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$Q>VFKPFABQEBIFKBP6

PQ>?IFPEFKDBKABOF@ELQLJV

A discourse analysis of the everyday gender distinctions parents make

concerning appropriate television programs for boys and girls

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Author: Sarieke Hoeksma University: University of Amsterdam

Student number: 5878470 Program: Media Studies – Television and

E-mail: sariekehoeksma@gmail.com Cross-Media Culture (MA)

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All great changes come from people

who refused to get used to what is accepted,

but isn’t right.

“The End of Twerk.” (2013)

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PREFACE

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As%a%daughter%of%two%elementary%school%teachers,%one%could%say%an%interest%in%children%was%kindled%in%me%at%an% early%age.%While%studying%Media%&%Culture%I%specifically%focused%on%children’s%media:%I%took%courses%on%the%topic% –%both%in%Amsterdam%and%Vancouver%–%completed%a%minor%in%Pedagogy%and%wrote%several%papers,%including%my% bachelor’s%thesis,%about%children’s%media.%The%Education*&*Popular*Culture%course%taught%by%professor%Özlem% Sensoy%was%a%huge%inspiration,%enabling%me%to%think%critically%about%the%gender%dichotomy%that%is%already%very% present%in%childhood.%From%an%early%age%on,%the%boy/girl%distinction%presents%itself%in%separate%clothing%lines,% toys,% books,% children’s% bedroom% designs% and% television% programs.% Furthermore,% my% passion% for% children’s% media%has%increased%immensely%during%several%internships%at%Dutch%children’s%television%companies.%There%has% never%been%any%doubt%that%I%would%focus%my%master’s%thesis%on%anything%other%than%children%and%media.%

%% While%being%a%student%in%Amsterdam,%a%city%known%for%its%open%minded%atmosphere,%I%have%had%the%

luck% to% get% to% know% a% diverse% group% of% people,% many% of% which% were% of% different% sexual% orientations.% Oddly% enough,%I%remember%I%was%17%years%old%when%my%sister%befriended%a%lesbian%girl,%and%how%surprised%I%was%that% this%girl%was%very*‘normal’.%For%some%reason%I%had%an%image%of%lesbians%as%shorthaired,%‘different’%girls.%I%cannot% believe% the% limited% range% of% references% I% apparently% had% at% my% disposal.% Looking% back,% I% wonder% why% I% had% hardly%ever%faced%people%of%different%sexual%orientations%until%that%age.%Ideally,%I%would%argue,%homosexuality% should%be%made%far%more%visible%to%children,%to%expose%and%normalize%the%variety%of%sexualities%in%the%world.% Why%is%it%still%so%very%hidden%from%children’s%television,%I%wonder?%What%effect%could%it%have%to%show%a%proper% diversity%of%different%people%on%television?%Is%there%a%potential%future%in%which%‘coming%out%of%the%closet’%–%the% admittance% of% ‘being% different’% –% would% not% be% necessary% anymore,% as% we% would% recognize% everyone% to% be% inherently%different?% % We're*all*different.*Especially*him.*But*there's*something*kind*of*fantastic*about*that,*isn't*there?**–*Fantastic*Mr.*Fox*(2009)* % I%would%like%to%express%my%sincere%gratitude%to,%most%importantly,%my%thesis%supervisor%Joke%Hermes%for%her% dedicated%support%and%her%talent%for%recognizing%when%I%needed%a%little%push%and%when%I%needed%some%time%and% space%to%figure%things%out%on%my%own.%It%has%been%an%honour%to%be%guided%by%such%an%expert%in%the%field%and%I% am%forever%thankful%for%her%ability%to%challenge%me%to%get%the%uttermost%best%out%of%it.%Secondly,%I%would%like%to% thank%my%amazing%boyfriend%Edwin%Res%for%his%everlasting%encouragement%and%love%in%good%times%and%in%the% worst% of% times.% Furthermore,% I% thank% Midas% van% Son% for% all% the% effort% he% has% put% into% the% beautiful% cover% illustration,% Wouter% Oomen% for% his% incredibly% useful% feedback,% and% Hayden% Lutek% for% the% wonderful% help% in% editing%this%thesis.%Perhaps%cliché,%nonetheless%sincere:%I%could%not%have%come%this%far%without%your%help.%% %% Finally,%I%would%like%to%invite%every%reader%to%question%the%established%truths%you%have%always%taken%for% granted,%especially%the%ones%that%seem%so%very%true,%logical%and%natural.%I%sincerely%hope%this%thesis%will%give%–%if% only%a%couple%of%people%–%pause%for%thought%and%reflection.%Take%a%moment%to%step%outside%of%your%comfort% zone%and%you%might%like%what%you%find!% Sarieke"Hoeksma"|"May"2015"

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INDEX

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Introduction" 1" """""Aims%and%objectives" """""2% """""Structure%overview% """""3% 1":"Establishing"gender"normality" 6" %%%%%The%troublesome%concept%of%gender% %%%%%6% %%%%%An%explosion%of%discourse% %%%%%9% %%%%%Power/knowledge% %%%%%10% 2":"Constructing"children’s"television" 13" %%%%%Children%and%childhood% %%%%%13% %%%%%Constructing%the%child%television%audience% %%%%%15% %%%%%Programs%based%on%age% %%%%%16% %%%%%Programs%based%on%gender" %%%%%17% 3":"Discourse"analysis"of"parent’s"speech" 20" """""A%methodological%approach%by%Wetherell%and%Potter% % %%%%%20% %%%%%Interviewing%‘ordinary’%parents% %%%%%21% %%%%%Variation%of%speech% %%%%%22% 4":"Interpretative"repertoires" 25" %%%%%Be%who%you%are% %%%%%25% %%%%%Big,%bad%world% %%%%%29% %%%%%Do%not%blame%me% %%%%%34% """""Reproducing%gender%dichotomy% """""39% Conclusion"&"Discussion" 42" %%%%%Parents’%repertoires% %%%%%42% %%%%%Validation,%limitations%and%recommendations% %%%%%44% %%%%%Nature%versus%nurture% %%%%%44% """""Advice%for%producers%of%children’s%media% %%%%%45% References 47 %%%%%Literature% %%%%%47% %%%%%Audiovisual%media% %%%%%50%

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INTRODUCTION

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Men* are* from* Mars,* Women* are* from* Venus1.% The% everyday% distinction% between% ‘men’% and% ‘women’% seems% obstinate%and%presents%itself%as%common%knowledge.%Men%are%labeled%as%active,%strong%and%rational%and%women% are% defined% as% passive,% social% and% emotional.% The% gender% dichotomy% is% effectively% dished% up% to% us% –% and% maintained%by%us%–%through%daily%speech,%scientific%research,%media,%school,%advertisements,%cosmetics,%fashion% industries,%music%videos%and%magazines,%to%name%just%a%few.%In%addition,%the%moment%you%walk%into%a%toy%store% the%sex%segregation%is%immediately%blatant.%The%pink%and%purple%coloured%aisles%full%of%hearts,%butterflies%and% glitter%contain%toys%for%girls%focused%on%appearance%and%becoming%popular%with%boys:%mirrors,%combs,%brushes,% nail%kits,%makedup%and%fashion%sets.%Furthermore,%household%and%parenting%items%fill%the%shelves%in%abundance,% including%vacuums,%toy%kitchens,%brooms,%flat%irons,%baby%dolls%and%strollers.%On%the%contrary%there%is%weaponry% for% boys% and% toys% that% focus% on% force,% speed,% violence% and% power.% Sudie% Hofmann,% following% Jackson% Katz,%

describes%how%boys%are%encouraged%to%be%tough%and%to%not%show%emotion%(Hofmann%2011,*210).%Girls%on%the% other%hand%seem%to%learn%they%will%reach%happiness%through%finding%the%right%husband%(Christensen%2011,%196).% Following%Judith%Jack%Halberstam,%the%sexuality%of%girls%is%very%much%restrained,%while%on%the%contrary%boys%are% encouraged%to%nourish%their%desires%and%pushed%into%masculine%roles%to%compete%for%female%attention%‘in%ways% that%make%women%into%killjoys,%moral%arbiters%and%passive%bystanders%at%the%prom,%still%waiting%to%be%asked%to% dance%(2012,%9).%Halberstam%describes%the%training%children%receive%as%dangerous,%unnecessary%and%misleading,% as%some%girls%grow%up%to%become%anorexic%and%some%boys%grow%up%to%become%bullies.%And%yet%for%some%reason% we% refuse% to% give% up% on% the% established% models% of% masculinity% and% femininity% and% instead% consider% them% as% normal%and%justified%(Halberstam%2012,%10).%By%continuously%reinforcing%specific%gender%roles%–%not%only%via%toys% but%also%through%a%multitude%of%products,%media%and%conversations%–%a%substantial%norm%of%how%this%dynamic%is% supposed% to% unfold% and% what% is% ‘normal’% has% been% established.* Unfortunately,% children% and% adults% deviating% from%this%norm%of%tough%men%and%modest%women%are%only%moderately%accepted.%While,%to%a%certain%extent,%it% may%be%accepted%for%girls%to%play%with%the%more%active%and%sportdcentric%toys,%boys%playing%with%‘girlish’%toys%is% much%less%approved%of.%As%Hofmann%states:%

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The*product*lines*do*not*model*social*acceptance*for*boys*to*play*homemaking*or*parenting.*When* young* boys* engage* in* dressMup,* pile* on* the* necklaces,* enjoy* painting* their* nails,* or* select* other* girl* toys,*cultural*norms*or*homophobia*often*correct*the*behaviour*immediately.*(2011,*210)*

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In%general,%the%sensitive%or%passive%man%and%the%dominant%or%prevailing%woman%are%poorly%accepted%by%society% as%a%whole.%The%acceptance%rate%for%homosexual,%bisexual%and%transgender%people%is%even%worse.%It%appears% that% many% people% in% the% Netherlands% –% where% tolerance% is% propagated% as% a% cornerstone% –% believe% male% homosexuality%to%be%‘allowed’%as%long%as%they%act%‘normally’%(Buijs,%Hekma%and%Duyvendak%2011,%633).%Being% too%feminine%or%‘theatrically’%gay%crosses%a%line%for%many%people%who%claim%to%be%tolerant.%In%addition,%violence%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

1%Men*are*from*Mars,*Women*are*from*Venus%(John%Gray%1992)%is%a%popular%bestseller%that%highlights%differences%between%women%

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against% homosexual% men% remains% widespread% (Franklin% 2000;% Herek% 2009;% Janoff% 2005).% Heterosexuality% is% a% compulsory% norm% in% which% the% relationship% between% man% and% woman% is% seen% as% the% only% natural% possibility% (Butler%1990,%111).%As%a%result,%men%and%women%are%forced%into%separate%roles%that%fit%into%the%idea%of%a%‘true’% and% ‘natural’% gender% identity.% Those% identities,% however,% are% impossible% to% embody% in% practice.% Nobody% can% truly%satisfy%the%simplified%blueprint%of%gender%identity.%%

"" During%the%process%of%writing%this%thesis,%I%increasingly%became%aware%of%how%often%people%speak%in% terms% of% ‘typically% male’% and% ‘typically% female’.% In% media,% literature% and% theatre,% or% during% everyday% conversation,% people% consistently% contribute% to% this% continuous% reproduction% of% the% masculinity/femininity% division.%But%what%is%gender%really?%Why%do%we%deliberately%want%gender%identities%to%be%cleardcut%and%why%do% people%appear%hypersensitive%to%this%gender%dichotomy?%Strong%ideas%about%what%is%‘within’%or%‘outside’%the%

norm%are%established%and%every%mistake%is%burdened.%As%a%parent,%a%child,%an%adult%and%even%as%a%heterosexual%–%

whatever%these%categories%may%imply%–%you%can%never%be%safe:%you%risk%behaving%like%a%homosexual%or%being% labeled% as% promiscuous.% There% might% even% be% no% distinction% more% meaningful% for% people% than% gender.% We% primarily%categorize%people%based%on%gender,%more%than%on%race%or%other%kinds%of%social%categories%(Stangor,% Lynch,%Duan%and%Glass,%1992;%Haslam,%Rothschild%and%Ernst,%2000).%When%talking%about%‘women’%as%a%common% identity,%race%and%religion%seem%to%lose%importance.%Would%it%be%possible%to%become%less%conscious%of%a%gender% dichotomy%in%the%future,%so%that%gender%would%no%longer%matter?%%

%% To% summarize,% the% main% questions% I% keep% asking% myself% are:% Why* are* we* hypersensitive* to* gender*

dichotomy* in* our* everyday* society?% How* do* we* sustain* these* everyday* gender* distinctions?% And:* Can* we* deconstruct* the* mechanisms* that* support* its* continuing* existence?* These% questions,% however,% are% not% at% all%

easily%answered.%They%cover%such%a%broad%area,%that%it%is%not%possible%to%deal%with%all%of%this%in%a%relatively%small% study% such% as% this% one.% Therefore,% this% thesis% focuses% on% a% smaller% segment% of% the% larger% issue,% namely:% the% established% ideas% that% help% parents% determine% their% parenting% styles% concerning% gender% and% children’s% television.%%%

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Aims"and"objectives"

Media%both%reflect%and%contribute%to%the%creation%of%discourse:%they%provide%a%platform%on%which%social%reality% is% made% available% (Gamson% and% Modigliani% 1989,% 3)% and% subsequently% play% an% important% part% in% socializing% people%through%the%transmittance%of%ideas.%Given%that%television%still%remains%the%largest%medium%(SPOT%2012,% 5;%“American%Time%Use%Survey”%2014),%it%is%an%interesting%key%player%to%focus%on%when%endeavouring%to%bring% gender%discourse%to%light.%More%specifically,%as%children%are%widely%believed%to%be%mouldable%and%childhood%is% understood% as% an% important% period% in% which% individuals% are% socialized,% this% thesis% will% aim% at% television% produced%for%children.%Both%boys%and%girls%are%introduced%to%lessons%on%how%to%act,%live%and%dream%and%what% their%role%in%society%is%supposed%to%be.%It%is%not%at%all%my%intention%to%state%that%television%‘injects’%stereotypical% gender% roles% into% children.% Yet% children’s% programs% do% play% a% significant% part% in% repeating% –% but% also%

contradicting%–%the%established%ideas%about%men%and%women.%What,%then,%is%commonly%believed%to%be%‘good’%

children’s%television?%As%parents%try%to%determine%and%prescribe%how%their%child%should%live%its%life,%they%have% strong% opinions% about% what% is% appropriate% for% their% child% to% watch.% Parents% function% as% gatekeepers% of% their%

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children’s%mediaddiet%and%are%key%players%when%trying%to%guide%their%child%intro%the%‘correct’%behaviour.%%This% study%therefore%focuses%on%the%following%question:%% % What*do*parents*believe*to*be*appropriate*children’s*television** and*how*is*the*everyday*gender*dichotomy*established*through*these*distinctions?* * To%answer%this%research%question,%discourse%analysis%is%conducted%on%five%long%interviews%with%six%parents%of% children%in%the%age%range%of%2d9.%Following%the%logic%established%by%Jonathan%Potter%and%Margaret%Wetherell,% the%power%of%discourse%analysis%does%not%follow%from%the%amount%of%interviews.%It%is%possible%to%find%prevailing% discourses%even%within%few%interviews,%as%individuals’%statements%are%never%isolated%but%always%part%of%a%larger% discursive% system% (Potter% and% Wetherell% 1987,% 169).% A% limited% amount% of% interviews% can% therefore% be% very% powerful.%Hence,%the%aim%is%not%to%find%the%one%and%only%truth%or%to%find%a%personal%and%coherent%standpoint% parents% take% when% talking% about% parenting,% gender% and% children’s% television.% Rather,% as% the% analysis% will% confirm,% parents% draw% upon% different% and% contradicting% statements% that% seem% appropriate% at% a% particular% moment%in%time,%as%they%try%to%logically%clarify%and%get%a%grip%on%reality.%Since%discourses%eventually%work%to% naturalize%and%justify%the%norm%(Giddens%1979;%Thompson%1984),%it%is%important%to%understand%the%everyday% form%discourse%may%take%and%how%his%reinforces%and%maintains%certain%ideas%on%gender.%%

%% Ultimately,%as%will%become%clear%in%the%discourse%analysis%of%this%thesis,%I%will%conclude%that%parents%–%

without% visibly% being% aware% of% it% –% play% an% important% role% in% the% reproduction% of% the% established% gender% dichotomy.% While% parents% emphasise% their% opendmindedness% and% tolerance% towards% their% children% and% state% that%they%do%not%care%about%the%norm,%it%ultimately%proves%to%be%impossible%to%escape%the%prevailing%norms%of% society.%As%the%interviewees%are%anxious%about%the%risk%that%their%child%will%be%ridiculed%and%excluded,%they%try% hard% to% produce% the% ‘best’% children.% They% prefer% their% children% to% not% stand% out% too% much% and% thus% try% to% approach%their%child%into%conforming%to%the%established%norm.%%

%% Lastly,% following% the% Grounded* Theory% of% sociologists% Barney% Glaser% and% Anselm% Strauss% (1967),% this%

study% started% with% the% gathering% and% analysis% of% data,% after% which% theories% were% sought% to% understand% the% findings.%The%benefit%of%this%form%of%research%is%that%it%facilitates%the%development%of%a%theory%that%is%based%on% data%instead%of%on%preceding%literature%or%already%established%hypotheses.%This%study%therefore%did%not%start% with%a%clear%research%question%or%hypothesis%but,%instead,%data%analysis%has%guided%the%process%of%this%study%in%a% continuous%flow%of%new%data%and%new%observations.%% " Structure"overview" First%of%all,%while%trying%to%understand%what%definitions%such%as%of%gender%and%sexuality%really%signify,%the%ideas% of% Judith% Butler% and% Michel% Foucault% –% two% leading% theorists% within% the% field% of% gender% studies% –% will% be% discussed.% Butler% describes% the% concept% of% gender% as% a% complex% one% (1990,% 16).% While% it% appears% to% be% dichotomous,%it%does%not%really%have%grounds%to%justify%that%individuals%are%either%‘male’%or%female’%instead%of% an%endless%amount%of%other%possibilities.%According%to%Butler,%one’s%sexuality,%gender%and%desires%are%forced%to% form%one%coherent%identity%in%order%to%be%intelligible%(1990,%17).%As%a%result,%two%universal%categories,%men%and%

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women,%have%come%into%being%and%everything%that%deviates%from%this%norm%is%seen%as%an%abnormality.%Butler% proposes%to%alternatively%understand%gender%as%performance.%Repeating%acts%and%gestures%produce%the%illusion% of%an%internal%gender%essence,%but%in%reality%there%is%no%identity%that%predexists%this%performance%(Butler%1990,% 33).% Therefore,% there% can% be% no% ‘true’% or% ‘natural’% gender.% In% addition,% Foucault% describes% how% sexuality% is% generally% understood% as% something% repressed,% as% something% reduced% to% the% reproductive% and% heterosexual% couple.%The%historical%reality%however%shows,%according%to%Foucault,%there%has%been%a%proliferation%of%discourse% on%sexuality.%When%trying%to%get%a%grip%on%it,%sexuality%became%an%object%of%analysis%and%intervention%to%find%the% ‘truth’% about% sex.%In% the% Christian% world,% the% practice% of% confession% coaxed% people% into% talking% about% their% innermost% thoughts,% dreams% and% sexual% actions% (Foucault% 1976,% 17).% Eventually,% children% and% adults% alike% confessed% not% only% to% the% church,% but% also% within% science,% medicine% and% education.% These% confessions% altogether% allowed% for% an% extensive% archive% of% sexual% practice% to% be% constituted% (Foucault% 1976,% 63),% and% a% system%of%classifications%to%come%into%being.%Instead%of%seeing%sex%as%silenced,%Foucault%argues,%there%has%on%the% contrary% been% an% explosion% of% discourse% that% imposes% clear% rules.% By% means% of% this% discourse,% individuals% regulate% their% lives% and% the% lives% of% others.% Foucault% defines% this% process% in% later% work% as% governmentality* (Burchell,%Gordon%and%Miller%eds.%1991);%we%might%believe%ourselves%to%be%free,%but%in%fact%we%are%governed%by% the% prevailing% rationalities% of% society.% In% the% end,% this% is% where% a% strong% and% powerful% norm% becomes% established.%%

