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How attractive are flexible

working conditions?

Master Thesis

Karina S. Lührsen

Graduate School of Communication

Communication Science: Corporate Communication University of Amsterdam

Student ID number: 11092971 Supervisor: Dr. Luzia Helfer June 24th, 2016

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Abstract

Recruiting qualified employees is a necessity in order to develop human capital, which reflects one of the greatest values an organisation can have. Employer branding is an

important tool to attract these highly skilled and talented employees in the ever emerging and competitive environment. One important option within employer branding is to offer flexible working conditions to employees. However, it is not clear whether flexible working

conditions actually enhance the todays’ students perception of employer brand image and employer attraction of an organisation. Furthermore the role of students' openness in this relationship is not yet researched. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the extent to which flexible working conditions, moderated by openness, and mediated by employer brand image, have an influence on employer attraction by students. The results of this study, based on a survey experiment, indicates that flexible working conditions lead to higher levels of employer brand image and employer attraction compared to traditional working conditions. Moreover, the results support the assumption that employer brand image mediates the relationship between the working conditions and employer attraction. In addition, openness shows an interaction effect with the working conditions on employer brand image, which reflects the moderating role of openness. Organisations are for that reason best advised to offer flexible working conditions to potential employees, such as students, in order to become attractive as an employer. Furthermore the organisations should take especially the students' openness into account, because that is a crucial factor, which can determine the person-organisation fit of the student and the person-organisation.

Keywords: Flexible working conditions, employer branding, employer brand image,

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How attractive are flexible working conditions?

In the modern world, human capital is the most crucial aspect for organisations. It represents not only the foundation for every organisation, but also provides it with a

competitive advantage (Berthon, Ewing, & Hah, 2005). Organisations must therefore attract qualified employees in order to develop the superior human capital. Hence, the internal marketing of organisations comes into play. Yao, Chen, and Cai (2013, p. 531) define internal marketing as "working to attract, develop, motivate, and maintain high-quality staff by

providing them with work products they need". Thus according to the concept of internal marketing, the organisations current and potential employees represent the first market (Berthon et al., 2005). One component within internal marketing of organisations is employer branding, which can stimulate and influence employer attraction so that the organisation becomes an employer of choice (Backhaus & Tikoo, 2004).

Employer attraction is, according to Rau and Hyland (2002, p. 123), "typically defined as an applicant’s interest in pursuing employment opportunities with the company". However, the conceptual framework of Backhaus and Tikoo (2004) emphasizes that employer branding does not influence employer attraction directly, but via the mediator employer brand image, which is construed as the image an organisation has as an employer (Knox & Freeman, 2006). Furthermore Backhaus and Tikoo (2004, p. 505) define it as potential applicants attraction "to a firm based on the extent to which they believe that the firm possesses the desired employee related attributes".

One important aspect within employer branding, which helps the organisation to differentiate itself from the competitors, is offering flexible working conditions to its

employees. Flexible working conditions at work are characterised by flexible timing, flexible workplace and facilitated by new media technologies (ten Brummelhuis, Bakker, Hetland, & Keulemans, 2012) and represent additionally one of the most important workplace trends in 2016 (Schawble, 2015). Rau and Hyland (2002) indicate that flexible working conditions

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make a job more attractive than traditional working conditions. However, the effects of flexible working conditions on employer attraction found by Rau and Hyland (2002) are due to today's continuously changing environment outdated. The present study therefore

investigates the impact of flexible working conditions on employer attraction today, as students have started to work more flexible and use more technology than ever within their study (Wainwright, 2013), which could have an effect on today's student's perception of a desirable employer.

In addition, the assumption is that the way of studying at the University, and thus also the perception of a desirable job, depends on the students general openness to work flexible and to use new communication technologies. Openness is defined by Gerber, Huber, Doherty, and Dowling (2011, p. 33) "as the degree to which a person needs intellectual stimulation and variety". However, these effects of the personality trait openness on working conditions are hardly researched (de Jong, van der Velde, & Jansen, 2001). Research indicates that the characteristics of a person and the characteristics of the job have to fit with each other in order to yield positive outcomes (e.g. Elving, Westhoff, Meeusen, & Schoonderbeek, 2013). So, the assumption is that the students' openness plays a moderating role on the working conditions in the sense that it contributes positively or negatively to the person-organisation fit, depending on whether the organisation offers either flexible or traditional working conditions.

Generally, the question, how attractive flexible working conditions actually are nowadays among students, who will graduate soon and represent the qualified staff of tomorrow, and what role students’ openness play in this relationship, remains open and therefore represents a knowledge gap. It is especially important for organisations to know whether flexible working conditions are attractive within student’s perception, and whether it depends on their openness, because they could use the outcomes of this study to their

advantage and try to shape a fit between both their working conditions and the students’ characteristics. Organisations could implement, adapt, improve or even abandon their flexible

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working arrangements depending on whether it is more beneficial for their employer brand image and employer attraction. Hence, this research aims to investigate the effects of flexible working conditions on employer attraction among students. Furthermore the effects of the personality trait openness and employer brand image in this relationship will be analysed. Following this reasoning, the central research question in this study is:

"To what extent have flexible working conditions, moderated by openness, and mediated by employer brand image, an influence on employer attraction by students?"

Theoretical framework

Organisations apply the concept of internal marketing to attract highly skilled and talented employees, which expresses a major challenge for every organisation (Zhu et al., 2014). The argument behind internal marketing is that employees, both current and potential, are the first market and the internal customers of an organisation, and that the jobs are the internal products that need to be sold (Tüzüner & Yüksel, 2009). In order to do so, the jobs must appear to be attractive, motivating and satisfying the needs of the employees in the first place.

Within the concept of internal marketing there is another crucial component, that of employer branding (Berthon et al., 2005), which embodies organisations' need to differentiate themselves from their competitors and highlight "the unique aspects of the firm’s employment offerings or environment", in order to attract the most talented and skilled employees (Brosi & Welpe, 2015, p. 818). This is important due to the fact that highly skilled and talented staff is scarce (Priyadarshi, 2011). In the competitive and emerging labour markets and due to the rapid economic developments nowadays, there are scant highly skilled and talented

employees (Newburry, Gardberg, & Sanchez, 2014), and many organisations are looking for the same skills and talents within an employee (Elving et al., 2013), which intensifies the

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already strong contest between the organisations for the best staff (Wilden, Gudergan, & Lings, 2010). Employees willingness for short stays at the same company and to change their jobs more frequently increases the contest for qualified talents as well (Rampl & Kenning, 2014). In order to win the contest and to recruit the scarce talented employees, the

organizations need to be as attractive as possible for the potential applicants (Fréchette, Bourhis, & Stachura, 2013). Therefore employer branding, which represents an important tool to communicate the message to current and potential employees that the organisation is a great place to work and that the organisation as an employer has the superiority in comparison to its competitors, comes into play. Furthermore, having a strong and positive employer brand entails some important advantages like reduced costs of employee acquisitions, improved relations between employees and employers (Berthon et al., 2005), and enhanced employee retention (Cascio, 2014).

But employer branding also influences and stimulates employer attraction (Backhaus & Tikoo, 2004). Employer attraction is based on the employees’ perception of available information about the organisation and the job. They receive this information from so called recruitment sources as printed job advertisements and media messages for instance

(Gatewood, