• No results found

Counterfactual thinking, body image and sexual risk taking : the role of body image on the relationship between counterfactual thinking and sexual risk taking

N/A
N/A
Protected

Academic year: 2021

Share "Counterfactual thinking, body image and sexual risk taking : the role of body image on the relationship between counterfactual thinking and sexual risk taking"

Copied!
20
0
0

Bezig met laden.... (Bekijk nu de volledige tekst)

Hele tekst

(1)

Counterfactual Thinking, Body Image

and Sexual Risk Taking

The Role of Body Image on the Relationship between

Counterfactual Thinking and Sexual Risk Taking

Blaisse, A. N. M.

Bachelorproject Sociale Psychologie - Universiteit van Amsterdam

Kai J. Jonas Studentnumber; 10373365 May 2015 Abstract; 150 Words Total Word Count; 4983

(2)

1 Table of Contents ABSTRACT……….2 INTRODUCTION………3 Goal Attainment………..4 Counterfactual Thoughts……….5 Body Satisfaction………7 Present Research……….8 METHOD………8 Participants……….8 Materials……….8 Procedure………9 Data Analysis………..9 RESULTS………...10

Mediation of Body Image………..10

Compare Means……….11

Moderate Mediation………..…13

DISCUSSION………14

(3)

2

Abstract

Counterfactual thinking can lead to more sexual risk taking, which can have a negative influence on public and individual health. A negative influence on sexual risk taking is also found from low body satisfaction. Unknown is whether counterfactual thinking could influence body image via a negative spiral, which could affect sexual risk taking. The mediating role of body image between counterfactual thoughts and sexual risk taking was studied. In this research 107 people participated. Every participant received a questionnaire including questions about counterfactual thoughts, safe sex and body esteem. Results show more sexual risks are taken when the amount of counterfactual thoughts are increased. A mediating role of body image between those two was not found. Furthermore, results show that when age increases, sexual risks decrease. Still, in a side analysis no difference was found between adolescents and adults. Future research may improve this analysis by collecting more representative data.

(4)

3

Introduction

Each year there are 12 million quoted cases of sexually transmitted infections (STI) (Cates, 1999). Trienekens et al. (2012) explored STI rates in the Netherlands, which appeared to increase. In 2011, 113.180 people in the Netherlands were tested for an STI, which is 8% more than in 2010. At 14% of these consultations, one or more STI's were detected. Of those detected STI's, 11.5% were positive Chlamydia tests. The possibilities to treat STI's are becoming more advanced. Research has shown a decrease in contagiousness of HIV after treatment, even if viral replication persists (Coombs et al, 1998;. Tachet et al, 1999;. Lent, 2000). At first sight this might seem like a positive thing for the gravity of an STI; treatments improve. Engelhardt, Kurt and Polgreen (2013) disagree. They developed a model for STI's and matching of partners and in their study, found that these developments lead to more prevalence of HIV. This treatment optimism is somewhat of a sidestep, but still good to bear in mind because attitudes towards STI's could influence risky sexual behavior. Engelhardt, Kurt and Polgreen's study showed people who are HIV-positive, or at risk at contracting HIV, do not have to be as careful when having sex with others as before, as HIV treatments become more advanced. Namely, when they do become infected, or infect others, the consequences will be less intense. This treatment optimism was confirmed by research of Hubert and colleagues (1998b; ORS et al., 1999; Lert, 2000). Their study revealed that people experience less fear and concerns, and perform less preventive protective behavior due to new STI treatment possibilities (Hubert et al., 1998b; ORS et al., 1999; Lent, 2000). Less preventive protective behavior is performed, but very few participants experienced a change in their own attitudes about protective behavior. Lert (2000) collected many related studies and concluded treatment optimism is yet unconfirmed by available evidence since treatments are too recently initiated to properly study the effects. Besides, these studies examine HIV, a virus, while most STI's are bacteria's (Zamora, Romo & Kit-fong Au, 2006). So even when treatment optimism occurs in HIV treatments, nothing is said about bacterial STI's. When infected by an STI, negative consequences are experienced, such as sexual dysfunctions, feelings of guilt and a decrease in health quality (Else-Quest, Shibley Hyde & DeLamater, 2005). The increase of STI cases asks for more research to reduce those negative impacts.