% Subsequently,% the% second% chapter% focuses% on% the% dominant% ideas% in% society% about% children% and%

childhood%that%played%–%and%still%plays%–%an%important%role%in%shaping%the%children’s%audience%and%the%programs% produced%for%them.%As%the%notion%of%the%vulnerable%child%prevails,%children%are%perceived%to%be%in%need%of%an% appropriate%sort%of%foundational%content%to%guide%them%into%growing%up%in%the%right%manner.%It%is%common%to% believe% that% every% age% has% different% wants% and% needs,% resulting% in% the% production% of% various% television% programs:% from% baby% TV% to% teenage% dramas.% Furthermore,% as% there% are% strong% ideas% about% differing% gender% preferences,%several%programs%are%clearly%targeted%at%either%girls%or%boys.%%These%theories,%then,%also%play%an% important%role%in%forming%parent’s%ideas%about%what%is%appropriate%children%television%for%their%child,%as%will%be% discussed%in%the%discourse%analysis.%%

%% The%research%method%of%this%study%will%be%described%in%the%third%chapter.%Following%the%methodological%

approach% of% Wetherell% and% Potter,% discourse% analysis% is% conducted% on% five% interviews% with% the% total% of% six% parents.%The%interviews%took%form%as%conversations%of%1%to%1,5%hours%about%parenting,%gender%and%appropriate% children’s%television.%Consequently,%three%major%repertoires%emerged%and%will%be%outlined%in%the%fourth%chapter:% ‘be%yourself’,%‘big,%bad%world’%and%‘do%not%blame%me’.%Governmentality%proves%to%be%very%effective%here,%as%the% parents’% ideas% are% strongly% based% on% prevailing% ideological% narratives.% On% the% one% hand,% parents% pose% as% liberals:%they%are%very%clear%about%giving%their%children%all%the%freedom%to%develop.%At%the%same%time,%without% seemingly%being%aware%of%it,%parents%try%to%adjust%their%‘ignorant’%and%vulnerable%children%to%societal%norms%as% much%as%they%can.%They%fear%that%if%their%child%deviates%too%much,%bullies%will%take%advantage%and%disrupt%their% path%to%prosperity.%Lastly,%when%parents%do%not%manage%to%control%their%child,%they%exhibit%powerlessness.%They% stress%that%as%a%parent,%you%cannot%be%blamed.%Children%have%their%own%identities%and%there%is%nothing%you%can% do%about%it.%%

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%% The% conclusion/discussion% chapter% focuses% on% a% select% number% of% interesting% findings% that% gave% this%

study% new% direction% during% the% research% and% writing% process.% Initially% the% assumption% was% that% the% nature/nurture%debate%would%play%a%large%role%in%gender%discussions.%Within%this%expectation,%gender%behaviour% that%fits%the%norm%would%be%labelled%‘nature’%and%gender%behaviour%that%deviates%the%norm%would%be%caused%by% ‘nurture’.%As%a%result%of%the%research%conducted,%however,%it%was%found%that%the%nature/nurture%debate%did%not% seem%to%play%a%role%in%the%interviewees’%ideas.%While%both%concepts%were%frequently%used%to%support%the%claims% parents%were%making,%it%became%apparent%that%the%nature%argument%was%also%used%to%explain%deviating%gender% behaviour%and%the%nurture%argument%was%also%used%to%explain%‘normalised’%gender%behaviour.%As%parent’s%move% along%different%repertoires%in%trying%to%grasp%and%explain%their%children’s%behaviour,%they%–%both%deliberately%

and% without% apparently% being% aware% of% it% –% disregard% the% inconsistency% in% their% speech.% Lastly,% some%

possibilities%for%future%research%and%academic%exploration%are%suggested.% %

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1":"ESTABLISHING GENDER NORMALITY

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At% all% levels% of% society,% individuals% and% institutes% seem% to% codoperate% in% reproducing% and% maintaining% the% established%gender%dichotomy.%As%the%discourse%analysis%of%this%study%will%point%out,%parents%as%well%play%a%role% in%reproducing%the%gender%norm%when%raising%their%children.%Without%ostensibly%being%aware%of%it,%they%try%to% conform%their%children%to%a%norm%in%which%‘boys%will%be%boys’%and%‘girls%will%be%girls’.%In%this%chapter,%the%central% ideas%of%poststructuralists%Judith%Butler%and%Michel%Foucault%–%two%leading%theorists%within%the%field%of%gender% studies%–%will%be%discussed.%Their%aim%is%to%lay%bare%the%complexity%of%the%concepts%of%gender%and%sexuality%and% to%explain%how%these%dichotomous%notions%have%become%established%and%are%continuously%reproduced%in%our% society.%As%they%both%argue,%the%dominant%norm%of%compulsory%heterosexuality%prescribes%how%people%have%to% behave% and% everyone% deviating% from% this% norm% is% only% moderately% tolerated.% This% seems% to% be% exactly% what% horrifies%parents%when%talking%about%parenting%their%children,%as%will%be%shown%later%on%in%this%thesis.%%

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The"troublesome"concept"of"gender"

Pigeonholing% –% the% attempt% to% classify% individuals% into% a% small% number% of% categories% –% appears% to% be% an% important% tool% for% people% to% introduce% some% order% to% the% incomprehensible% complexity% of% humanity.% Stable% gender% categories% specifically% help% people% to% make% sense% of% and% recognize% the% identities% of% individuals.% Consequently,%as%Judith%Butler%states,%an%infant%becomes%humanized%only%when%qualified%as%either%boy%or%girl% (1990,% 111).% Being% genderless% or% androgynous,% on% the% contrary,% produces% incomprehension% and% confusion% amongst%people,%as%X:*a*Fabulous*Child’s*Story%funnily%but%strikingly%describes:%%

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The*day*the*Joneses*brought*their*baby*home,*lots*of*friends*and*relatives*came*to*see*it.*And*the*first* thing*they*asked*was,*what*kind*of*a*baby*X*was.*When*the*Joneses*said,*“It’s*an*X!"*nobody*knew* what*to*say.*They*couldn't*say,*"Look*at*her*cute*little*dimples!"*On*the*other*hand,*they*couldn't*say,* "Look* at* his* husky* little* biceps!"* And* they* didn’t* feel* right* about* saying* just* plain* "kitchycoo".* The* relatives* all* felt* embarrassed* about* having* an* X* in* the* family.* "People* will* think* there's* something* wrong*with*it!"*they*whispered.*"Nonsense!"*the*Joneses*said*stoutly.*"What*could*possibly*be*wrong* with*this*perfectly*adorable*X?"*(Gould*1978,*n.*pag.)*

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As% this% fictional% illustration% shows,% to% be% a% ‘boy’% or% ‘girl’% entails% a% whole% range% of% meanings% and% behavioural% codes%that%contribute%to%the%coming%to%grips%with%the%identity%of%a%person.%For%example,%being%a%girl%‘means’%the% child%will%like%the%colour%pink,%will%play%with%dolls%and%will%look%cute.%Being%a%boy,%on%the%contrary,%‘means’%the% child%will%be%loud,%will%like%playing%rough%and%will%look%tough.%But%how%did%we%come%so%far%as%to%believe%there% exist%two%very%rigid%categories:%men%and%women,%a%distinction%we%seem%to%be%hypersensitive%about?%% %% To%start%with,%it%is%generally%believed%that%sex%originates%from%biology:%one%has%female%or%male%genitals% and%is%thus%congenitally%designated%as%either%woman%or%man.%On%the%other%hand,%gender%is%seen%as%culturally% constructed%and%the%result%of%socialization.%According%to%Butler,%however,%the%concepts%of%sex%and%gender%are% much%more%complex%than%that.%Assuming%for%the%moment%that%sex%is%indeed%a%strict%binary%category%–%that%one%

