Exploring the Problems and Benefits Adult Third Culture Kids Face with Repatriation and the Implications of This in the Workplace
Lara Davis (10821872) University of Amsterdam
Date: 26-06-2018 Supervisor: P. Vromans
Statement of Originality
This document is written by Student Lara Josephine Davis who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.
I declare that the text and the work presented in this document are original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it.
The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.
Table of content
Abstract Page 4
1.Introduction Page 5-6
2. Theoretical Framework Page 6-15
2.1 Third Culture Kids Page 6-7
2.2 Problems TCK’s face when repatriating Page 7-8
2.2.1 Belonging Page 8-9
2.2.2 Identity Page 9-11
2.2.3 Emotions Page 11-12
2.2.4 Problems experienced in the workplace Page 12
2.3 Benefits of TCKs Page 13-15
2.3.1 Intercultural Competence Page 13-14
2.3.2 Benefits experienced in the workplace Page 14-15
3. Research Design Page 15-18
3.1 Participant Page 17
3.2 Data Collection Page 17-18
3.3 Data Analysis Page 18
4. Results Page 28-27
5. Discussion Page 27-31
6. Limitations Page 32-33
7. Conclusion and Suggestions for Future Research Page 33-34
References Page 35-38
Abstract:
This research explores the problems and benefits ATCKs (Adult Third Culture Kids) face with repatriation and the implications this has for interaction in the workplace. It especially focuses on the adjustment of language and behaviour aspects experienced during
repatriation and the consequences of this. A combination of a literature review and semi-structured interviews has been done to explore this. Three male and two female ATCKs of various ages were interviewed in order to obtain in-depth information about the experiences and perceptions faced by participants regarding this topic. Three difficulties caused by repatriation were found from the literature review, namely difficulties with; belonging, identity, and emotions. Additionally, intercultural competence seemed to be significant benefit derived from the literature. Further explanations regarding these aspects were provided from the interviews. However, by linking the finding from the literature review with those from the interviews, it can be understood that the problems encountered by ATCKs with repatriation have a direct effect on interactions in the workplace.
Furthermore, it can be derived from the data that intercultural competence within the workplace in the home country may have a significant effect on workplace interactions.
1. Introduction:
Third Culture Kids (TCKs) are becoming a major part of the school population worldwide (McGregor, Renu & Deepa, 2013, p.122). Research shows that in 2015, five million students were studying outside their home countries, which was more than double the 2.1 million who did so in 2000 and more than triple the number in 1990 (The state of
international student mobility in 2015, 2015). Therefore, it is becoming increasingly important to understand TCKs and their perceptions and experiences of being different to children from their home country (McGregor, Renu & Deepa, 2013, p.122). Since the amount of TCKs has increased significantly with the number of international careers (Bonebright, 2010, p.351), it is becoming increasingly important to understand one’s cultural differences in the workplace. As TCKs mature and enter higher education systems and the workforce, they present both challenges and opportunities for Human Resource Development professionals (Bonebright, 2010, p.351). One of these differences between TCKs and non-TCK’s lies in the distinction of how they speak their national language.
In previous research, Buenaventura (1965, p.220) claims that if in an interaction where some of the individuals are not ‘direct members’ of the cultural group, there will be a significant breakdown of communication consequential to various moods and reactions. These different moods and reactions are caused by the failure to communicate effectively with one another. The issue here seems to be substantial barriers to cross-cultural
communication and behaviour. As TCKs are exposed to multiple cultures, they have the ability to function and communicate appropriately in a given culture by switching their cultural lens (Song, 2009).
However, one-specific challenge many TCKs experience is the language barrier with their home-country peers when they move back to their home country (Meneses, 2011). They feel that, even in their native language, their use of language can either help or hurt them in belonging to a social group. Incidents where they are ‘unaware’ of a popular term or slang can place them on the “outside” (Meneses, 2011, p.283).
A lot of earlier research such as Mauranen’s (2006) study, focuses on the role of English as a lingua franca, however little research has explored the differences between speakers of a common language. Furthermore, little research has been done on TCK’s who
learn the language of their home country outside the country and therefore may speak it differently due to not having the socialisation that comes with it.
Thus, the main focus of this paper is to examine the problems and benefits adult TCKs (ATCKs) face with their language and behaviour when moving back to their home country and the implications this has for in the workplace. Furthermore, this research will focus on how they adjust their behaviours and way of communicating and the effect of this in the workplace. 4 sub-questions will be used to structure the findings:
1. What are the problems and benefits that Adult Third Culture Kids (ATCKs) face when moving back to their home country?
2. How do they adjust their language and behaviour? 3. What are the consequences for that?
4. What is the importance of this for in the workplace?
As this is a broad field of research, three aspects of language will be emphasised;
belonging, identity, and emotions. Firstly, interviews will be conducted with ATCKs with different international backgrounds, with different genders and from different age groups. The goal of this research is to propose an extensive view of the problems faced by ATCKs when re-adapting to their home country and the importance and improvement within the workplace, so that a well-designed management system can be implemented. The evidence for analysis, will be, mainly the use of interviews, with advocacy of academic research to discuss the topic and issues of problems TCKs face with their language when re-adapting.
2.Theoretical Framework: 2.1 Third Culture Kids:
“The term Third Culture Kid (TCK) refers to children who travel with expatriate parents and spend significant portions of their growing years in cultures other than their passport culture” (Bonebright, 2010, p.351). Therefore, expatriate children are labelled as ‘TCKs’ concerning their triangulation of three cultural spheres: “the culture of their parents’ home country, the culture of their present residence, and the transnational, hybrid expatriate culture” (Useem & Downie, 1976). These individuals do not belong to one culture alone, they are part of various cultures that they have experiences in, therefore creating a ‘modified’ and exclusive third culture (Lam & Selmer, 2004).
The home culture of the TCKs is referred to as their “first culture”, the host culture as the “second culture” and the “third culture” represents the shared commonalities of people living the internationally mobile lifestyle (McGregor et al, 2013)
TCKs do not only deal with cultural differences in one location, but their entire cultural surroundings change when they move to another country. When non-TCKs move within the same culture they miss their familiar people and surroundings, however when TCKs move they have to relearn basic cultural rules and practices of the new country (Pollock & Van Reken, 2001).
Furthermore, Pollock & Van Reken (2001) emphasize that many adults experience a culture shock when they first move to another culture and need time to adjust, however their value systems, sense of identity, and the establishment of core relationships with friends and family are already established from their home culture. On the contrary, TCK’s have not yet established this and therefore experience a completely different cultural upbringing. Thus, third cultures are “the behaviour patterns created, shared, and learned by men of different societies who are in the process of relating their societies, or portions thereof, to each other” (Useem, Useem, & Donoghue, 1963. p.169).