Unprotected sex, what, inter alia, the aforementioned STI's causes, is a form of risky sexual behavior. Taking sexual risks can cause negative effects on public and individual health by risking infections, pregnancies or mental health problems (Fisher & Lee, 2014). These behaviors include having sex with multiple partners, having sex which could harm

(5)

4

others or self, having sex without consent or having unprotected sex (Ntshwarang & Malinga-Musamba, 2015). Sexual risk behavior also refers to having sex with someone you have just met, having sex while under the influence of alcohol or drugs and having sex with someone you do not trust (Turchik & Garske, 2009).

Knowing that risky sexual behavior is causing a negative effect on public and

individual health, it would have positive results when risky sexual behavior could be reduced. Previous research revealed that risky sexual behavior may arise from unattained goals that can be expressed in counterfactual thoughts (CFT's) by rumination of alternative outcomes. This will be explained further in the article. People who experience CFT's are more likely to take sexual risks than people who do not experience CFT's (Jonas, K. J. personal communication, July 2014). What is unknown is whether body image has a mediating role between CFT's and sexual risk taking. When body image has a mediating function, the negative impact of sexual risk taking could be reduced or prevented by dint of a new angle; increasing body image. Already known is that high satisfaction with your own body image makes it less likely to perform risky sexual behavior (Gillen, Lefowitz & Shearer, 2006). This may be due to attaining a main goal when reaching high satisfaction with body image. By attaining a goal, positive emotions like satisfaction are experienced (Mellers, Schwartz, & Ritov, 1999). Those positive emotions countervail feelings due to other outcomes, like disappointment, regret or sadness. Those positive emotions may contribute to risk taking, by taking higher risks to avoid unattained goal pursuit, and the related negative emotions. Prospect theory states loss, for example unattained goal pursuit, leads to higher risk behavior (Tversky & Kahneman, 1992). It is assumed that this includes risky sexual behavior. The effect of CFT on body image is yet unknown. It might conceivably well be that general feelings of regret, the CFT, pass on or transpose to regret about your own body, which in turn lowers body image. This study examines whether body image mediates the effect of counterfactual thoughts on sexual risk taking.

Goal Achievement

Goal's are defined by Austin and Vancouver (1996) as "internal representations of desired states, where states are broadly construed as outcomes, events, or processes". This means a goal is a desired (end) state that one is willing to strive for. In this study sexual goals are defined as sexual desires rather than sexual end states, as this area contains no clear dividing line, or actual end state. When a goal is set to lose 5 kilograms whilst weighing 70

(6)

5

kilograms, there is a clear end state; to weigh 65 kilograms. For sexual goals, such end states are unattainable. Sexual goals are relative desires that differ for every person. Sexual desires could be having sex only when feeling confident, having protected sex or having sex with a trustworthy person.

Directing goal pursuit could be influenced by feedback. When pursuing goals, feedback can change the progress by changing affect, which activates a certain behavior (Baumeister, Vohs, DeWall, & Zhang, 2007). Relationships comprehend goals by giving and receiving feedback in the relationship (Fishbach, Eyal, & Finkelstein, 2010). Social partners can praise or punish with for example, attention or support. It depends on the form of the affect caused by the feedback; positive affect will increase progress to goal attainment, negative affect will decrease progress to goal attainment. This affect can be expressed in concrete emotions; a comparison of current states with nearby alternative states (i.e. happiness, sadness and fear). Affect could also be expressed in abstract emotions;

hypothetical views of alternatives (i.e. hope, guilt and regret). Feelings of sadness and regret motivate to avoid those situations, which causes risky behavior (Austin and Vancouver, 1996). Jeffrey, Onay & Larrick (2010) replicated these findings in their studies. Participants who had a goal took more risky decisions than participants who had no goal. They even stumbled upon a stronger connection between goal striving and risk taking. Participants performed more risky behavior when a goal was set, even when all outcomes exceed the goal.