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is%born%and%fixed%as%either%a%man%or%woman%–%there%is%no%reason%to%assume%that%gender%is%binary%as%well,%Butler% claims%(1990,%6).%If%we%are%to%understand%gender%as%culturally%constructed%and%thus%not%biologically%fixed,%it%does% not%derive%in%any%way%from%a%‘natural’%sex.%It%seems%more%logical,%in%that%case,%to%assume%gender%could%be%an% endless%amount%of%possibilities.%On%the%contrary,%if%we%are%to%understand%gender%and%sex%as%one%and%the%same% thing,% it% is% still% not% possible% to% know% what% is% ‘real’% and% ‘true’.% That% is,% the% idea% of% a% ‘natural% state’% is% always% constructed% within% culture% and% has% changed% in% different% social% and% historical% contexts% (Krijnen,% Alvares% and% Bauwel%2011,%116).%It%is%therefore%not%possible%to%know%what%is%outside%of%itself,%as%will%be%explained%later%on%in% this%section.%Furthermore,%what%proof%do%we%have%that%one%is%either%‘male’%or%‘female’?%Tonny%Krijnen,%Claudia% Alvares% and% Sofie% van% Bauwel% argue% that% being% fully% male% or% being% fully% female% are% only% two% extremes% on% a% range%of%endless%possible%identities%(2011,%118).%The%fact%that%these%extremes%are%the%most%common%has%led%to% the%acceptance%of%this%binary%as%both%natural%and%normal%(Krijnen,%Alvares%and%Bauwel%2011,%118d119).%Anne% FaustodSterling%suggests%that%the%understanding%of%variation%in%sexuality,%allows%us%‘to%conceptualise%the%less% frequent% middle% spaces% as% natural% although% statistically% more% unusual’% (qtd.% in% Krijnen,% Alvares% and% Bauwel% 2011,%119).%Indeed,%what%if%sex%is%not%that%cleardcut,%but%instead%a%grey%area,%a%type%of%scale%ranging%from%‘man’% to%‘woman’?%% % The%presumption%that%one%is%either%a%woman%or%a%man%and%that%there%is%coherence%between%one’s%sex,% gender,%sexual%practices%and%desires%is%maintained%within%the%heterosexual%matrix*of*intelligibility%(Butler%1990,% 17).%To%be%recognizable%and%comprehensible%as%a%person,%identity%is%forced%to%remain%fixed%through%time.%Sex,% gender%and%desire%must%all%follow%the%same%path%and%identities%that%are%incoherent%and%discontinuous%simply% cannot%exist.%Butler%asserts%that:%% % I*use*the*term*heterosexual*matrix*(…)*to*designate*that*grid*of*cultural*intelligibility*through*which* bodies,* genders,* and* desires* are* naturalized.* I* am* drawing* from* Monique* Wittig’s* notion* of* the* “heterosexual* contract”* and* to* a* lesser* extent,* on* Adrienne* Rich’s* notion* of* “compulsory* heterosexuality”*to*characterize*a*hegemonic*discursive/epistemological*model*of*gender*intelligibility* that*assumes*that*for*bodies*to*cohere*and*make*sense*there*must*be*a*stable*sex*expressed*through*a* stable* gender* (masculine* expresses* male,* feminine* expresses* female)* that* is* oppositionally* and* hierarchically*defined*through*the*compulsory*practice*of*heterosexuality.%(1990,*151)*

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According%to%Kristi%Tredway,%it%is%through%visual%characteristics%that%people%are,%in%the%first%place,%recognized%as% a%particular%sex%and%a%particular%gender%(2014,%169).%Following%this%observed%information,%the%onlooker%assumes% a% particular% sexuality% –% heterosexuality% or% homosexuality% –% for% the% individual% in% question.% Following% this% heterosexual%matrix%(see%table%on%the%next%page)%an%individual%who%is%recognized%as%female%and%feminine%would% be% understood% as% being% heterosexual.% A% male% who% is% recognized% as% feminine,% however,% is% assumed% to% be% homosexual.%When%gender%does%not%follow%from%sex,%or%when%desires%and%practices%do%not%follow%from%sex%or% gender,%one%fails%to%conform%to%the%compulsory%norm%of%intelligibility%and%is%treated%as%a%deviation%(Butler%1990,% 17).% Tredway% argues% that% ‘this% is% how% the% majority% of% people% make% sense% of% other% people’% (2014,% 169).% Consequently,%this%heterosexual%matrix%has%led%to%the%establishment%of%a%strict%norm,%presuming%that%women%or%

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men% naturally% belong% to% unitary,% universal% and% stable% categories,% which% eventually% results% in% a% massive% misrepresentation%of%human%bodies.%%

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Sex" " Gender" " Sexuality"

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Male%

+"

Masculine% !% Heterosexual%

Female%

+

% Feminine% !% Heterosexual%

% % % % %

Male%

+

% Feminine% !% Homosexual%

Female%

+

% Masculine% !% Homosexual%

Source:%inspired%by%table%of%Kristi%Tredway%(2014,%169)%

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% The%existence%of%a%natural%sex%that%‘logically’%results%in%a%stable%category%is%problematic,%Butler%claims.%

Yet%it%has%been%a%point%of%reference%for%many%movements,%including%feminism%that%expresses%the%interests%of% ‘women’.%Although%it%has%been%important%for%feminism%to%produce%a%category%of%women%to%be%able%to%increase% political% visibility,% the% trouble% with% representing% a% category% is% that% all% other% components% of% an% identity% are% overlooked.%Instead%of%understanding%‘women’%as%a%common%identity,%gender%should%be%seen%as%intersecting% with% race,% class,% ethnicity% and% sexuality% resulting% in% a% myriad% of% identities% (Butler% 1990,% 5).% Butler% therefore% advocates%the%incompleteness%of%the%category,%resulting%in%the%inclusion%of%all%‘women’%who%did%not%originally% feel%like%being%part%of%the%category.%Identity,%then,%will%turn%out%as%an%open%and%changing%composition%without%a% defined%and%determined%norm.%%

%% Furthermore,% genders% are% complex% and% never% permanent% or% fixed% (1990,% 16).% Butler% proposes% to%

understand%being%a%gender%as%a%process%without%a%fixed%end%(1990,%33).%According%to%Butler,%if%there%is%one%thing% right% about% Simone% de% Beauvoir’s% claim% that% ‘one% is% not% born,% but% rather% becomes% a% woman’% (qtd.% in% Butler% 1990,%33),%it%is%that%the%concept%of%‘women’%is%a%construction,%open%to%redsignification%and%regulated%by%various% social% practices.% It% is% never% fully% possible% to% become% a% complete% woman.% According% to% Butler,% gender% is% the% highly% regulated% repetition% of% acts% that% stylize% the% body% as% a% ‘woman’% or% a% ‘man’.% Repeating% these% acts% and% gestures%produce%the%illusion%of%a%natural%sort%of%being,%an%internal%gender%essence%(1990,%33),%but%do%not%have% an%ontological%reality%apart%from%the%performance%that%forms%its%realness.%If%this%is%correct%and%gender%is%indeed% an%illusion,%it%can%never%be%true%or%false%(Butler%1990,%136).%Or%in%other%words,%if%there%is%no%identity%that%exists% prior% to% performance,% there% can% be% no% real% or% true% gender% (Butler% 1990,% 141).% Butler% advocates% the% deconstruction%of%this%substantive%appearance%of%gender,%unmasking%the%acts%that%create%the%appearance%of%a% natural%identity.%As%a%result,%instead%of%excluding%many%people%who%fail%to%conform%to%the%norm,%there%can%exist%

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an%innumerable%amount%of%gender%possibilities%that%incorporate%everyone,%making%the%norms%and%traditional% definitions%ultimately%meaningless.%%

% It%is%almost%always%through%the%fabrication%of%an%essence,%Foucault%clarifies,%that%the%norm%selfdjustifies%

itself% (qtd.% in% Butler% 1990,% 72).% Such% a% ‘natural% state% of% being’% appears% to% have% always% already% existed,% even%

before%the%emergence%of%the%norm,%which%makes%it%seem%necessary%and%historically%inevitable%(Butler%1990,%36).%

The% construct% of% a% natural% state% that% exists% before% the% emergence% of% the% norm% always% serves% an% after* the% emergence%of%the%norm%in%that%it%either%justifies%the%already%existing%norm,%or%it%seeks%to%describe%an%alternative% ‘natural%state’:%a%utopian%before%that%promises%to%redemerge%after*(Butler%1990,%75).%As%will%be%shown%in%the% discourse%analysis%discussed%in%chapter%three,%all%six%of%the%parents%have%referred%to%prehistory%–%when%culture% and%the%norm%allegedly%did%not%yet%exist%–%as%a%time%where%men%were%hunters%and%women%took%care%of%the% children.% This% image% of% a% before% the% law% is% used% by% parents% to% justify% an% after% the% law:% the% belief% that% men% naturally%are%strong%and%women%instinctively%are%caretakers.%Following%Butler,%it%is%not%possible%to%know%what%is% prior% to% the% law,% since% this% narration% inevitably% takes% place% within,% and% is% structured% by,% language.% It% is% not% possible%to%know%what%is%outside%of%itself%(1990,%74)%and%we%can%never%know%what%would%be%‘natural’,%as%the% idea%of%‘natural’%is%always%constructed%within%a%culture.%Therefore,%the%norm%cannot%and%should%not%be%justified% based%on%this%ostensible%‘natural’%state%of%being.%

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An"explosion"of"discourse"

Following% Foucault,% our% ideas% of% sexuality% are% dominated% by% one% story% specifically:% the* repressive* hypothesis* (1976,%10).%This%theory%argues%that%only%the%procreating%couple%–%the%reproductive%sexual%relationship%between% one%man%and%one%woman%–%is%legitimate%and%that%all%other%sexual%practices%and%desires%that%deviate%from%this% standard%are%repressed.%Put%differently,%everything%other%than%the%heterosexual%couple%has%no%right%to%exist.% Consequently,%power%is%seen%as%negative:%it%excludes,%represses,%conceals,%blocks%and%refuses.%The%only%thing% power%can%do%is%say%no%and%it%acts%by%imposing%a%norm%and%establishing%a%system%of%the%licit%and%illicit%(Foucault% 1976,% 83).% Foucault,% however,% does% not% believe% power% works% through% repression% and% denial,% but% through% a% much%more%complex%and%positive%technology.%He%argues%in%favour%for%seeing%sexuality%as%something%produced,% specified%and%amplified.%%

%% For%a%long%time,%Foucault%claims,%sovereign%usurpers%had%the%right%to%decide%life%and%death;%this%power%

could%take%life%or%let%live.%Since%the%classical%age,%however,%this%major%form%of%power%has%become%only%one%out% of%many%mechanisms%to%control%and%regulate%the%population%(1976,%136).%Eventually,%the%highest%function%of% power% became% the% investment% in% life% by% administrating% the% body,% resulting% in% an% explosion% of% techniques% to% control%populations.%The%deployment%of%sexuality%is%one%of%the%most%important%amongst%them:%%