2.2 Problems TCK’s face when repatriating
Silverstein (1996) argues that language is not only a cognitive property akin to Chomskyan linguistics, but also a social phenomenon subject to social influences and regulation. In a speech community, where unique linguistic resources and strategies are socialized in order to achieve communicative goals, it is not necessary to adhere to the prescriptions of a defined language. This means that the socially embedded nature of language is also based on human evaluation whereby communities can hold normative claims about how
language in society operates (Albury, 2017, p.37). This refers to sociolinguistics.
Benaventura (1965, p.219) explains language study to be somewhat cultural study because the language of a social group is intimately interwoven with their culture. Additionally, Paige (1993, p.83) describes language as the mechanism by which culture-group members communicate and share meanings, and for the sojourner, language is a means of entry into the culture.
Further, when TCKs move back to their home country they often have difficulty speaking the language of their home peers (Eakin, 1998, pg.24). In research by Eakin
(1998, p.40), one TCK describes feeling isolated when returning to a school where he did not know anyone. Although he spoke the same language and was a natural born citizen, he was not accustomed to the home culture. This lead to feeling embarrassment because he was ignorant of something that was second nature to students around him. This is an example of the socialization that comes with language, as it is not the direct words that are misunderstood, but the social phenomenon around it. It is language that is one of the most powerful symbols of social behaviour. In the normal transfer of information, language is used to send social messages about who we are, where we come from, and who we associate with. People may judge people’s background, character, and intentions based upon people’s language, dialect, or the choice of a single word (Wolfram, n.d.). In order to avoid this language barrier, people make use of cross-cultural code switching. This term is known as the act of modifying one’s behaviour during a particular interaction in a foreign environment, in order to adjust to different cultural norms for appropriate behaviour (Molinsky, 2007, p. 624). Cross-cultural code switching further has the approach of changing from one pattern of behaviour to another with the intention of establishing a wanted social impression (Myers-Scotton, 1993). It requires diverging from one’s normal behaviour in their native culture, in order to participate in behaviour suitable to foreign culture (Molinsky, 2007, p. 623). Through socialization in a specific cultural setting, people internalize norms for suitable behaviour in particular interactions (Aarts &
Dijksterhuis, 2003). TCKs describe the issues of their experiences as a TCK as; belonging, identity, and emotions.
2.2.1 Belonging
Belonging refers to the social group TCKs belong to. Henry Lee Smith, Jr in Pascasio (1964, p. 84) defines language “as a system of arbitrary symbols by means of which the members of a speech community or subcultural group interact and hence communicate with each other in terms of common values, attitudes, assumptions, and common
expectations.” Language plays a major part in this due to the way people view each other, and, thus, how they convey belonging in a specific group (Meneses, 2011, p.283).
Therefore, different influences of cultures can cause questions and difficulties in the development of identity and a sense of belonging (Hervey, 2009). This is because people see, hear and experience as they do, due to language habits of their community,
which influences certain choices and interpretations (Pascasio, 1964). The US Department of State (2008) notices that TCKs have a feeling of not belonging to their ‘home country’ when they move back and that they feel most comfortable in the ‘third culture’ that they have created. When moving back to their birth country, they expressed their
disappointment when finding out that people do not treat them the same as before (Lijadi & Schalkwyk, 2017, p. 126). One TCK describes her experience upon returning to her home country, as being made to feel like a odd person, like a person from another place, which she was not. She could speak English and understand everything her peers said, however people did not really see her, they only saw the difference. (Useem & Downie, 1976).
Likewise, even when speaking the native language, TCK’s find it hard to ‘belong’ back in their home country. Though TCKs are partial outsiders in their ‘host culture’, the people of their host culture know that these TCKs live a different life in their home country. Therefore, if a mistake is made, it is blamed on having a different native culture (Useem & Cottrell, 2001). However, these TCKs do not appear to be different when in their home country. Thus, the feeling of disconnectedness is usually more intense because TCKs do not look physically different from their peers (Useem & Cottrell, 2001). Hence, if these TCKs deviate from their home peers in attitudes, opinions, ambitions, or even leisure pursuits, they do not see this as being different due to the TCK growing up in a second home, rather they just think this TCK is ‘odd’ (Bonebright, 2010, p.355). In Meneses (2011, p.283) study, another TCK described feeling as an outsider if you do not know a popular song, or if you speak with an accent. Not understanding the language creates a barrier, allowing one to peer into or to be peered at by a group or culture but never fully belonging (Meneses, 2011, p.283).
2.2.2 Identity
Secondly, language plays a role in image as an “identifier”. It refers to the scope of language and how it is used, as individuals judge themselves, and are judged by others, to determine the extent to which they belong or do not belong to a social group (Meneses, 2011, p.283). Due to their high mobility lifestyle, TCKs sense of belongingness is continually questioned, thus may lead to confusion about their identity and what to call home (Easthope, 2009).
An essential component of identity development is place identity, commonly described as a person’s connotation associated to a place and a sense of belongingness (Seamon, 2011). The idea of place-identity is established when individuals identify themselves with the place where they live and where they develop their self-identity ingrained in their sense of belonging and emotional connection to the place (Twigger-Ross & Uzzel,1996). Therefore, place identity can be thought of as rooting in the home, but also in the social spaces in use by the society where the home is located (Lijadi and Schalwyk, 2017. p. 121). It is an important part of keeping up personal and social identity as well as for emotional well-being (Lengen and Kistemann, 2012).
Furthermore, to adjust to society in the home, individuals make use of cross-cultural code switching. However, when participating in cross-cultural
code-switching, individuals can experience an identity conflict (Van Maanen, 1979). People cope internally with the personal meaning of the behaviour they are expressing, particularly considering how the new behaviour may differ with internalized values and beliefs. As the required behaviour in the foreign setting might differ with a person’s innate values and beliefs and the beliefs from the native cultural setting, it may lead to
psychological distress (Leong & Ward, 2000). Many TCKs when living in a foreign country deal with a different language and/or culture, someone explicitly identifies a situation in which a particular behaviour is called for, raising one’s sociopragmatic awareness, and teaches one ‘the correct way’ to respond, raising one’s pragmalinguistic awareness (Thomas, 1983). This becomes ‘second nature’. Conversely, when TCK’s return home, the problem arises that they are unable to remember how to return to their ‘first nature’, namely their home culture, causing problems in the way they communicate with their home peers.