Counterfactual Thoughts

Counterfactual Thought Theory (CTT) is a theory about how goals affect risk taking. This theory is about what could have been done differently, it makes an evaluation of past behavior and forms alternative outcomes. CTT distinguishes actions and inactions (Savitsky, Medvec & Gilovich, 1997). When not attaining a sexual desire for instance, one could experience regret. Regret can be felt about inactions (regretting not having sex as often as desired) or about actions (regretting having sex with an untrustworthy person). Savitsky, Medvec and Gilovich conducted an experiment that showed more intense feelings of regret about inactions than about actions. The Zeigarnik effect states this is about cognitive

availability, rather than subjective intensity. This effect implies that unresolved tension arises by not adequately completing a task and this tension causes better recall of the part of the task which is not completed (Savitsky, Medvec & Gilovich, 1997). In Zeigarnik's experiment

(7)

6

people had to perform a task but were interrupted so they couldn't finish the task as wanted. In the second part of the experiment, results showed more recollection of the uncompleted part of the task than the completed part of the task. An inaction leads to more cognitive activation by the "open book" effect. The course of action was not yet set, so a lot of alternative

outcomes can be thought of, which keeps one thinking about it for a longer time. Regret about an action will be more activated on a short-term, before it concludes (Gleicher et al., 1990; Kahneman & Tversky, 1982; Landman, 1987; Savitsky, Medvec & Gilovich, 1997). When feelings of regret become intense and are ruminated, the regret is called a counterfactual thought (Epstude & Jonas, 2015). For example, when ruminating the thoughts of not having enough sexual desires attained, it stays cognitively activated by thinking of alternative outcomes. Not attaining these sexual goals leads to more risky sexual behavior in order to reach the benefits of attaining these goals (Jonas, K. J. personal communication, July 2014).

During these CFT, previous situations are remembered and alternative actions or inactions are borne in mind (Kahneman, 1992; Kahneman & Miller, 1986; Wells & Gavanski, 1989; Zeelenberg et al., 1998). One can change past situations by making something happen, or prevent from happening. This way, attributions influence current reality. Those CFT exist of an antecedent; "if only.." and a consequent "then..." (Roese & Olson, 1993). CFT can be additive; something is added to the situation, or subtractive; something is removed from the situation. An additive CFT could be; If only I had used a condom, I wouldn't be pregnant. An example of a subtractive CFT is; If only I had no sex, I wouldn't be pregnant.

Besides a distinction between additive and subtractive counterfactuals, there is a distinction between upward and downward counterfactuals (Mandel, 2003). Upward CFT include alternative outcomes which are more positive than the reality (i.e. If I had more sex in the past, I would've been more experienced). Those thoughts can lead to negative emotions like regret, shame, guilt and distress. Downward counterfactuals include alternative outcomes which are less positive than the reality (i.e. If I wasn't at the party, I would've never met my lovely boyfriend). Those thoughts elicit feelings of satisfaction.

Apart from counterfactuals being additive, subtractive, upward or downward, these thoughts provide improved connections between distinct concepts (Einhorn & Hogarth, 1986; Kray, Galinsky, & Wong, 2006; Mandel, 2003; Mandel & Lehman, 1996; Wells & Gavanski, 1989; Kray et al., 2010). In previous research performed by Kray et al. (2006; Kray et al., 2010) participants had to either think of a counterfactual thought, or think about something

(8)

7

else (part 1), and after this an analytic task was performed (part 2). Participants who had thought of a counterfactual scored 10% higher on the analytic task than participants who hadn't been thinking of a counterfactual. Kray concluded that having CFT activates a relational processing style in which associations are repeated and connections are made between concepts. This relational processing style leads to higher performance on the analytic task.

Many of the studies which include CFT distinguish between either upward and

downward counterfactuals, additive and subtractive counterfactuals, or between all four. This has led to a great amount of information about those subjects, yet not much research is performed including the effect of amount of CFT. It could be that a higher amount of CFT lead to greater impact, and less CFT, or none, lead to smaller impact. In this study we examine the amount of CFT.

Body Satisfaction

The influence of CFT on body satisfaction is yet unknown. It is known both CFT and risk behavior occur in satisfying a body image. A body image is defined as the satisfaction one has with one's body (Fonseca, Lencastre & Guerra, 2014). For example, when setting a goal to lose weight and failing at goal pursuit, regret could occur. When ruminating this regret and seeking for alternative outcomes, one might take greater risks like starving oneself to attain the goal of losing weight anyway. The satisfaction with one's body can be high (secure) or low (insecure). An insecure body image is often accompanied by insecurity in relationships and contact with others and placing oneself below others, with the result of not defending oneself (Littleton, Breitkopf & Berenson, 2005). People with low body images are more likely to perform risky sexual behavior and experience anxiety for talking about, for instance

condom-use, with their sex partner(s) by being afraid of rejection (Wingood, DiClemente, Harrington & Davies, 2002). This study took place in Africa, so it could be that the effect found was due to less openness about sex in Africa compared with Europe. However, the same effect was found in Europe as well. Wild, Flisher, Bhana & Lombard (2004) found that low body satisfaction leads to a higher risk of having sex with multiple people in order to experience confidence. This could bring balance to the insecure body image. These studies show the effect of body image on sexual risk taking, yet unknown is whether counterfactual thinking could influence body image. It could be that having CFT leads to a negative spiral

(9)

8

that could lead to less satisfaction about body image, which causes more risky sexual behavior.

