = strongly

disagree, 5 = strongly agree), with a high score

indicating a high level of emotional

intelligence. Sub-scales include:

i. Attention to feelings ( a = 0,86)

ii. Clarity of feelings ( a = 0,87)

...

~ n . Mood repair ( a = 0,82) (Salovey et al.,

1995).

Full-scale internal consistency of a = 0,82

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Table 2 (continued)

A. Trait Meta Mood Scale developed by Salovey, Distinct from the Big Five Personality

Mayer, Goldman, Tuwey & Palfai (1995) (TMMS) Dimensions' Extroversion and Neurotism

(Davies eta]., 1998; Salovey et a]., 1995).

B. Emotional Quotient Inventory developed by Bar-On Self-report questionnaire that consists of 133

(1997a) (EQ-i) items.

Respondents indicate the degree to which the statements describe them on a five-point scale

(1 = not true for me, 5 = true for me).

Scales consist of five broader concept components:

i. Intrapersonal EQ ii. Interpersonal EQ iii. Adaption EQ

iv. Stress Management EQ and v. General Mood EQ,

along with 15 sub-scales.

Convergent or discriminant validities:

Moderate to high correlations with the Big Five.

Total internal consistency of CY = 0,96.

C. Schutte Self-Report Inventory developed by Schutte Consists of 33 statements.

et al. (1998) (SSRI) Respond on a five-point scale (1 = strongly

agree, 5 = strongly disagree).

Sub-scales:

i. Emotion Perception ii. Utilising Emotions

iii. Managing Self-Relevant Emotions iv. Managing of Others Emotions.

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Table 2 (continued)

D. Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale developed by 33-item self-report measure.

Schutte et al. (1998) (SEIS)

E. Workgroup Emotional Intelligence Profile (Version I

3) developed by Jordan, Ashkanasy, Hartel & Hooper I

(2002) (WEIP-3)

I

Respond on a five-point scale (1 = strongly

agree, 5 = strongly disagree).

Sub-scales:

i. Appraisal and expression of emotions in

self and others

ii. Regulation of emotions in self and others iii. Utilization of emotions in solving

problems.

Two-week test-retest reliability (r = 0,78).

Internal consistency ranging from CY = 0.87 to CY

= 0,90.

Measure is related to theoretically related constructs such as alexithymia, mood repair, optimism and impulse control.

Consist of 52 items.

Respond on a seven-point Likert Scale (1 =

strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree).

Scales: 1. Ability to deal with your own emotions

2. Ability to deal with others' emotions 3. Ability to use emotions to assist in problem-

solving and decision-making (Salovey &

Mayer, 1990).

Negative responses are elicited from researchers when they are confronted by the EI construct; this negativity may be due to the lack of evidence regarding the psychometric properties of EI measures. For instance Newsome, Day and Catano (2000) concluded that objective measures of emotional intelligence are unreliable and that self-report measures show considerable overlap with traditional measures of personality (Newsome et al., 2000). In defence of EI, Mayer et al. (2001) recognise that it took decades to construct measures of General Mental Ability and

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therefore the EI construct can only profit from continuous research regarding the measurement of EI.

In this study the trait-based measure of EI, the Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS), will be used. The main reason is that the questionnaire-type EI measures are quicker to administer than task- based EI measures and require less supervision (meaning that they can be used, for example, in postal surveys). Furthermore, Jonker (2002) identified the deficiency of research done in South Africa on the validation of EI measures and states that, except for one study conducted with a South African sample in determining the validity of the Bar-On EQ-i, no other instrument is validated and standardised for employees in South Africa.

Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS)

The EIS (Schutte et al., 1998) consists of 33 items that load on one factor, with the total variance explained by 17,4%, and represents all portions of the conceptual model of Salovey and Mayer (1990). Thirteen of the 33 items came from the items generated for the appraisal and expression of emotion category of the model; ten items came from the items generated for the regulation of emotion category and ten items came from items generated for the utilisation of emotion category of the model. The 33 items reflect each of the components and subcomponents of each category, such as regulation of emotion in the self, regulation of emotion in others, with items 5, 28 and 33 being reversed-scored.

When the validity of the EIS was determined by Schutte et al. (1998), they found that the scale was related to eight out of nine measures that assess theoretically related constructs, such as awareness of emotion, outlook on life, depressed mood, ability to regulate emotions and impulsivity.

Research results also indicated that the scales' scores differed between groups one would expect to differ on emotional intelligence level, with therapists scoring significantly higher than prisoners. Women also scored higher than men.

The psychometric properties of an emotional intelligence measure within a nursing environment