Communication is imperative because it is the path in which behaviour is altered, change is implemented, knowledge is gained and spread, and objectives are attained (Howes & Tah, 2003). Culture shock, lack of effective communication skills and
intercultural competency are properties that managers emphasize as damaging to effective cross-cultural communication (Tone, Skitmore & Wong, 2006, p. 350). A lot of re-entrants experience a culture shock when trying to readjust to life at home and have difficulties interpreting and responding to various sociopragmatic and pramalingiustic conditions (Sicola, 2005, p. 154). Returning home can be confusing for TCK’s, because their physical
appearance and their dominant language may be giving mixed messages to others about who they are, as they appear to be the same as the rest (Meneses, 2011, p.284). For example, one re-entrant stated that she used ‘a direct translation from a Japanese phrase into English’, which sounded very awkward (Sicola, 2005, p.153). “Many perfectly acceptable English responses existed (e.g.: ‘Thanks’, or ‘I wish!’) but I had learned that the Japanese ‘don’t say it that way’, and had thus learned ‘the right way’ to reject or denigrate compliments” (Chen, 1993). Although she had been back for several months and been among native-English speakers, this conditioned response still lingered. Another TCK explained that most of his thoughts were in the language of his ‘second culture’ (Portuguese). Therefore, when he went to university and had to write a paper, the language and writing style looked strange to his teacher. However, because this TCK looked like a local (of the home culture), the teacher assumed he understood, and did not realize that English was not his dominant language (Meneses, 2011, p.284). The validation of knowing that someone else understands you is reassuring. Similarly, having an image based on being positively perceived by a social group also provides the validation of belonging, which is reassuring (Meneses, 2011, p.284). Therefore, due to this uncertainty of people who have moved to many different places when re-entering, they tend to have trouble with nostalgia, disorientation and alienation (Fullilove, 1996).
2.2.3 Emotions
Lastly, “affective communication relates to an individual’s emotional tendencies in relation to communications” (Kim, 2001, p.119). This applies to tolerance for ambiguity, motivational sources and level of empathy (Griffith. 2002). “Emotions are both transmitted by, and absorbed through, language. The feelings may be so strong that some participants refer to their different identities according to the language they speak” (Meneses, 2011, p.285). People’s emotional tendencies are directly related to the identity conflict and often causes unfavorable emotions such as personal distress and anxiety (Meglino & Ravlin, 1998). Behaving in a way differing from one’s self-beliefs (Elliot & Devine, 1994) or from core features of their identity (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993) or personality (Little, 2000) evokes internal discord and personal distress (Molinsky, 2007, p. 630). Many TCKs say that they experience different persona’s when speaking in the different languages
Dutch persona. Similarly, some TCKs notice that they act differently when speaking different languages and doing things in one language that they would never do in another language. These intrinsic consequences of languages on emotional responses show that perspectives are affected by the level of comfort and the sense of identity provoked by the use of a certain language (Meneses, 2011, p.285). It is essential for individuals to maintain a balance between the emotions that they feel, and the emotions that they express through language and interaction. This is especially important for TCK’s as their experiences and emotions may be encoded in a language that they cannot share with the person or group they are attempting to enter (Meneses, 2011, p.286). A problem TCK’s experience is that language may be an obstacle rather than a tool. As they want to share the emotions and experiences that make them who they are, not just the parts that are accessible through one language only.
2.2.4 Problems experienced in the workplace
Communication is imperative in the workplace because it is the path in which behaviour is altered, change is implemented, knowledge is gained and spread, and objectives are
attained (Howes & Tah, 2003). Culture shock, lack of effective communication skills and intercultural competency are properties that managers emphasize as damaging to effective cross-cultural communication (Tone, Skitmore & Wong, 2006, p. 350).
Furthermore, one dimension of the challenges people experience in the workplace is the task performance dimension (Van Maanen, 1979). This entails that individuals must adequately carry out a new and in someway complicated set of behaviours in a way that will be criticized appropriate by an evaluative group native to the “new” (or “foreign”) culture (Van Maanen, 1979). Thus, training programs are provided to individuals causing them to possess some linguistic or behaviour skills related to another culture. However, without being able to apply this and knowing how to use these skills in culturally appropriate ways, they are not of any use. These individuals are known as fluent fools (Bennett, 1997). This in turn causes many foreign managers and employees to experience that they possibly miss cultural skills, or think that they miss cultural skills, to be able to perform adequate behaviour for a foreign interaction, thus influencing performance anxiety (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998).
culturally suitable behaviour in a setting with culturally differing norms, in spite of the involved benefits of doing so. (Molinsky, 2007, p.623).
2.3 Benefits of TCKs:
2.3.1 Intercultural competence
An outcome due to internationalization is the expansion of interculturally competent students (Deardorff, 2006, p.241). Byram (1997, p.34) outlines intercultural competence to be; the knowledge of others; knowledge of self; skills to interpret and relate; skills to discover and/or to interact; valuing others’ values, beliefs, and behaviours; and relativizing one’s self. Furthermore linguistic competence is also of importance. There are many elements of intercultural competence where someone’s personal characteristics play a role, like, curiosity, general openness, and respect for other cultures. Additionally, elements such as cultural awareness, various adaptive traits and cultural knowledge are also crucial (Deardorff, 2006, p.248).
Bennett (2004) described the development of interculturally competent people as moving from ethnocentrism to ethnorelativism. Ethnorelative people are individuals that seek cultural difference, either through accepting its significance, by adapting their view to take it into account, or by integrating the idea into a definition of identity (Bennett, 2004). Firstly, acceptance of cultural difference is the state where individuals are able to accept that others are different from themselves, yet see them as equally human. One’s own culture is seen as just one of the many equally complex worldviews (Bennett, 2004). Although they are not experts in these various cultures, they can recognize how cultural differences function in different human interactions. Generally, individuals can have positive outlook about another culture, without the need to encounter the other culture with much depth (Bennett, 2004).
Secondly, adaptation to cultural difference is when individuals generate appropriate perception and behaviour to another culture when having encountered it. One’s worldview is broadened to include appropriate parts of alternative cultural worldviews (Bennett, 2004). At this stage people are able to empathize and take another perspective towards other cultures or shift their assumptions and attitudes about them. It is an adjustment in the organization existing experience, which inevitably contains affect and behaviour (Bennett, 2004).
Lastly, integration of cultural difference is when individuals are able to expand one’s experience of self, to involve the movement in and out of various cultural
worldviews (Bennett, 2004). Also known as ‘constructive marginality’; someone who is able to move easily between cultural identities and develop an “integrated multicultural existence” (McCaig, 2001, p.13). Additionally, these individuals seem to be positive and pleased about their capacity to feel at home in multiple places and are able to connect to people similar to them (Fail, Thompson, and Walker, 2004, p.333). They are able to accommodate multiple cultural frames of reference (character) into a full and productive perception of self (Bonebright, 2010, p.356). This is further supported by Bennett (1993) who emphasizes that these individuals have “self-differentiation” and the belief of
“personal responsibility” when making life decisions, therefore helping with the ability to switch frames of cultural reference easily. TCKs, when constructively marginalized, are able to establish wholeness between conflicting frames of reference (Lam & Selmer, 2003) therefore are able to constantly choose the most appropriate cultural context for their behaviour (Bennett, 2004).
Additionally, researchers have speculated about a set of strengths that are frequently linked to ATCK’s (Bonebright, 2010, p. 356). These strengths consist of the ability to speak multiple languages, to have an international worldview, cross-cultural skills, and an increased maturity seen largely in independence and the ability to manage crises (Gerner & Perry, 2000).