The Present Research

In the present study, participants recall CFT and fill in questionnaires about sexual risk taking and body image. It is expected that there will be a direct effect of counterfactuals on sexual risk taking, in which a higher amount of CFT will lead to more risky sexual behavior. In addition it is expected that body image will have a mediating role between counterfactual thoughts and sexual risk taking. In this case, counterfactual thoughts would not have a direct effect on sexual risk-taking, it would be mediated by body image. It is expected that a higher amount of counterfactual thoughts will lead to a lower body image, resulting in more risky sexual behavior.

Method Participants

One hundred and six individuals of the age between 18 and 68 (M=29.28, SD=12.6) took part in the study. There were 47 male and 59 female individuals. The study was conducted at the Vondelpark and Reguliersdwarsstraat, Amsterdam, where random people were asked to fill in the questionnaires. Couples who were together at the park and individuals younger than 18 years old were not approached. In gratitude for participating in the study, participants received a candy bar. All participants had read, and agreed on, the informed consent. Participation in the study was voluntary.

Materials

In this survey there were five topics; CFT, risky sexual behavior, body image, self-esteem and self-efficacy. This article only looks at the results of the topics CFT, risky sexual behavior and body image. The end of the survey assessed demographic information as age, sex, relationship status and sexual orientation.

Counterfactual Thinking. Counterfactual thinking was conducted by asking

participants to recall "what if…" thoughts about dating or looking for a partner and to write them down. All these responses were rated by two of the researchers by using the Coding

(10)

9

Scheme Counterfactual Thinking (Roese, 2000). This includes coding a participant number, coding whether or not there is referred to a counterfactual and how many. If so, examined was whether it is upward, downward and or additive or subtractive. In this study the amount of CFT were used in the in the analysis.

Sexual Risk Taking. The extent to which participants were involved in risky sexual

behavior was measured using a Dutch translated version of the Safe Sex Behavior

Questionnaire (SSBQ), which has a satisfactory alpha of 0.82 (Dorio, Parsons, Lehr, Adame & Carlone, 1992). The SSBQ exists of 24 items, which can be rated via a four-point scale (1 = Nooit; 4 = Altijd). Negative items were reversely scored. In the end participants could score between 24 and 96. A high score on the SSBQ means low involvement in risky sexual behavior. Example items in the SSBQ are; "Ik heb seks op de eerste date", and "Als mijn partner erop staat om seks te hebben zonder condoom, weiger ik om seks te hebben".

Body Image. Body satisfaction was measured using a Dutch translated version of the

Body Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adults (BESAA), which has an Chronbach's Alpha of 0.95, which is found to be satisfactory (Mendelson, White, & Mendelson, 2001). The BESSA lists 23 items, which could be rated at a five-point scale (1 = Nooit; 5 = Altijd). All negative items were reverse scored. Rating all the items would give participants a score between 23 and 115, in which a high score means high body satisfaction. Example items in the BESAA are; "Ik ben blij met wat ik zie als ik in de spiegel kijk" and "Ik vind dat ik een goed lichaam heb".

Procedure

Individuals who were at the Vondelpark or Reguliersdwarsstraat, either sitting in the grass or walking around, were contacted and asked to fill in the survey. Individuals who agreed to fill in the survey received an informed consent, which they had to read carefully. When consent was given, they received the survey. The instructions for each questionnaire were placed above the items. The survey was conducted in a paper-and-pencil form. Participants filled in the whole questionnaire, including all topics.

Data Analysis

The data processing program Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the resulting data. Since a mediating role of body image was expected in the

(11)

10

relationship between CFT and risky sexual behavior, a mediation analysis, using PROGRESS, was computed. After this some explorative analysis were computed; means were compared and two moderate mediations were computed to analyze the possible moderate role of gender.

Results

All participants filled in the questionnaires correctly and all data resulting from the Counterfactual Thinking, SSBQ and BESAA questionnaires were used in the analysis. For the SSBQ and BESAA questionnaire the mean score for every participant was calculated.