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Sex*was*a*means*of*access*both*to*the*life*of*the*body*and*the*life*of*the*species.*It*was*employed*as*a* standard*for*disciplines*and*as*a*basis*for*regulations.*This*is*why*in*the*nineteenth*century*sexuality*was* sought*out*in*the*smallest*details*of*individual*existences;*it*was*tracked*down*in*behaviour,*pursued*in* dreams;* it* was* suspected* of* underlying* the* least* follies,* it* was* traced* back* into* the* earliest* years* of* childhood;*it*became*the*stamp*of*individuality.*(Foucault*1976,*146)*

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Hence,%instead%of%silencing%sexuality%there%seems%to%be%rather%an%explosion%of%discourse.%That%is,%an%expansion% of%a%‘group%of%statements%which%provide%a%language%for%talking%about%–%a%way%of%representing%the%knowledge% about%–%a%particular%topic%at%a%particular%historical%moment’%(Hall%1992,%291).%Discourse%is%about%the%production% of%knowledge%through%language,%in%order%to%make%sense%of%the%world.%% %% One%form%of%producing%knowledge%about%sexuality%was%through%confession,%which%became%a%rule%for%

every%good%Christian%in%the%17th%century%(Foucault%1976,%20d21).%People%talked%about%their%memories,%senses,%

thoughts,%dreams%and%actions%of%sex%(Foucault%1976,%17).%Yet%the%church%did%not%remain%the%only%institution%that% supported% the% production% of% discourse% on% sex;% other% institutions% started% to% play% a% part% as% well.% We% not% only% confess%in%church,%but%also%in%criminal%justice%system,%medicine,%education%and%relationships.%We%confess%or%are% forced% to% confess% our% crimes,% sins,% thoughts% and% desires,% illnesses% and% troubles% (Foucault% 1976,% 59).% It% is% believed%that%confession%frees%and%power%silences,%as%truth%equals%freedom.%Through%all%recorded%confessions% ‘a% great% archive% of% pleasures% of% sex% [was]% gradually% constituted’% (Foucault% 1976,% 63)% and% a% system% of% classifications% became% established% in% an% attempt% to% reveal,% decipher% and% formulate% the% uniform% truth% of% sexuality.%As% a% result,% a% countless% number% of% discourses% took% form% in% several% domains,% such% as% demography,% medicine,%psychiatry%and%pedagogy.%Hence,%instead%of%seeing%sex%as%a%silenced%taboo,%we%should%understand%sex% as%proliferated.%Sex%was%considered%something%that%needed%to%be%managed%and%controlled,%since%the%future%and% fortune%was%seen%as%‘tied%not%only%to%number%and%uprightness%of%its%citizens,%to%their%marriage%rules%and%family% organization,% but% to% the% manner% in% which% each% individual% made% use% of% his% sex’% (Foucault% 1976,% 26).% If% not% controlled,%sex%could%transmit%diseases%or%even%afflict%future%generations,%which%in%turn%could%lead%to%the%death% of% individuals% or% even% the% species% itself% (Foucault% 1976,% 53d54).% The% norms% of% the% state% were% justified% by% a% biological%‘truth’,%ingrained%in%agedold%illusions%(Foucault%1976,%55).%This%truth%was%in%reality%produced,%Foucault% notes,%as%others%were%concealed.%(1976,%56)%

%The% discursive% explosion% caused% two% major% developments.% First,% the% main% focus% came% to% lie% on% heterosexual%monogamy%(Foucault%1976,%38).%Second,%all%sexualities%other%than%the%heterosexual%couple%came% under%scrutiny:%the%child,%criminal,%homosexual%and%psychopath.%All%these%ostensibly%‘unnatural’%cases%became%a% specific,%demonized%dimension%of%sexuality%(Foucault%1976,%39)%and%were%seen%as%abominable%and%‘against%the% law’% (Foucault% 1976,% 38).% The% homosexual% –% a% new% species% with% ‘a% hermaphrodism% of% the% soul’% –% became% a% category,%amongst%many%others%(Foucault%1976,%43).%Every%unorthodox%category%of%a%nature%not%accounted%for% by%the%norm%was%given%a%name.%The%aim%of%these%categorizations%was%not%to%repress%it,%Foucault%argues,%but%to% make%it%visible,%to%give%it%a%reality%and%manage%it%(Foucault%1976,%44).%Thus%instead%of%seeing%sex%reduced%to%the% heterosexual%couple,%one%could%also%argue%that%–%on%the%contrary%–%there%has%been%a%proliferation%of%different,% hierarchized%categories%of%sexuality%(Foucault%1976,%45).%In%other%words,%the%various%forms%of%sexuality%were% extended%instead%of%narrowed:%‘it%produced%and%determined%the%sexual%mosaic’%(Foucault%1976,%47)%constituted% and%confirmed%by%several%institutions%in%an%explosion%of%discourse.%% % Power/knowledge" Each%society%has%thus%established%its%own%‘regime%of%truth’:%a%collection%of%discourses%that%enables%people%to% divide%into%binary%oppositions,%such%as%natural/unnatural%and%good/wrong.%With%the%aim%to%improve%the%wealth%

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of%the%population,%Foucault%states,%several%institutions%such%as%science%and%medicine%have%played%an%important% part% in% creating% these% discourses% that% are% subsequently% maintained% and% reinforced% by% media,% education% and% politics%(qtd.%in%Rabinow%1984,%73).%The%discourses%are%found%everywhere%throughout%society:%‘in%our%individual% and%collective%psyches,%social%institutions,%cultural%practices,%and%knowledge%systems’%(Yep%2003,%11).%Hence,% instead% of% understanding% the% norm% as% enforced% by% one% headquarter% and% thereby% perceiving% power% as% topd down,%Foucault%proposes%to%understand%power%to%work%through%normalization.%That%is,%normalization%comes% about% as% people% incorporate% certain% ideas% into% their% daily% thought% structure,% and% consequently% adjust% their% habits%to%conform%to%the%supposed%norms%embodied%by%said%ideas.%Governmentality,%as%Foucault%names%this% practice,%should%be%understood%as%a%broad%activity%that%controls%at%all%levels%of%society%(Burchell,%Gordon%and% Miller%eds.%1991,%3;%Foucault%1976,%92).%Accordingly,%government%is%not%merely%an%authority%that%reigns%over% society% through% punishment% and% prohibition,% as% it% is% impossible% to% observe% and% regulate% every% individual% in% society%at%every%moment.%Distinct%from%discipline,%whereby%a%limited%group%of%people%in%an%enclosed%space%such% as%a%prison%or%a%school%can%be%corrected%through%continuous%surveillance,%government%operates%by%educating% ambitions%and%through%shaping%habits%and%knowledge%(Li%2007,%275).%In%other%words,%governmentality%is%‘the% conduct%of%the%conduct’,%meaning%a%practice%that%aims%to%shape%the%conduct%of%people%(Burchell,%Gordon%and% Miller% eds.% 1991,% 2).% By% virtue% of% the% continuous% reproduction% and% internalization% of% dominant% discourses,% individuals%regulate%their%own%lives%and%the%lives%of%others.%And%most%importantly,%they%do%this%‘voluntarily’%–%or% so%they%think.%As%Tania%Murray%Li%describes:% % Persuasion*might*be*applied,*as*authorities*attempt*to*gain*consent.*But*this*is*not*the*only*course.* When*power*operates*at*a*distance,*people*are*not*necessarily*aware*of*how*their*conduct*is*being* conducted*or*why,*so*the*question*of*consent*does*not*arise.*(Li*2007,*275)% % As%a%consequence%of%the%invisibility%of%this%form%of%power,%people%are%not%aware%of%the%control%and%therefore%do% not%often%resist%it.%By%teaching%citizens%what%is%important%or%meaningless,%safe%or%dangerous,%right%or%wrong,% they%naturally%act%upon%this%knowledge%and%pass%it%on%to%their%children,%friends%and%neighbours.%This%is,%then,% where%a%powerful%norm%comes%into%being.%Even%though%we%believe%we%are%free%and%that%we%are%able%to%make% our%own%decisions,%in%reality%we%are%governed%by%constructed%rationalities.%% %% It%should%be%noted%here%that%opposition%as%well%exists%in%a%plurality%of%points%of%resistance.%That%is,%we% are%not%by%definition%stuck%to%the%established%norm,%as%points%of%resistance%can%remould%power%relations%and% make%revolutions%possible%in%a%similar%manner%as%force%relations%are%combined%to%an%overall%effect%of%‘power’.% Discourse% can% therefore% be% both% an% instrument% and% an% effect% of% power,% but% also% a% hindrance,% a% point% of% resistance%and%a%starting%point%for%a%new%strategy.%Discourse%transmits,%reinforces%and%produces%power,%but%also% undermines%it,%or,%as%Foucault%puts%it:%‘Discourses%are%tactical%elements%or%blocks%operating%in%the%field%of%force% relations;%there%can%exist%different%and%even%contradictory%discourses%within%the%same%strategy’%(Foucault%1976,% 101d102).%% %% To%summarize,%Foucault%argues%it%is%through%discourse%that%people%voluntarily%govern%themselves%and% others.%If%we%aim%to%understand%how%parents%‘govern’%their%children%into%the%‘right’%gender%behaviour,%it%will%be%

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relevant%to%analyse%their%ideas%about%children,%childhood%and%gender.%Indeed,%as%will%become%clear%in%chapter% four,%parents%have%a%clear%set%of%repertoires%that%determine%what%they%believe%is%appropriate%for%their%children% and%through%which%they%carefully%consider%their%parenting%styles.%Governmentality%effectively%does%its%job%here,%

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2 – CONSTRUCTING CHILDREN’S TELEVISION