2.3.2 Benefits experienced in the workplace
Workplace competencies are generally known as an array of useful skills that are specific to certain jobs (Nair-Venugopal, 2015). It is a fundamental trait of a person that is related to effectiveness or superior performance in a job or situation (Spencer & Spencer, 1993). Furthermore, intercultural communication competence seems to have become a desired element of workplace competence (Nair-Venugopal, 2015). Intercultural communication competence is defined as “impression management that allows members of different cultural systems to be aware of their cultural identity and cultural differences, and to interact effectively and appropriately with each other in diverse contexts by agreeing on the meaning of diverse symbol systems, with the result of mutually satisfying relationships (Kupka, 2008, p.16).
There are many benefits for the workplace when TCK’s can easily culturally adapt in interactions with culturally variable norms (Molinsky, 2007, p.623). Due to
globalization a kind of worker has developed who is lives within the local spaces of borders and boundaries, though works for globalized interests that also satisfy
self-interests. These globalized interests generally find importance in competencies that mediate cultural differences (Nair-Venugopal, 2015, p.32). Thus, adaptation may aid people to avert the negative consequences of norm abuse and its linked stereotypes (Earley & Ang, 2003). Furthermore, the tendency of positive impression management goals are increased (Montagliani & Giacalone, 1998). These positive impression management objectives entail fitting in, being well-liked, and winning respect, trust and friendship of clients, colleagues, and subordinates while at the same time glinting positive interpersonal communication within a certain professional relationship (Earley & Ang, 2003, p.165). Thus, when participating in an important meeting with a client, or during a high-level negotiation, adaptation will have an instantaneous, positive effect on an organization’s success (Molinsky, 2007, p.623).
3. Research Design:
This report will focus on exploratory research; in which it tries to discover what problems ATCK’s face with their language when moving back to their host country. Furthermore, it will explore how they adjust their communication in order to communicate effectively and what the consequences and solutions are for that. Due to the exploratory nature of the research, qualitative is the most appropriate because it allows for more flexibility and adaptability to change when researchers try to clarify the understanding of an issue and its precise nature. Therefore, abductive research, a combination of inductive and deductive reasoning, will be used, in which known premises are used to generate testable conclusions (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2012). By using this approach, inductive assumptions are developed and deductive assumptions are tested constantly throughout the analysis to develop its theory. The data collected will be used to explore a phenomenon, identify patterns, locate these in a conceptual framework and test this through consequent data collection.
This study will have a cross-sectional design in which grounded theory strategy is used. This allows for an orderly and emergent approach to collect and examine qualitative
data. It is also appropriate to use an abductive study for this research because it permits the researcher to collect and analyse data simultaneously, developing analytic codes from previous literature as well as these emerge from the data in order to reorganize them into categories.
To gain both physical and cognitive access to the ATCKs, the researcher will utilise existing contacts who know these ATCKs. By using this strategy, they can believe the researchers’ motives and the assertions given about the use of any data provided. The advantages of this strategy are easy access, and commitment, whereas the disadvantages will be availability of data and researcher bias. To limit these biases the researcher must try to remain objective while interviewing participants.
The data will be collected through semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions so that the participants will have the freedom to express their views in their own terms. It will be recorded deliberately for the analysis. The researchers will have
predetermined points and questions to be covered, although their use may vary per interview. The order of questions may also vary dependent on the flow of conversation. Further questions may also be needed to explore the research questions and objectives. Semi-structured interviews provide the opportunity to examine answers described by the interviewees, thus it is suited for the exploratory study of the experiences ATCKs had when re-adjusting back to their ‘first culture’.
This study is based on the deontological view of ethics, implying that the perspective is fixed on duty and moral obligation. To avoid general ethical issues, the research design is not subject to those being researched to the risk of embarrassment pain, harm, or any other material disadvantage. The researcher will also adhere to other ethical codes such as not falsifying the data, and avoiding observant and participant bias.
Confidentiality will also be guaranteed, the names of the participants will not be revealed within this report, nor will the interview transcripts be fully given. The persons being interviewed will be aware and have consented to participating in the study.
To assure reliability and validity of the findings, strategies will be incorporated to improve the credibility of this research. These strategies include
deliberately choosing respondents that can give us the information needed, remain tactful and non-judgmental in tone when asking and writing questions in attempt to gain honest answers, giving select choices and appropriate screening questions to get more accurate
answers, and demonstrating a clear decision trail and ensuring consistent and transparent interpretations of data through thorough record keeping.
3.1 Participants
The criteria for participants are TCKs who have lived overseas for at least 8 years
following their parents’ careers and who had moved back to their home country as an adult and had worked there. The research will gather data by interviewing 5 ATCKs through non-probability purposive sampling since it is a specific group that has to be researched for this study’s purpose. Participants were contacted through personal connections and were sent a message with a little background on the research to be done. Participants did not receive any compensation and no coercion was used to seek participation.
The 5 ATCKs will consist of a male and female between the age of 45 and 55, a male aged 27, a male aged 23, and a female aged 22. This sample is used in order to gain a variety of age-groups and genders, for a more reliable research, to explore if the
experiences of the ATCKs are similar or differ due to these different life stages.
3.2 Data collection
The analysis of data will be done during and after the collection of data. During the face-to-face interviews as well as video-call interviews, the researcher will write notes to document ideas that occur about any elements of the analysis being the derived codes and categories. The recorded interviews will then be examined by labelling and categorising each dialogue through open coding, furthermore, notes will be documented during the examination for a better understanding of each code focused on. The data collected will also be constantly compared with each other and with existing theory, therefore axial and selective coding will also be used. The process of iteratively comparing data being
gathered with the codes and categories being applied will assist the process of developing an emerging theory.
The interviews were conducted both electronically and in person. The first and third interview were conducted at the home of the participant, the second interview was conducted via video calling as the participant was overseas at the time. The participants were selected with concern to the research questions. The first interview was held on Saturday 19th of May 2018. Before meeting with the participants a plan was made with the
introductory statement listing all the requirements and ethical guidelines. The goal of the first two interviews was to explore the extent to which TCKs experience their readjustment period in their ‘first culture’ and the importance of this in the workplace. The first
interview was conducted with a 49 year old male working in the publishing industry in the Netherlands, the second interview was conducted with a 22 year old female working in Barcelona, the third interview was conducted with a 27 year old male working various part-time jobs.
3.3 Data analysis
After finishing these interviews, the interviews were first transcribed with the help of the transcription program F5 transcription for mac. Upon transcribing the interviews, they were coded using open and axial coding. The aim of this was on the transcription of the interviews using both Nvivo and researchers designated codes. Following this coding stage, axial coding was used. Axial coding is denoted as the process of relating codes to each other to try and find the relationships and emerging categories from opencoding.
Initially some codes were defined due to analyzing previous literature using an inductive approach. Previous literature constructed the central codes for the basis of the axial codes within the series of open codes. For example, a paper exploring memory, language, and identity of TCKs when repatriating addressed codes such as belonging, identity and emotions (Meneses, 2011), therefore becoming part of the critical axial codes of this research.