Direct effect of CFT on Sexual Risk Taking. The direct effect of amount of CFT on

sexual risk taking is significant (b = -0.10, t = -2.02, p = .046). R-square indicates that 3.8% of sexual risk taking is predicted by amount of CFT. The coefficient b is negative; the more CFT, the lower the score on SSBQ, which means more sexual risk taking, and vice versa.

Mediation of body image. A mediation analysis was conducted using PROGRESS in

SPSS with the number of CFT as independent variable, risky sexual behavior as outcome variable and body image as a mediating variable. The number of CFT was not significantly predicting body image (b = -0.11, t = -1.86, p = .065). R-square indicates that 3,2% of someone's body image is predicted by the number of CFT. The coefficient b is negative; the more CFT, the more negative someone's body image will be.

The amount of CFT predicts sexual risk taking significantly with body image included in the model (b = -0.11, t = -2.24, p = .028). R-square indicates that 5.4% of risky sexual behavior is predicted by the model. The coefficient b is negative; the more CFT, the lower the score on SSBQ, which means more risky sexual behavior. Body image doesn't predict sexual risk taking significantly (b = -0.11, t = -2.33, p = .188). The coefficient b is negative; the higher body image, the lower the score on SSBQ, which means more risky sexual behavior (see Figure 1.).

(12)

11

Figure 1. Coefficients in the Model with Influence of amount of CFT on Sexual Risk Taking with Body Image as Mediator. An

* indicates a significant effect; alpha ≤ .05.

There is no indirect effect of amount of CFT on sexual risk taking via body image (b = 0.01, BootLLCI = -0.0048, BootULCI = 0.0578). Since 0 is in this interval, b could be zero which indicates no effect.

Compare means of gender with body image, sexual risk taking and amount of counterfactuals. Since there was not found a mediating effect of body image in the effect of

amount of CFT on sexual risk taking, the data was further explored by comparing the means of gender with body image, sexual risk taking and amount of CFT. In these analyses, the assumption of homogeneity was met.

Comparing means of gender and body image shows that women have a lower body image than men (t (104) = 2.92, p = .004, r = 0.3), see Table 1.

Comparing means of gender and amount of CFT indicates that men and women are equal in experiencing the same amount of CFT (t (104) = 0.14, p = .890, r = 0.01), see Table 2.

Comparing means of gender and sexual risk taking shows no difference between men and women with regard to sexual risk taking (t (103) = -1.21, p = .228, r = 0.12), see Table 3. Table 1

Mean Scores on Body Image and Standard Deviations for Men and Women

Gender Mean Std. Deviation

Male 3.81 0.55

(13)

12

In adolescence, one takes more and more sexual risks (Huang, Murphy & Hser, 2012). This amount of sexual risk taking decreases when growing into adulthood. It could be

possible that gender does play a role in sexual risk taking when age would be included as a covariate. Therefore an ANCOVA analysis was conducted with gender as independent variable and sexual risk taking as outcome variable, including age as a covariate. The assumption of homogeneity of the slope from the regression line, and the assumption of homogeneity of variances were met. The covariate, age, is significantly related with sexual risk taking (F (1,102) = 13.17, p < .001). The parameter b is positive which states the higher the age, the higher someone scores on the SSBQ; the higher the age, the less sexual risk taking (b = 0.01, t = 3.63, p <.001).

Table 3

Mean Scores and Standard Deviations on Sexual Risk Taking for Men and Women

Mean Std. Deviation

Male 2.48 0.49

Female 2.59 0.45

Table 2

Mean Scores and Standard Deviations on amount of CFT for Men and Women

Mean Std. Deviation

Male 0.87 1.03

Female 0.85 0.81

Figure 2.

Visualization of Moderation Mediation, Showing Gender as a Moderation V and as a Moderation W in the Model.

(14)

13 Moderate mediation. Since gender has a significant effect on body image, it could

function as a moderation in the mediation. To see if this was the case, a mediation analysis was conducted using PROGRESS including gender as moderator V (model 14) and as moderator W (model 5), see Figure 2.