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With%the%invention%of%television%a%separate%audience%of%children%came%into%being%and%an%outbreak%of%discussion% and%debates%arose%about%what%appropriate%children’s%television%should%look%like.%Ever%since,%ideas%concerning% children,%childhood,%gender%and%television%have%been%very%important%in%the%formation%of%children’s%television% and% remain% especially% crucial% for% parents% in% determining% the% televisionddiet% of% their% children.% Children% would% have% specific% needs,% differing% from% the% adult% audience.% Furthermore,% within% the% category% of% children% it% is% believed%that%different%ages%have%different%wishes%and%that%girls%have%other%interests%than%boys.%This%chapter% focuses%on%these%prevailing%ideas%about%children%and,%as%will%become%apparent%later%in%this%thesis,%they%form%a% strong%foundation%for%parents’%ideas%about%children’s%television,%gender%identities%and%parenting.% % Children"and"childhood" In%contemporary%Western%society%it%is%common%to%understand%children%and%adults%as%distinct%categories,%with% diverging%needs%and%desires.%When%provided%with%the%‘right’%role%models%and%education,%children%will%eventually% grow%up%as%‘good’%citizens.%Nevertheless,%this%idea%that%children%should%be%segregated%from%the%adult%world%–% growing% up% in% their% own% customized% childhood% with% censured% and% ‘appropriate’% newspapers,% books% and% television%programs%at%their%disposal%–%has%not%always%been%obvious.%Following%David%Buckingham,%the%concept% of%childhood%is%not%universal,%determined%by%biology,%but%on%the%contrary%a%construct%with%no%definite%meaning% (2000,%6).%In%different%cultures,%times%and%social%groups,%children%have%been%regarded%in%various%ways.%Hence,%a% description%of%the%category%children%can%never%be%neutral%or%natural.%The%meaning%of%childhood%shifts%and%is% defined%in%opposition%to%the%category%of%‘adults’%(Buckingham%2002,%6).%Consequently,%a%child%is%defined%by%what% it% is% not* and% through% the% exclusion% from% practices% that% are% labeled% as% adult,% for% instance% drinking% alcohol% or% having%sexual%intercourse%(Buckingham%2000,%7).%% The%separate%phase%of%a%childhood%has%not%always%been%selfdevident.%Before%the%17th%century,%children% where%seen%as%miniature%adults.%Both%adults%and%children%had%the%same%newspapers%and%books%available%for% them%and%children%were%confronted%with%matters%now%considered%to%be%appropriate%for%adults%only%(Valkenburg% 2008,%8).%John%Harold%Plumb%states%that%‘[t]here%was%no%separate%world%of%childhood.%Children%shared%the%same% games%with%adults,%the%same%toys,%the%same%fairy%stories.%They%lived%their%lives%together,%never%apart’%(qtd.%in% Kline% 1998,% 97).% From% the% second% half% of% the% 18th% century,% the% Enlightenment% changed% notions% of% what% was% suitable% for% children% and% what% was% not.% Philosophers% believed% human% beings% –% especially% children% –% to% be% naturally%innocent,%and%individual%differences%were%believed%to%originate%from%context.%The%environment%could% therefore% either% have% a% positive,% stimulating% effect% on% children% or% a% negative,% damaging% effect% (Valkenburg% 2008,%9).%French%enlightenment%philosopher%JeandJacques%Rousseau,%for%example,%stressed%the%importance%of% children%growing%up%in%an%environment%protected%from%the%adult%world.%In%his%book%Émile*ou*l’education*(1762)% he% pleads% for% a% youth% period% in% which% children% are% confronted% not% with% adult% material% but% instead% with% education.%The%upbringing,%Rousseau%claims,%should%offer%children%the%chance%to%form%their%identity,%without%

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being%confronted%by%the%anxieties%of%the%adult%world.%As%a%result,%the%children%would%grow%up%as%civilized%beings% and%would%show%less%aggression%and%distrust%as%adults%(Valkenburg%2008,%9).%%

%Although% the% idea% of% youth% was% a% privilege% for% the% aristocracy% and% the% bourgeoisie% until% the% 19th% century%–%and%in%some%cases%it%remained%so%for%even%longer%–%censured%versions%of%books%specifically%aimed%at%

children%did%start%to%replace%newspapers%and%adult%books.%It%is%only%since%the%beginning%of%the%20th%century,%Patti%

Valkenburg%argues,%that%a%youth%period%has%spread%to%the%whole%western%society:%a%period%in%which%children% have%a%relative%carefree%life,%separated%from%the%adult%world%(2008,%10).%Two%acts%illustrate%this%development:% the%Child%Labour%Act%introduced%in%1874%(Schenkeveld%2003,%9)%and%the%Compulsory%Education%Act%introduced%in% 1901% (“Geschiedenis”% 2015).%The% youth% period% flourished% in% the% 20th% century% as% children% were% shut% off% from% daily%life%en*masse.%Strict%rules%determined%what%was%appropriate%for%children%and%what%was%not;%stories%for% children%were%meant%to%educate%and%were%deprived%from%every%taboo%imaginable%(Valkenburg%2008,%10).%This%

paradigm* of* the* vulnerable* child,% as% Valkenburg% names% it,% dominated% for% a% century% and% became% only%

questioned%by%the%1960’s.%It%was%during%this%time%when%the%idea%that%it%could%be%morally%wrong%to%keep%children% in%a%fantasy%world%arose,%and%people%started%believing%it%would%be%better%to%confront%children%with%the%reality,% to%raise%their%awareness%of%the%world%in%which%they%live.%This%new%vision%of%childhood%came%into%being%due%to% the%many%emancipation%movements%of%that%time%and%resulted%in%the%opinion%that%children’s%media%should%bring% subjects%such%as%sexuality%and%death%up%for%discussion%(Valkenburg%2008,%10).%%% %% As%a%result,%children’s%television%began%to%concern%itself%with%subjects%once%only%appropriate%for%adults.% For%some%theorists,%this%was%a%problem%rather%than%progress.%From%the%1980’s%on,%a%growing%number%of%cultural% pessimists% and% children’s% psychologists% criticised% children% being% treated% as% miniature% adults,% instead% of% as% children.%For%example,%child%psychologist%David%Elkind%argues%in%The*Hurried*Child*(1981)%that%the%blurring%of% boundaries%of%what%is%agedappropriate%leads%to%crises%in%childhood.%Exposing%children%to%too%much%content%too% soon%results%in%children%being%too%quickly%forced%through%childhood%by%parents,%school%and%media.%Furthermore,% turning% children% into% adults% too% early% could% lead% to% stress,% insecurities,% depression% and% aggression,% Elkind% stresses,%as%children%would%not%be%allowed%to%be%children%anymore%(1981,%189d191).%Marie%Winn%explains%how%

children%were%not%allowed%to%make%choices%themselves%due%to%the%protectiveness%of%the%19th%century,%whereby%

they%became%rather%dependent%and%reliant%(1983,%47).%As%a%result,%children%came%to%behave%in%a%way%that%is%seen% as%typically%childdlike,%Winn%describes.%In%contemporary%society,%children%are%much%more%critical%and%less%quick% to%conform%to%authority%figures%(Winn%1983,%53).%Some%may%position%this%as%a%broader%move%towards%equality,% however% many% theorists% still% believe% that% children% have% special% needs% and% should% be% separated% from% and% subordinated% to% adults.% It% is% often% believed% children% need% to% be% protected% from% the% ‘harshness’% of% ‘adult’% matters,%such%as%sexuality.%Dafna%Lemish%explains:%‘Children’s%exposure%to%representations%of%sex%in%the%media% has%been%blamed%for%many%social%ills’.%Teenage%pregnancies,%premature%sexual%activity%and%the%decay%of%morals% and%values%in%modern%society%are%viewed%as%the%result%of%the%increase%in%sexuality%in%the%media%and%therefore% need%to%be%masked%(2011,%268).%Contemporary%children%would%know%and%do%too%much%too%soon,%when%they%are% perceived%as%not%yet%being%ready%for%sexual%knowledge%or%activity%(Renold%2006,%490).%%

%% Joshua% Meyrowitz% (1985)% and% Neil% Postman% (1983)% go% so% far% as% to% agree% on% the% concept% of% a%

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even% ‘the% death% of% childhood’% (2000,% 3).% A% growing% uncertainty% of% what% childhood% really% is% triggers% fear% in% contemporary% society,% Buckingham% explains.% Children% are% seen% as% threatened% and% will% eventually% become% uncontrollable%as%they%continue%to%be%raised%by%the%hyperdsexualized%media.%Since%children%now%have%access%to% ‘adult%information’,%both%Meyrowitz%and%Postman%speak%of%the%homogenisation%of%children%and%adults:%children% are% behaving% more% like% adults% and% adults% are% behaving% more% like% children.% The% line% between% these% two% categories% is% becoming% blurred,% or% has% possibly% disappeared% already.% But% is% the% phase% of% childhood% really% disappearing?%Or%is%it%only%a*particular*conceptualization%of%a%childhood%that%is%changing?%Although%frequently% overstated% and% oversimplified,% it% does% point% to% important% changes% in% our% society,% Buckingham% argues% (2000,% 33).%%

%% As%the%results%of%this%thesis’%discourse%analysis%will%show,%parents%are%indeed%guided%by%these%prevailing%

ideas% of% the% ignorant% child% who% is% in% need% of% protection,% when% they% describe% the% decisions% they% make% with% regard%to%their%children.%In%addition,%the%interviewees’%beliefs%about%what%type%of%television%is%appropriate%for% their%children%is%based%on%dominant%ideas%about%the%wants%and%needs%of%different%age%groups%and%gender.%These% ideas%will%be%discussed%in%the%following%paragraphs.%%