After completing the transcription and the coding procedure, a scheme of the axial codes was created by using structural coding, a stage where raw data (the transcriptions) from the interviews were labelled and assessed using memos. The memos are used to highlight important details that the reader may not understand or may misinterpret whilst reading the paper of codes within the scheme.
4. Results
The participants that took part in the interviews were selected in consideration of the research question. Participant 1 was a 49 year old Dutch male, who had never lived in the Netherlands till his 18th. Participant 1 moved back to study in Delft and now lives and works in the Netherlands. He has had several jobs working in the oil industry and now
owns a publishing company. Participant 2 is a 23 year old Dutch female, who had never lived in the Netherlands till her 19th. She comes from a bicultural family, with a Dutch mother and a British father. Participant 2 moved back to study in Rotterdam and after her studies, now lives and works in Barcelona. She had a part-time job in the Netherlands and now works at a marketing company in Barcelona. Participant 3 is a 28 year old Dutch male who lived overseas from the age of 7 till the age of 14. He then moved back to the
Netherlands and completed his high school degree there. Participant 3 has no university degree and has had various jobs. Participant 4 is a 23 year old Dutch male who lived overseas until he was 12, then moved to the Netherlands from 12 till 14, but went to an American school in the Netherlands, and then moved back overseas until he was 18. Participant 4 moved back to study in Utrecht and has been living there for 5 years now. He has done one internship in the Netherlands and is now doing an internship in Kuala
Lumpur. Participant 5 is a 52 year old Dutch female who completed her primary school in Curacao where schooling was in Dutch. She then completed her secondary school and university degree in England. Participant 5 moved back to the Netherlands when she was 24 years old and is still living and working there.
As a result of the interviews of the five ATCKs, five crucial themes/axial codes were raised. These consisted of: belonging, identity, emotions, intercultural competence and effect in the workplace.
Belonging. In analysing the transcriptions, certain open codes were of significance. These included feeling like an outsider, made to feel odd, disconnectedness, and not being able to understand the language. During these interviews feeling disconnected to the people in their home country seemed to be the biggest problem for all participants when repatriating. This was especially due to being misunderstood by their home peers as the participants seemed to be similar to their home peers but had different behaviours and values because of their upbringing. However it was also caused by the ATCK not fully understanding some Dutch culture aspects. Participant 1 states “I’ve been part of Dutch life and I feel very Dutch at the moment. I understand it fully, however, there is always still part of me that says… okay… the typical Dutch things, I don’t understand”. An example of this is the Dutch birthday parties. All five participants said that they found the Dutch birthday parties to be odd, such as Participant 5 who says “Dutch people can choose to have like a party when they’re sitting around. But I need to party.” This is further
supported when Participant 3 states “I didn’t get it. Like, everybody sits in a circle, I never got it.” Another example is “Dutch people talk about money, like Dutch people throw money in your face.”... “they always have a comment about how much you’re paying for that, or how much, literally it’s like ‘you owe me 2 euros and 28 cents’. There’s just a stingyness about it. I don’t understand” (Participant 2). Furthermore, participants also felt disconnected to their home peers due to the language barrier “initially I didn’t really fit in. I feel like, I fitted in, but I didn’t feel like I fitted in because everything, uh they were very direct and I wasn’t and every time they said something I wanted to make a joke but it was always in English, and it wasn’t to show off, it was just that I thought in English, you know?” (Participant 5). Similarly, Participant 2 mentioned “Although I spoke the language relatively well, I had no Dutch slang. So connecting with teenagers, I really struggled with because they would say stuff that I didn’t really get. I felt like I couldn’t make jokes, I felt like my sense of humour and everything was lost. So like the connection on that level wasn’t there”. Furthermore, like Participant 5, Participant 2 also noticed that home peers found her arrogant thus “perhaps that’s also what created distance. You know, the fact that people heard me and were like what is she trying to do? Why is she trying to show off? Which wasn’t at all, I was just trying to be me, and being me seemed like, a difficult thing. People were not like, connecting to me.” Additionally, Participant 4 noticed that when he would “translate some English words directly and it wouldn’t make sense at all” that home peers would “find it annoying”.
Similarly, a lot of participants stated that they sometimes felt like an outsider because they were different to their home peers or because their home peers did not make an effort or already had their group. “You know there was always someone that knew each other, and I was always kind of there and I had no idea who was who”, “I just found it very difficult because… they all knew each other from school and that made it quite
intimidating to really hang out with them instead of just the American guys that I knew. So I always knew the American or the expat was always in the same situation as me”
(Participant 4). Likewise, Participant 2 noticed “that people were very open the first time you meet them. But then, the second time that they were closed off.” “I didn’t understand that gap. Why you were so friendly the first time? and the second time like ‘no I actually already have my group of friends, I’m not looking for anyone else.” Additionally,
that lived in Amsterdam because I understood that better and felt more comfortable with those groups. A load of the same background.” This supports what Participant 4 and Participant 2 mentioned about it being difficult to belong to a group as the home peers are not very welcoming to new ‘outsiders’ and therefore these individuals search for people similar to them. Furthermore, Participant 5 mentioned that due to her lifestyle people also judged or stereotyped her into a group because she would travel farther away on vacations; “when we came back from holiday I would share all my stories with my friends, just because I’m a bubbly type or person who wants to share, and they would think I was showing off. Um, but I wasn’t you know? All I wanted was just to be part of the group.” Participant 2 had a similar stereotype when she would say “I’m going back to see my family in Malaysia” and people’s reaction would be “Oh you must be really rich”.
Additionally, Participant 1 when living in the student house during the Football World Cup as the English supporters had a bad reputation, they would say “ah (name), you’re the hooligan, you have to sit there” and “they built a seperate part of the kitchen where we were watching it for me, for the supposed hooligan”. This shows that many participants were made to feel like outsiders and like they did not belong to the social groups of their home culture, often causing insecurity and loneliness.