This analysis shows no prediction of body image by amount of CFT

(b = -0.11, t = -1.84, p = .069). Therefore, the model described in Figure 2. was no longer tested. Instead the moderation W and V of gender were tested in the direct effects between CFT and sexual risk taking, and between body image and sexual risk taking. For this analysis, z-scores were computed for sexual risk taking, amount of CFT, body image and gender. The analysis shows no significant moderating effect of gender between body image and sexual risk taking (b = 0.03, t = 0.26, p = .792), see Figure 3.

Likewise, gender is no significant moderator between amount of CFT and sexual risk taking (b = 0.002, t = 0.03, p = .989), see Figure 4.

Figure 3. Coefficients in Moderation of Gender between Body Image and Sexual

Risk Taking. An * indicates a significant effect; alpha ≤ .05.

Figure 4. Coefficients in Moderation of Gender between CFT and Sexual Risk Taking. An *

(15)

14

Discussion

This study examined the mediating role of body image between the amount of CFT and sexual risk taking. As expected, CFT predicts sexual risk taking; the more CFT, the more sexual risks are taken. This still counts when including body image in the model. In contrast to the expectations no indirect effect was found between CFT and sexual risk taking via body image, since CFT don't predict body image. Women experience lower body image than men. Men and women turn out to take the same amount of sexual risks. Age does play a role in this effect; the older the individual, the less risks are taken. Gender showed no moderating effect between amount of CFT and sexual risks, or between body image and sexual risks.

The conclusions resulting from this study match the CTT; counterfactuals lead to more sexual risk taking. Alongside of this effect among different kinds of CFT, we now know the amount of counterfactuals affects this effect as well. The more CFT, the more sexual risks are taken. Unconfirmed is the negative effect of body image on sexual risk taking. These results may indicate body image has nothing to do with the relationship between CFT and sexual risk taking, or there could have been some flaws in the study which will be discussed next.

The SSBQ had a limitation for this study since it asks participants how safe their sex lives are, assuming safe sex is performed by using contraceptives. Among our participants were lesbian's who thought this was offensive towards them. When having sex with a woman, being a woman, the risk of a STI (and a pregnancy) is negligible so condom´s and birth control pills are redundant in this case. The same applies to participants who are in a long-term relationship. Maybe both of them where tested for STI's before they had sex with each other, which means they don't need to use a condom in order to avoid getting an STI (they should still be careful for pregnancy's). These girls and partners in effect had to complete the survey stating they did not act safe in their sex life as they never use contraceptives. In reality they actually were practicing safe sex despite not using contraceptives. Data can be affected1

1 Another mediation analysis was conducted whilst women who are attracted to women (sexual orientation ≥ 7) were excluded from the data. This analysis showed no different results than the previous analysis. The direct effect of amount of CFT on sexual risk taking actually disappeared (b = -0.09, t = -1.67, p = .097). The indirect effect of body image on this relationship was not found (b = 0.01, BootLLCI = -0.0053, BootULCI = 0.0580). Although no different effect was found when lesbians where excluded from the dataset, future research could collect different data to make sure data was not influenced by lesbians, by not asking for sexual orientation but for sex partners (only men, only women, mostly women etc.). Furthermore, since there was no question about duration of relationships, and whether or not an STI-test was conducted, participants in relationships could not be excluded.

(16)

15

since the real value of safe sex behavior is higher than results are showing. In replicating this study, account should be taken for lesbian's and participants in a long-term relationship.

The data could also be influenced through the means of data collection. People sitting in the park were asked to fill in the questionnaires. This could have influenced the data because those people were enjoying the sun in groups with, in some cases, alcohol. The alcohol could have made the data more extreme, and the probability that friends will see your answers, could make people less honest in their response. Often sexual risks are a subject people can be embarrassed about, so friends watching over your shoulder when filling in the questionnaires could be a reason to lie about it or embellish the facts. This could lead to less representative data. When restudying this subject, questionnaires could be given to individuals who are by themselves, or ask individuals to fill in the questionnaires in a private space, like a classroom or booth.