%

Constructing"the"child"television"audience%

Along% with% the% advent% of% television% several% audiences% have% come% into% being,% including% the% youth% audience.% Initially,% as% the% television% was% placed% in% the% centre% of% the% household,% young% children% watched% the% same% programs%as%older%children%and%adults.%Following%David%Oswell,%most%people%however%believed%young%children%

would%need%their%own%programs,%in%order%to%avoid%being%confronted%with%adult%subjects%(2002,"131).%As%a%result,%

for%the%first%time%in%history%a%separate%audience%category%of%children%came%into%being,%invented%by%broadcasters,% scientists% and% parents% (Oswell% 2002,% 7).% Similar% to% the% construction% of% childhood,% such% an% audience% is% not% a% natural,%predexisting%category.%Oswel%following%John%Hartley%states:% % In*no*case*is*the*audience*‘real’,*or*external*to*its*discursive*construction.*There*is*no*‘actual’*audience* that*lies*beyond*its*production*as*a*category,*which*is*to*say*that*audiences*are*only*ever*encountered* per%se*as*representations.%(Oswell*2002,*108)% % The%idea%that%children%can%be%grouped%together%into%one%essential%and%universal%category,%in%which%all%children% are%believed%to%have%the%same%interests,%is%an%obstinate%belief%(Oswell%2002,%53).%Even%so,%the%child%television% audience%as%a%category%engendered%much%debate%and%concern%–%more%than%any%other%audience.%As%children%are% believed% to% be% in% need% of% guidance% and% patronage,% or% what% Valkenburg% relates% to% as% the% paradigm* of* the*

vulnerable* child,% the% potential% of% children’s% television% was% to% educate% children;% to% encourage% them% to% stop%

watching% television% and% to% undertake% other% activities% instead.% Television% was% supposed% to% stimulate% intelligence,%imagination%and%problem%solving%and%to%educate%children%as%good,%active%citizens%who%would%be% concerned%with%the%wellbeing%of%society%(Oswell%2002,%50).%%

%% In% addition,% much% research% has% been% conducted% on% the% needs% and% preferences% of% different% age%and%

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behaviour,%interests%and%needs%through%generalization.%As%a%result,%norms%are%established%that%place%individuals% into%intelligible%categories.%The%theories%of%Jean%Piaget%(1929;%1954;%1981)%and%Lev%Vygotski%(1978)%specifically% have%been%important%in%establishing%clear%norms%concerning%the%development%of%children%and%still%provide%the% foundation%of%the%social%science’s%approach.%Similarly,%the%differing%needs%and%interests%of%subcategories%such%as% babies,%toddlers,%teenagers,%and%boys%and%girls%are%regularly%defined%and%exposed.%Patti%Valkenburg,%a%leading% social% scientist% in% the% field% of% children% and% media,% has% provided% such% an% overview% in% her% book%

Beeldschermkinderen% (2008).% She% argues% that% the% level% of% cognitive% development% determines% media%

preferences%and%therefore%–%depending%on%knowledge%and%understanding%–%different%age%groups%have%different% preferences%(2008,%2).%As%there%is%a%wide%consensus%on%the%belief%that%different%ages%wish%for,%or%even%need,% different%forms%of%programming,%these%ideas%consequently%play%an%important%role%in%the%construction%of%what%is% deemed%‘appropriate’%children’s%television.%% % Programs"based"on"age"

Notions% of% agedappropriate% television,% as% discussed% in% this% paragraph,% play% an% important% role% for% parents% in% determining%the%mediaddiet%of%their%children.%Parents%seem%to%understand%the%world%as%big%and%meandspirited% and% perceive% their% child% to% be% too% young% to% be% confronted% with% all% the% dangerous% content% the% world% has% to% offer.%It%is%therefore%believed%to%be%inappropriate%for%children%to%watch%adult%programs,%but%it%is%also%believed% that% young% children% need% other% programs% than% teenagers.% Following% the% moderateddiscrepancy% hypothesis,% Valkenburg% states% that% ‘young% children% pay% most% attention% to% television% content% that% is% only% moderately% discrepant% from% their% existing% knowledge% and% capabilities’% (Valkenburg% &% Vroone% 2004,% 288).% Consequently,% children%would%avoid%programs%they%do%not%understand%and%as%a%result,%every%age%group%favours%a%different%kind% of%content.%By%means%of%Valkenburg’s%overview,%the%following%norms%concerning%age%preferences%and%needs%are% established%in%four%groups:%

%%

[1]%% Children%ages%zero%to%two%years%old%show%a%preference%for%bright%colours,%contrasts%and%symmetrical%

faces.% Television% programs% with% coloured% puppets% and% an% emphasis% on% visual% and% auditory% characteristics,% such% as% Pitch* &* Potch* (2006),% tend% to% get% most% attention% from% very% young% children.% (Valkenburg% 2008,% 33)% The% developers% of% Sesame* Street* (1969)* were% the% first% to* realize% that% young% children%have%a%lot%of%attention%for%commercials%and%thus%Sesame*Street%was%structured%similarly:%with% short%stories%that%are%full%of%music,%rhyme%and%songs.%% % [2]%% From%the%ages%of%two%to%five,%children%start%to%develop%a%greater%interest%in%the%narrative%of%television% programs.%However,%they%still%have%a%preference%for%slow%paced%programs%with%a%lot%of%repetition%and% they%focus%on%familiar%situations,%with%friendly,%simple%characters%like%Dora*the*Explorer*(2000).%Young% children% show% less% interest% in% what% characters% do% or% say% and% concentrate% more% on% the% external% appearance%of%a%character:%if%they%look%friendly%or%mean,%for%example.%This%results%in%children%having% preference%for%simple,%colourful%and%unthreatening%characters%(Valkenburg%2008,%44).%

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[3]%% On%the%contrary,%children%ages%5%to%8%years%old%start%to%show%preference%for%less%friendly%characters%

and% faster,% more% complicated% entertainment.% Adventurous% and% dangerous% scenes% attract% their% attention,% with% situations% more% exciting% than% everyday% life.% The% popular% programs% contain% mainly% binary% characters,% such% as% good% versus% bad% and% men% versus% women% and% the% narration% is% often% characterised% by% simplicity% (Valkenburg% 2008,% 46).% Totally* Spies* (2001d2008),% for% example,% seems% to% focus%mainly%on%good%versus%bad%in%an%adventurous%Charlie’s*Angelsdlike%narrative.%

%

[4]%% Lastly,%children%ages%8%to%12%years%old%are%more%able%to%concentrate%on%details%and%have%a%more%critical%

approach%to%television%programs.%With%this%age%group,%the%narrative%obtains%a%more%significant%role,% while%special%effects%and%fantasy%figures%seem%to%impress%less.%On%the%contrary,%realism%is%an%important% theme% (Valkenburg% 2008,% 49),% with% real% situations,% social% perspectives% and% relations% that% the% viewer% understand%could%take%place%in%their%own%lives.%Degrassi:*The*Next*Generation*(2001),%for%example,%is%a% popular%teen%drama%series%that%follows%a%group%of%high%school%students%and%their%issues%in%life.%Children% of% the% 8% to% 12% age% group% are% able% to% recognize% and% understand% other% people’s% emotions,% which% determine%their%preferences%for%characters%that%show%resemblance%to%them.%This%offers%children%the% possibility%to%observe%situations%that%could%be%relevant%in%their%own%daydtodday%existence.%% % Programs"based"on"gender" Common%ideas%about%gender,%then,%play%a%role%in%what%is%believed%to%be%suitable%for%girls%and%suitable%for%boys.% Valkenburg%describes%the%emergence%of%sex*segregation*at%an%early%age:%boys%and%girls%divide%themselves%in%two% separate% and% distinct% groups% with% different% rules% and% norms% for% social% interaction% (2008,% 54).% Boys% have% a% preference%for%sport,%action%and%more%violent%forms%of%play,%she%argues,%and%girls%prefer%dolls,%fashion,%jewels% and% handicraft.% Whether% this% distinction% is% valid% or% not,% this% division% in% preferences% is% easily% traced% in% media% productions% too;% certain% programs% are% labeled% ‘for% girls’% and% others% ‘for% boys’.% Boys% are% believed% to% prefer% television% programs% with% sport,% action% and% violence.% They% would% prefer% more% dangerous,% adventurous% narratives%with%masculine%heroes,%athletes,%knights,%soldiers,%doctors%and%policemen.%Young%girls,%on%the%other%

hand,%are%believed%to%prefer%social%situations%with%castles,%dance%studios,%schools%and%farms.

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They%are%viewed%as%

identifying%with%photo%models,%dancers,%fairies%and%princesses.%%

%% Regardless%of%the%origin%of%this%ostensible%‘sex%segregation’%and%setting%aside%the%question%of%whether%

it% is% possible% to% draw% such% a% strict% division,% it% does% seem% to% shape% our% ideas% about% appropriate% television% programs% for% boys% and% girls.% Unfortunately,% it% is% not% possible% to% study% and% discuss% contemporary% children’s% television%programs%at%length%here,%in%order%to%produce%an%overview%of%programs%using%or%challenging%gender% stereotypes.%However,%following%Halberstam%one%could%argue%that%‘little%girls%are%sold%extremely%manipulative% narratives%about%princesses%and%unicorns%at%age%five%(2012,%16d17).%There%are%certainly%several%programs%that% include%gender%clichés,%or%at%least%on%the%surface.%It%seems%for%example%evident%that%many%feminine%characters% are% indicated% by% the% colour% pink,% such% as* in% Paw* Patrol* (2013),* Olive* the* Ostrich* (2011),* Calimero* (2014),*

Angelina* Ballerina* (2002d2005),* Chloe’s* Closet* (2010),* Strawberry* Shortcake% (2003d2008),% Het* Zandkasteel*

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and* Tenkai* Knights* (2013)* –* just% to% name% a% few.% Moreover,% many% programs% with% a% girl% as% main% character% revolve% around% stereotypical% themes% as% dancing,% princesses,% fairies% and% the% colour% pink,% as% we% can% see% in%