Identity. During the analysis identity was take into account. From the interviews a few important factors were highlighted, which aligned with the axial codes, these included: Cross-cultural code switching, culture shock, identity crisis, and place identity. In the interviews with the participants there was a common experience towards identity crisis which overlapped a lot with place identity. Although Participant 3 has lived in the Netherlands for a longer period of time he states he feels more “Canadian even though I don’t even have a Canadian passport. Because that, I guess for me it’s because I was brought up there. I mean I’ve been back here (the Netherlands) for 13 years now, but I still see myself more Canadian than Dutch. I don’t know why”. Participant 2 expressed that she had difficulty accepting her identity once she was given one “an identity is something you crave your whole life, as someone that grew up overseas. But as soon as you got the chance to be the identity, in the sense of the passport I was given, I couldn’t do it”. Furthermore, she stated “I know that it will always be easier to be a Dutch person outside of Holland than to be a Dutch person inside of Holland and I also know that I will always have identity issues within myself, of where I come from. If I am in Holland. As soon as
I’m somewhere else, I connect with Dutch people super easily, I can happily say I am Dutch.” Participant 1 had a different identity crisis, as other people still perceive him as the “Englishman” although he felt to be more Dutch “So I am still the Englishman, and I know.. I’ve been living, for those 30 years since arriving at University, for the majority I’ve been here.”...“So I’ve been part of Dutch life and I feel very Dutch at the moment. I understand it fully.” However, having said that, although having integrated, Participant 1 still said that there are some “typical Dutch things that I don’t understand”. Similarly, Participant 5 stated that “I’m still not a complete Dutchie. I feel, you know when I go abroad and I walk on a little market, abroad in a souk or whatever, or on the beach, or speak to colourful people uh it’s music, and then sun. You know that’s when I feel at home”. Both Participant 2 and Participant 5 do not have certain places they identify themselves with, although they do not feel like they can identify themselves with the Dutch, also stating “I was always with one leg out of Holland, wanting to move”
(Participant 5). Lastly, Participant 4 also stated “I mean I’d been at an American school for about 16 years and I always considered myself Dutch, but never really felt at home in the Netherlands.” Similar to all the participants, the individuals all stated that outside of their home country they identified themselves as ‘Dutch’ however, when they were in their home country they did not feel this identity at all, therefore causing an identity crisis. Some participants had such an extreme place identity crisis or a feeling of not belonging to a certain place that they wanted to move away from it. Participant 2 for example says “I wouldn’t choose to go back there (the Netherlands). I think that’s also because I connect it to a really low time”. Participant 2 was not able to feel a sense of belonging to her home ‘place’ and therefore associates it with a bad time, she then moved back overseas to Barcelona, in a country where she had never lived before however is able to find a sense of belonging here. Similarly, Participant 5, due to not feeling like she belonged in her home country, moved “briefly for 6 months to South Africa” when her father passed away. She stated “that’s what I needed, I couldn’t heal in Holland”, “I met so many wonderful South African people, who had such a nice way of living. It made me feel home, like I used to when I was younger. So I healed”. Due to feeling such a distance with the place she lived, and such a sense of not belonging Participant 5 was not able to connect with the country she lived in and therefore found a sense of belonging in a country where she had never lived. Both participants do not have a sense of place identity with a specific
country, however they feel at home in places that remind them of their upbringing. Although Participant 5 is now fully integrated into Dutch life, “occasionally I just get itches and I have to go,. I have to go abroad and feel the vibe” to be able to ground herself. This shows that although the participant found a sense of belonging to her home country, she still has an internal identity conflict with the place where you feels most at home.
Emotions. Emotions was a reoccuring theme during the interviews. This axial code looked especially at the ways ATCKs felt during their readjustment. There were three different aspects; personal distress and anxiety, uncertainty, and difficulty communicating emotions. These emotions were especially caused due to a sense of not belonging or due to the identity crisis. Participant 2 mentioned “I was so lonely, I’ve never felt more lonely in my life” “those first 6 months, I was depressed”. As a consequence, “I wouldn’t go to social things, because I’d feel uncomfortable and then not going to social things, would make me well even more lonely it was just a vicious cycle.” Similarly, participants felt anxiety “you just feel restless and like okay this is fine, but what’s going to be next? Yeah and that restlessness is not always a nice feeling.” (Participant 5). Oppositely, Participant 3; “when I first moved here, that was the only time I was a little bit insecure. Tiny bit. but that only lasted for about 3-4 months. After that I just didn’t really care anymore.” Most participants also mentioned that they found it hard to communicate how they were feeling. For example, “I think I generally just kept it to myself. It did really bother me though, I do know that” (Participant 4). Additionally, some individuals did not know how to express themselves correctly. For example, “I’d try to find a way to offend them, and they would react weird because I’d snarl back at them, where most people would just accept it and laugh” (Participant 4). Similarly, Participant 1 explained when people would tease him that he did not express how he felt about it, “I found that okay. But deep in myself, of course it was not always nice”. This difficulty communicating is further shown when said, “I can express myself better in English” (Participant 2) and “I can get my point across a lot easier when I’m speaking English”… “I’m a lot more relaxed”... “If I speak English I’m relaxer, everything goes a lot easier” (Participant 3).
Intercultural competence. Throughout the interviewing process there was a critical curiosity and collection of Nvivo codes that lead to the axial code of intercultural competence. The main addressed open codes were acceptance, adjustment, and integration. Interviewee’s noticed that as TCK’s they were quite open minded and accepting of
different cultures and people, however that their home peers were less accepting. For example, Participant 4 states “an American school always has a lot of different nationalities and cultures. I mean, I suppose you grow up very acceptant of different cultures and you’re very careful about what you say about races and different
nationalities.” Similarly, Participant 3 mentions that due to his TCK upbringing “you start accepting, you get really open-minded about everything and you accept basically
everything too.” Also, Participant 2 stated that although “it’s not something I would do still. It’s not part of, it’s not like I have adopted that from the time that I lived in Holland. It’s more ‘okay, I know that they do that and I’ve decided not to care’.” This shows that participants due to their upbringing are able to accept differences in cultures more easily.
Furthermore, adaptation is an important competence that most TCKs seem to possess. It is important for individuals to adapt their perceptions and behaviours to the culture they are in, such as “Here in Malaysia I watch much more what I say”... “even if it’s unintentional, you could offend someone in one way or another” (Participant 4). Similarly, Participant 1, in order to adapt to home culture “you do change your ways of acting, behaving, just to try and fit in”. Likewise, Participant 2 specified that “it’s things that I didn’t like when I was there experiencing them for the first time, but I think now like.. I go back and I know and they are things that don’t bother me anymore because I’ve adjusted to them.”
Moreover, integration is also an essential part of repatriating. There was a divide between the participants that had a easy time integrating and a hard time. Participant 4 for example was enthusiastic about the challenge “I always thought they were pretty cool. (laughing). So I really wanted to integrate and kind of be able to call myself Dutch again”. Conversely, “I notice that I’m having difficulty with the international, not adapting to international as well” (Participant 4). Thus, although having integrated into home culture, re-adapting to the international culture is not a bit more challenging. However, as stated before Participant 4 mentioned “Here in Malaysia I watch much more what I say”, therefore is able to adapt to several cultural identities. Likewise, Participant 5 was able to integrate “by working. Just going through the motions and learning and growing in
confidence”. Additionally, she also noticed that she would connect to people similar to her “you learn, as you get older, okay so I am Dutch, but I’m not a classical Dutch person. Well you’re not alone, there’s always more people like you”. Contrary, Participant 2 had
more difficulty with integration, looking back “I should have done more to try and integrate. I didn’t really give myself the chance to”. Participant 3 states that due to his upbringing he was able to more easily connect to people, an example is when he plays online video games with people from around the world “you constantly get put in a situation where you have to adapt. You constantly adapt, doesn’t matter where people come from.”.
Effect in workplace. Effect in the workplace is an axial code that was initiated by previous research done on ATCKs and the HRD challenges and opportunities. Looking at Figure 1
the arrows link all the other axial codes to effect in the workplace. This was done
due to all sub questions leading to the subquestion ‘What is the importance of this for in the workplace?