Furthermore, results show aging leads to less sexual risk taking. It could be that body image predicts sexual risk taking as a mediator between CFT and sexual risk taking at a younger age, and stops predicting sexual risk taking at an older age2. In this study the mean age was 29, the youngest participant was aged 18, the oldest aged 68. So now it may result in no significant mediating role of body image, but future research may turn out differently. In order to cope with age differences, and thereby sexual risk taking differences, age ranges could be made to see the difference between all categories. This could be ranges of 5 (20-25, 25-30 etc.) or even smaller ranges, per age. This is for the future. Additionally, people could have potentially become bored whilst filling out the questionnaire. The questionnaire took much longer to complete than expected. The sub-tests about body image and sexual risk taking were placed in the middle/at the end of the questionnaire, which could be the moment participants noticed it took longer than expected. At this point they may have stopped filling in the questionnaires seriously and started to bungle so they could complete it quicker and

2 Two mediation analysis' were conducted to see the difference between adolescents and adults in the

mediating role of body image between amount of CFT and sexual risk taking. In the analysis of adolescents (age ≤ 23) no direct effect of CFT on sexual risk taking was found (b = -0.07, t = -1.21, p = .233) and no indirect effect of body image was found (b = 0.01, BootLLCI = -0.0095, BootULCI = 0.712). Furthermore, the effect of body image on sexual risk taking was not significant (b = -0.08, t = -0.78, p = .441). The analysis of adults (age ≥ 24) showed no significant direct effect of amount of CFT on sexual risk taking as well (b = -0.11, t = -1.38, p = .173). Neither was an indirect effect of body image (b = 0.02, BootLLCI = -0.0260, BootULCI = 0.0957). The effect of body image on sexual risk taking was, other than expected, higher than the effect in the younger group, but still no significant effect was found (b = -0.27, t =-1.90, p = .06). Still, these analysis' were only conducted between two groups since creating more groups would make the amount of participants in each group to low to be reliable.

(17)

16

enjoy the sun again. This could make the data less representative for the population. Next time, it may help to give shorter questionnaires; maybe per subtest. Alternatively, by setting expectations from the outset that the questionnaire takes a long time. For example,

participants could be prepared to spend 15 minutes completing the survey when in actual fact it only takes 10 minutes. The result being that they will not bungle or rush through the

questions.

For now and based on existing evidence, the conclusion can be made that body image has no mediating role between CFT and sexual risk taking. Amount of CFT does negatively influence sexual risk taking, bus this effect was not influenced by body image in this study. However, sexual risk taking is influenced by age. Based on this study, the aforementioned individual and social health issues caused by sexual risk taking, and reducing these issues in the name of satisfying one’s body image, should be avoided.

(18)

17

References

Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B. (1996). Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 338-375.

Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., DeWall, C. N., & Zhang, L. (2007). How emotion shapes behavior: feedback, anticipation and reflection rather than direct causation.

Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11¸ 167-203.

Cates, W. (1999). Estimates of the incidence and prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases in the United States. Journal of the American Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Association, 26, 2-7.

Dorio, C., Parsons, M., Lehr, S., Adame, D., & Carlone, J. (1992). Measurement of safe sex behavior in adolescents and young adults. Nursing Research, 41, 203-209.

Else-Quest, N. M., Shibley Hyde, J., & DeLamater, J. D. (2005). Context counts: long-term sequelae of premarital intercourse or abstinence. The Journal of Sex Research, 42, 102-112.

Engelhardt, B., Kurt, M. R., & Polgreen, P. M. (2013). Sexually transmitted infections with semi-anonymous matching. Health Economics, 22, 1295-1317.

Epstude, K., & Jonas, K. J. (2015). Regret and counterfactual thinking in the face of inevitability: The case of HIV-positive men. Social Psychological and Personality

Science, 6, 157-163.

Fishbach, A., Eyal, T., & Finkelstein, S. R. (2010). How positive and negative feedback motivate goal pursuit. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4, 517-530. Fisher, C.M., & Lee, M. G. (2014). Comparison of adolescents' report of sexual behavior on a

survey and sexual health history calendar. The Journal of Sex Research, 51, 777-787. Fonseca, S., Lencastre, L., & Guerra, M. (2014). Life satisfaction in women with breast

cancer1. Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto), 24, 295-303.

Gillen, M. M., Lefkowitz, E. S., & Shearer, C. L. (2006). Does body image play a role in risky sexual behavior and attitudes? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 243-255.

(19)

18

Huang, D. Y. C., Murphy, D. A., & Hser, Y. (2012). Developmental trajectory of sexual risk behaviors from adolescence to young adolthood. Youth & Society, 44, 479-499. Jeffrey, S. A., Onay, S., & Larrick, R. P. (2010). Goal attainment as a resource: The cushion

effect in risky choice above a goal. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 23, 191-202.