Angelina*Ballerina*(2002d2005),*Winx*Club*(2003)*and*Sofia*the*First*(2012).%On%the%contrary,%programs%with% boys%as%main%character%often%revolve%around%action,%rescues,%strength%and%sports,%as%we%can%see%in%Ultimate% SpiderMman*(2012),*Paw*Patrol*(2013)*and*Cars*Toons*(2008).%It%would%however%be%necessary%to%conduct%a%more% inddepth%analysis%of%these%programs%to%be%able%to%accurately%state%if%they%are%indeed%being%truly%stereotypical.%% %% Furthermore,%a%quantitative,%largedscale%media%analysis%of%over%6000%shows%in%24%different%countries% shows%that%there%are%twice%as%many%males%as%females%in%children’s%television%shows%(Götz%et%al.%2008).%On%public% television%only,%the%ratio%is%31%%female%to%69%%male.%In%addition,%female%characters%are%more%often%presented% as% equals% and% less% often% as% leaders,% as% Maya% Götz% et% al.% claim% (2008,% 6).% To% name% but% a% few% programs,% Paw*

Patrol*(2013),*The*Smurfs*(1981d1989),*Totally*Spies*(2001d2008)*and*Tenkai*Knights*(2013)*all%clearly%include% male%leaders.%Also,%15%%of%all%female%characters%are%shown%as%very%thin%–%as%we%can%see%in%for%example%Totally* Spies*(2001d2008),*Winx*Club*(2003)%and%Kim*Possible%(2002d2007)%–%more%than%twice%as%often%as%their%male% counterparts%(Götz%et%al.%2008,%8).%Based%on%the%results%of%the%analysis,%Götz%et%al.%show%their%concern%about%the% consequences%of%these%unrealistic%representations.%As%television%offers%images%of%the%world,%children%can%base% their%ideas%about%what%it%means%to%be%a%girl%or%a%boy%on%these%representations%(2008,%4).%It%would,%however,%not% be%fair%to%argue%that%all%programs%reiterate%these%typical%clichés,%as%there%are%also%many%programs%that%attempt% to%actively%oppose%the%stereotypes.%Yet%even%though%there%might%be%an%increase%in%brave%and%strong%girls%on% children’s%television,%the%representation%of%women%is%still%very%limited.%Götz%et%al.%following%Stacy%L.%Smith%state:% % While*women*may*no*longer*be*presented*solely*as*helpless*victims,*however,*regardless*of*the*role* they* take* on,* they* are* almost* always* impeccably* beautiful* and* longing* for* the* love* of* their* life.* In* addition,*females*are*hyperMsexualised*five*times*more*often*than*males.*(2008,*4)*

*

Totally* Spies* (2001d2008),% for% example,% revolves% around% three% strong% heroines% endeavouring% on% rescue%

missions.%Apart%from%their%rescue%missions%we%follow%Sam,%Alex%and%Clover%in%their%personal,%daily%lives%in%which% boys,% fashion,% appearance% and% friends% dominate% the% narrative.% Götz% et% al.% following% Matthew% P.% McAllister% notes%that%even%these%super%heroines%seem%to%be%defined%and%characterised%by%appearance%(2008,%4).%It%would% however%be%helpful%to%conduct%a%more%inddepth%analysis%of%Totally*Spies*(2001d2008)%before%claiming%the%girls% are%portrayed%solely%in%a%stereotypical%way.%Joke%Hermes%for%example%argues%that%‘whereas%the%surface%text%is% all%about,%boys,%fashion%and%shopping,%the%girls%are%all%about%business%in%spy%mode’%(2005,%130)%Moreover,%she% continues%to%argue%that%the%series%also%offer%ironic%references%to%topics%such%as%plastic%surgery,%beauty%contests% and%cheerleading.%%

* To% summarize,% it% seems% that% ideas% about% what% ‘girls’% want% and% what% ‘boys’% need% resound% in% the%

television% programs% designed% for% them.% Many% ‘girl% programs’% revolve% around% appearance,% finding% love% and% boys,%while%‘boy%programs’%revolve%around%sports%and%action.%Subsequently,%these%stories%and%characters%pass% on%and%reinforce% these% ideas%about%gender.%Here%it%can%be%beneficial%to%take%into%account%that%there%are%no% unambiguous% explanations% for% this% ostensible% segregation,% and% that% in% reality% boys% and% girls% are% far% more%

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homogeneous% than% researchers% sometimes% believe.% It% is% also% important% to% realize% that% children% within% age% groups% and% within% gender% groups% can% vary% immensely.% Could% television,% then,% also% function% as% predeminent% medium% to% counterpose% gender% stereotypes?% Michael% Bronski% argues% that% popular% entertainment% is% both% a% blueprint%of%dominant%culture,%as%well%as%a%template%for%how%we%can%transform%the%world%and%make%it%different% (qtd.% in% Halberstam% 2012,% x).% And% what% would% be% a% better% platform% for% transformation% than% children’s% television?%Halberstam%suggests:%

%

Children*nowadays*actually*have*a*fantastically*rich*archive*of*wacky*representation*from*which*to* draw* as* they* make* sense* of* their* worlds.* If* SpongeBob* SquarePants2*is* anything* to* go* by,* and* I* believe*he*is,*then*children*can*find*all*kinds*of*examples*of*ambiguous*embodiment*in*the*materials* that*TV*and*cinema*market*to*them.*SpongeBob*SquarePants*(…)*operates*according*to*its*own*set* of*rules,*code*violations,*morality,*and*propriety.*(2012,*xviii)%

*

Instead%of%cats%and%mice%chasing%each%other,%the%contemporary%generation%of%children%has%much%more%eccentric% characters,% often% with% interesting% relations% to% gender.% Children% who% are% not% yet% entirely% socialized% and% restrained%will%understand%the%world%from%a%significantly%different%perspective%than%the%ashamed%and%trained% adult%(Halberstam%2012,%xxiv).%Children,%therefore,%can%be%a%good%starting%point%for%societal%change.%They%can%be% agents% of% change,% as% they% are% not% yet% ingrained% with% ideas% about% ‘right’% and% ‘wrong’,% dictated% by% culturally% constructed%norms.%Even%so,%it%is%not%children%but%primarily%adults%who%are%in%charge%of%what%kind%of%television% programs%children%are%allowed%to%watch%and%what%programs%will%be%produced%for%them.%As%parents%play%a%large% role%in%determining%the%mediaddiet%of%their%children,%the%following%two%chapters%will%reveal%the%repertoires%used% by%six%parents%in%regard%to%what%they%believe%are%appropriate%children’s%programs.%% % % %

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

2%SpongeBob*SquarePants.%United%Plankton%Pictures,%1999.%Currently%broadcasted%in%the%Netherlands%on%Nickelodeon.%

(25)

!

3 - DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF PARENT’S SPEECH

%

Before% turning% to% the% results% of% the% discourse% analysis,% the% following% chapter% will% first% focus% on% the% adopted% research%method%by%Margaret%Wetherell%and%Jonathan%Potter.%In%contrast%to%social%scientists,%who%generally%aim% to%establish%certain%norms%in%society%in%order%to%get%a%grip%on%the%chaos%of%humanity,%postdstructuralists%such%as% Wetherell% and% Potter% subsequently% make% an% effort% to% understand% and% critique% those% norms.% They% are% not% interested% in% what% is% ‘true% or% ‘false’% and% do% not% try% to% produce% cleardcut% images% of% social% groups,% but% focus% instead%on%the%way%language%reflects%and%helps%construct%human%reality.%%

%

A"methodological"approach"by"Wetherell"and"Potter"

Wetherell% and% Potter% use% discourse% analysis% as% a% methodological% approach% to% look% for% dominant% ideas% and% prevailing%norms%in%society.%These%ideas%subsequently%structure%our%thinking%and%our%understanding%of%society,% as%it%is%through%discourse%that%we%make%sense%of%the%world%around%us.%Everyone%uses,%selects%and%combines% existing%discourses%and,%following%Wetherell%and%Potter,%we%cannot%escape%this%(1988,%172).%The%act%of%speech% of% one% individual% is% therefore% neither% neutral% nor% isolated,% but% part% of% a% larger% discursive% system.% In% other% words,%interviewees’%claims%cannot%be%taken%as%‘simple%referential%statements%indicating%a%more%or%less%troubled free% path% to% actions,% attitudes% and% events’% (Wetherell% and% Potter% 1988,% 169).% On% the% contrary,% even% a% small% number%of%interviews%can%reveal%the%larger%dominant%discourses%which%dictate%and%guide%behaviour%in%Western% society.%For%this%study,%discourse%analysis%has%been%conducted%to%localize%and%examine%dominant%repertoires%in% parents’% speech% when% talking% about% gender% differences% in% children’s% television.% When% it% comes% to% children,% television%and%upbringing,%parents%have%strong%opinions%and%a%lot%to%say%in%regards%to%what%they%consider%right% for%their%children.%

%% Wetherell% and% Potter% describe% speech% as% action% oriented.% That% is,% people% use% discourse% to% justify,%

excuse% or% question% their% beliefs.% In% many% cases,% when% speech% seems% to% simply% describe% a% situation% as% mere% representation,%the%function%of%discourse%may%go%beyond%initial%description.%This%function%is%sometimes%easily% identified,%for%example%when%people%make%a%request%or%accusation,%but%the%function%of%language%used%can%also% be%ambiguous.%People%have%their%reasons%for%keeping%the%function%of%their%speech%vague:%to%avoid%a%clash%of% opinions%or%to%evoke%further%discussion,%for%example.%The%aim%is%to%make%clear%certain%prevailing%ideas;%yet%we% can%never%be%entirely%sure%what%would%be%real,%definite%or%certain.%One%possible%way%to%reveal%the%function%is% through%the%study%of%variation:%% %

The* fact* that* discourse* is* oriented* to* different* functions* means* that* it* will* be* highly* variable:* what* people*say*and*write*will*be*different*according*to*what*they*are*doing.*An*event,*a*social*group,*a* policy*or*a*personality*may*be*described*in*many*different*ways*as*function*changes*from*excusing,*for* example,* to* blaming* or* from* formulating* a* positive* evaluation* to* constructing* a* negative* one.** Speakers* give* shifting,* inconsistent* and* varied* pictures* of* their* social* worlds.* (Wetherell* and* Potter* 1988,*171)%

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