’
Most of the ATCKs interviewed emphasized experiencing some difficulties in the workplace. For example, Participant 5 stated “I couldn’t speak Dutch properly, especially not medical Dutch. So you seem really stupid” … “You know what you think is going on”... “but you don’t know how to say it in Dutch”... “so you feel like you’re a nobody”. She experienced such difficulty that she left as “I didn’t feel comfortable. So that’s why I went to work as a company doctor. I thought, it’s not going to happen here. I’m not going to find a piece of mind to learn the language and settle in this job”. Similarly, Participant 1 left his first job at a Dutch company because “I didn’t understand the culture, I didn’t understand the way people interacted all the time, and asking for help, didn’t make me feel great”. As he felt “uncomfortable” Participant 1 searched for a more “international
atmosphere” with “a lot of foreigners” where he felt “very comfortable”, “the work that I searched for was in a more English environment and culture”. Furthermore, this participant has also found ways to manage by “switching it to my advantage”. For example in the publishing industry “If I get a Dutch author, who quite obviously sees my name and starts writing in Dutch to me, I’ll answer him with one sentence in Dutch, and then CC an English colleague and write the rest in English. It’s just so much easier”. Correspondingly, Participant 4 experienced anxiety when starting his first Dutch internship “I was really nervous because I knew I would have to respond to emails in Dutch and that I would have to pick up the phone in Dutch.” He was scared that he would “make mistakes with spelling or grammar. That people would get angry at my internship place” as “I was not confident in my Dutch, especially emails.” However, although this could have been a major
problem, Participant 4 stated that “it just took me longer to write an email because I would just google everything”. Therefore, although this may have been a difficulty, the individual found a way to adjust his way of working. Likewise, Participant 3 struggles with the Dutch numbers “I can’t get rid of it, in Dutch you flip the numbers when you say it. So it
completely screws with my head”. He also struggles with the “gramatics” stating
“Impossible, I’m never going to get it. I just kind of say what sounds right.” Nevertheless, the participant when working at his job with registers says “I have to type in the amount, you know the change or how much they have to pay and I’ll stop for a second”... “Then I have to say it outloud and then I can finally type it in”. So, although it takes a bit longer, these participants have found ways in which to manage their difficulties. Furthermore, Participant 3 did not understand parts of the Dutch culture working attitudes such as “the whole 9-5 mentality” because “they want you to work extra but they also expect you not to want extra pay for it”. He states “It makes no sense. Why would I do that. I should get paid for what I do. If I do overtime, pay me for my overtime. Otherwise I’m not going to do it. It’s simple”. Therefore, the participant has “gravitated towards places where everybody, you know, you could be yourself” and “everybody is basically open-minded”.
Although these participants experienced many difficulties in the workplace there were also some benefits caused by their TCK upbringing. Participant 5 for example stated that although “Now further on, it’s an advantage to have travelled and it’s an advantage to have learnt the language English so fluently”. She also felt like “you can adapt more easily” to different workstyles due the background you have. Similarly, Participant 1 stated in his second job there were “a couple of Scots, a couple of Englishman, and a lot of Dutch, but immediately you weren’t the only one in the situation.” Due to this “everyone would adapt their language, and it played to my advantage in a way, because the Dutch people, they’re English wouldn’t be so good. Whereas our client was Shell, so all their communication was in English, So you know it helped me.”
Participant 2 mentioned that she did not experience many difficulties “in the workplace” as her “colleagues were super understanding”. Nonetheless, this was because Participant 2 adjusted her way of introducing herself stating “saying your background will actually help you out a little”. She “would always make sure that I could say my
background and I’d ask like ‘oh where are you from? Have you been living in Rotterdam long?’ Then they would ask the same question back”. This way this participant could
mention her own background and create “a little leeway for myself”. Thus, participants adjusted by finding a to introduce herself and her background, allowing her home peers to gain an understanding.
The findings assert a clear understanding of both the difficulties and the benefits TCKs face with repatriation as well the effect of this in the workplace. Therefore the two selective codes; Problems TCKs face when repatriating and Benefits TCKs face when repatriating, were used to theme the axial codes. Furthermore,
5. Discussion
The findings of this research suggest that the problems faced by ATCKs when repatriating as well as the intercultural competence acquired due to their upbringing has important implications in the workplace. One of these implications is that ATCKs have difficulty interacting in the workplace due to their behaviour, language and sense of belonging to the workplace. Additionally, the benefits experienced in the workplace were related to their multicultural upbringing.
Firstly, prior research indicates that language plays a major role in the questions and difficulties experienced in the development of identity and a sense of belonging
(Hervey, 2009). This follows consistently with the results that were found in the interviews with the ATCKs as one of the recurring difficulties experienced in the workplace by participants was due to their language incompetency. Furthermore, language is a means by which culture-group members communicate and share their meanings, and for the
sojourner (in this case the ATCK), is a way of entry into the culture (Paige, 1993). This is seen in the workplace when language incompetency caused participants to feel
“uncomfortable” (Participant 1) in the environment in which they worked and in turn felt like they did not belong. A reason for this feeling was due to not being able to
“understand the culture” and “understand the way people interacted all the time. However it was also due to the people in the workplace not being “open” (Participant 5) and not being considerate of their background. On the other hand, an explanation for this may be due to the fact that most participants did not communicate their background and the possible reason for their language incompetencies or for their (often dissimilar) behaviour. Alternatively, as was seen by Participant 2 “saying your background can actually help you” as it could create “a little leeway”. Thus, this shows that if the ATCKs give notice of
possible occurrence of language incompetency or different behaviours, their “colleagues were super understanding”. Though, as nearly all participants did not do this, their sense of not belonging, caused them to search for jobs in industries where “everybody is basically open-minded” (Participant 3) with a “more international atmosphere” with “a lot of foreigners” (Participant 1). Hence, this shows that literature to date addresses the same concern about language and a sense of belonging as found from the interviews conducted with the ATCKs.