Kray, L. J., George, L. G., Liljenquist, K. A., Galinsky, A. D., Tetlock, P. E., & Roese, N. J. (2010). From what might have been to what must have been: Counterfactual thinking creates meaning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 106-118.

Lert, F. (2000). Advances in HIV treatment and prevention: Should treatment optimism lead to prevention pessimism? AIDS Care: Psychological and Socio-medical Aspects of

AIDS/HIV, 12, 745-755.

Littleton, H., Breitkopf, C. R., & Berenson, A. (2005). Body image and risky sexual behaviors: an investigation in a tri-ethnic sample. Body Image, 2, 193-198.

Mandel, D. (2003). Counterfactuals, emotions, and context. Cognition and Emotion, 17, 139-159.

Mendelson, B. K., Mendelson, M. J., & White, D. R. (2001). Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults. Journal of Personality Assessment, 76, 90-106.

Mellers, B., Schwartz, A., & Ritov, I. (1999). Emotion-based choice. Journal of Experimental

Psychology; General, 128, 332-345.

Ntshwarang, P. N., & Malinga-Musamba, T. (2015). Oral communication: A gateway to understanding adolescents' sexual risk behavior. International Journal of Adolescence

and Youth, 20, 100-111.

Roese (2000). Coding Scheme Counterfactual Thinking.

Roese, N. J., & Olson, J. M. (1993). The structure of counterfactual thought. Personality and

Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 312-319.

Savitsky, K., Medvec, V. H., & Gilovich, T. (1997). Remembering and regretting: the zeikarnik effect and the cognitive availability of regrettable actions and inactions.

(20)

19

Trienekens, S. C. M., Koedijk, F. D. H., Van den Broek, I. V. F., Vriend, H. J., Op de Coul, E. L. M., Van Veen, M. G., … Van der Sande, M. A. B. (2012). Sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, in the Netherlands in 2011. National Institute for Public

Health and the Environment, 3-129.

Turchik, J. A., & Garske, J. P. (2009). Measurement of sexual risk taking among college students. Achives of Sexual Behavior, 38, 936-948.

Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1992). Advances in prospect theory: Cumulative representation of uncertainty. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 5, 297-323.

Wild, L. G., Flisher, A. J., Bhana, A., & Lombard, C. (2004). Associations among adolescent risk behaviours and self-esteem in six domains. Journal of Child Psychology and

Psychiatry, 45, 1454-1467.

Wingood, G. M., DiClemente, R. J., Harrington, K., & Davies, S. L. (2002). Body image and African American females' sexual health. Journal of Women's Health & Gender-Based

Medicine, 11, 433-439.

Zamora, A., Romo, L. F., & Kit-fong Au, T. (2006). Using biology to teach adolescents about STD transmission and self-protective behaviors. Applied Developmental Psychology,

27, 109-124.

Zeelenberg, M., Van Dijk, W. W., Van der Pligt, J., Manstead, A. S. R., Van Empelen, P., & Reinderman, D. (1998). Emotional reactions to the outcomes of decisions: The role of counterfactual thought in the experience of regret and disappointment. Organizational

Referenties

GERELATEERDE DOCUMENTEN

In this study, two CS exposure experiments were conducted: (1) the prophylactic approach, in which SUL-151 (4 mg/kg), budesonide (500 µg/kg) [ 27 ], or vehicle (saline) was

Following the validation case, the temperature and the cure degree simulations of the NACA0018 blade was investigated based on the two different set temperature schemes of

Het doel van het nieuwe artikel is het faciliteren van banksyndicaten zodat kredietverleningen die nu nog van de trust gebruik maken weer teruggebracht kunnen worden binnen

Met andere worden of de fiets door iemand in de eerste plaats als mogelijkheid wordt beschouwd voor woon-werkverkeer heeft meer in- vloed op de waarschijnlijkheid deze

A positive relationship in students has also been reported by Tyagi, Hanoch, Hall, Runco, and Denham (2017), but only between high- level, biographical measures

26-27: S1, een grafkuil in PP3 en een zicht op het aangelegde vlak in PP2, waarin een schedel (S13) en een uitbraakspoor werden vastgesteld.. Aangezien er ook hier geen sprake

Het ziet er evenwel naar uit dat het effect van bebakening op de verkeersveiligheid niet eerder bepaald kan worden dan nadat binnen het onderzoek Analyse van de rijtaak (zie

Based on the approach inhibition theory and former research about the relationship between power and risk-taking, we expect that leader power is associated with increased