Secondly, throughout the interviews was found that cross-cultural code switching was an extremely hard adjustment for the ATCKS due to the language barrier between the ATCKs and home peers, which often caused individuals to experience an identity crisis. As cross-cultural code switching induces individuals to alter their behaviour during interactions in foreign environments in order to adapt their behaviour for appropriate communication to diverse cultural norms (Molinsky, 2007) it can cause individuals to experience an identity conflict (Van Maanen, 1979). Participant 2 mentioned this to be a problem in her daily work as she was not used to the “directness” of Dutch people. This was caused by the “norms and behaviours” that she “didn’t have growing up”. As previous research states, TCKs come in contact with a different culture when living in a foreign country, therefore can identify themselves with a situation where a certain behaviour is required, establishing one’s sociopragmatic awareness, and in turn teaches the individuals to respond in a appropriate manner, raising one’s pragmalinguistic awareness (Thomas, 1983), becoming one’s second nature and creating a place identity (Twigger-Ross & Uzzel, 1996). However as seen in the findings, the TCKs then had a hard time adjusting back to their first culture when returning as the “norms and behaviours” in the home culture, they “didn’t have growing up” (Participant 2). Consequently, as these individuals found it hard to adjust back to their first nature, misunderstandings arose in the
communication with their home peers and also caused them to clash with their innate values, norms and behaviours consecutively leading to an identity conflict. Participant 3 also mentioned this to be a problem in his school environment as when “he translated (Dutch) straight away into English, it sounded too formal”. Since speaking in a formal manner is “not the way you speak to your teachers in Canada” he “refused to speak” to his Dutch teachers “in a certain way” causing him to “but heads with a lot of teachers” as they felt that he “was disrespecting them”. Due to this this conflict the ATCK started adjusting
his behaviour to form to cultural norms and values even though “that’s not how it works” in Canada as “it would seem like you’re better than me, which they aren’t. We’re all the same”. This demonstrates that the new behaviour in the unfamiliar setting differed from the person’s intrinsic values and beliefs (Leong & Ward, 2000), causing an internal conflict. There was also a sense of conflict in place identity, therefore inducing participants to either move overseas or move to a workplace with a “more English environment and culture” (Participant 1). Thus, the need for an identity, is recognized within the workplace as it allows ATCKs to feel at ease, which in turn would lead to less turnover as these individuals are less likely to leave a job where they feel like they belong.
Thirdly, the literature reviewed suggests that people’s emotional impulses are directly associated with the identity conflict and generally create adverse emotions such as personal distress and anxiety Meglino & Ravlin (1998). The results show that the emotions felt by ATCKs are a direct result of their sense of belonging and identity in the workplace. Most interviewee’s appeared to experience personal distress and anxiety causing feelings of being “depressed” (Participant 2) and “just feel(ing) restless” as their stay felt
“temporary” and they were “going to move again” (Participant 5). Thus, this feeling of restlessness due to experiencing an identity conflict, like previously mentioned, caused individuals to leave their job and search for other industries in which they could connect. Moreover, the findings show that many participants acted or felt differently when speaking different languages. A reason for this was because individuals felt like they could not get their point across as easily in their native language due to misunderstanding the
socialisation that came with it. Participant 4 would misinterpret when his home peers would be direct to him and would therefore react in an inappropriate manner; as he would“try to find a way to offend them” which was perceived as “weird” since “most people would just accept it and laugh”. Therefore, unconsciously displaying incorrect ‘social behaviour’ in an interaction. These emotional responses on the language use of their home peers demonstrate that the perspectives of individuals are directly concerned with the level of comfort and sense of identity stimulated by the use of a certain language (Meneses, 2011). Correspondingly, other interviewee’s found that they could express themselves “better in English” (Participant 2) and get their “point across a lot easier” when “speaking English” (Participant 3). ATCKs felt “a lot more relaxed” (Participant 3) when speaking English, hence were able to find more contentment in the language and further
associate themselves with it. Likewise, as prior research mentioned, task performance dimension is a difficulty that many individuals experience in a foreign work environment (Van Maanen, 1979). This was expressed by the ATCKS stating that it was hard adjusting to the new and alien set of behaviours in the unfamiliar workplace as often “You know what you think is going on”... “but you don’t know how to say it in Dutch” making someone feel “really stupid” and “like you’re a nobody” (Participant 5). Equivalently, Participant 1 “was writing a lot of reports, and often in Dutch” which he “wasn’t good at” and “there was misunderstanding” due to not being able to perform the tasks effectively. This is in line with earlier analysis about task performance, which found that it is the unfamiliar and somewhat challenging set of behaviours that is criticized by their work peers of the native culture (Van Maanen, 1979), which provokes these ATCKs to try to conform to the ‘native’ way of executing a task which they are unable to do leading to performance anxiety. Despite some participants actually being incapable of performing the task, other’s were more nervous about the fact that they would “have to respond to emails in Dutch” and “pick up the phone in Dutch”(Participant 4). Due to this inconfidence participants were scared to make mistakes and that people at the workplace would get angry, therefore again leading to a sense of anxiety. This thus shows that the emotions felt and the behaviours expressed by ATCKs in the workplace are brought about by
individuals sense of belonging, identity and their inconfidence in their competencies. Lastly, from the existing literature that was reviewed, the importance of having intercultural competence in the workplace became apparent. One of the benefits experienced as a result of possessing employee’s with intercultural competence in the workplace is superior performance in a job or situation (Spencer & Spencer, 1993). Furthermore, from the literature became evident that TCKs, due to their international background, are able to demonstrate wholeness between conflicting frames of reference (Lam & Selmer, 2003) and can therefore consistently choose the relevant cultural context for their behaviour (Bennett, 2004). From the results was shown that due to their
upbringing, being surrounded by “a lot of nationalities and cultures” (Participant 4), ATCK’s were more acceptant and open-minded about different cultures. Furthermore, although participants did not always understand some cultural aspects, they were able to accept and adapt to it in different situations. However, from the results was also observed that although TCK’s were more acceptant and could adjust to different cultures easily,
their home peers had more difficulty being open-minded and accepting the differences brought with ATCK’s. This may be due to the fact that the people in the home country had not been exposed to internationalization growing up, therefore could not conform to situations where people were not alike to them. Thus, one of the reasons ATCK’s had a hard time adjusting to and fitting in the workplace in their home country may not be due to their own intercultural incompetence, but rather due to the intercultural incompetence of their home peers. This is further examined as the ATCKs that had a hard time re-adapting to the workplace in their home country, were able to “adapt more easily” (Participant 5) to different workstyles in a more internationalized workplace due to the upbringing they had. This is supported by Participant 5 who shows his intercultural communication competence by mentioning that in the Malaysian work-environment he watch what he says more. Thus, showing that he is aware of their “different cultural identity and cultural differences”, however is still able to interact effectively and appropriately (Kupka, 2008, p.16) with the native people of his workplace by adjusting his way of communicating.
Putting the results of the study in a broader context of the existing literature, it seems that the content of adjustment of ATCKs in the workplace when repatriating deserves more attention in research, but also in practice. This study shows that ATCKs experience several difficulties related to a sense of belonging to the employee’s in the workplace, understanding the culture, and adjusting their language and behaviour when working in somewhat ‘foreign’ environment; namely their native environment. In the literature the importance of intercultural competence is stressed because of the, growing TCK population, and the ability to accept, adapt and integrate with different cultures. Additionally, as shown in the results from the interviews, although the ATCKs may possess intercultural competency, they still encounter difficulties when working amongst home peers. From the findings, it is suggested that this is because people of their home country are often not accustomed to an intercultural work-environment and therefore are unaware of how to work with these ATCKs. So, although the intercultural competence is perceived to be very useful in the workplace to be able to communicate and interact more effectively with people, the absence of; understanding, awareness and knowledge of the home peers causes many of the problems experienced by ATCKs in the workplace.
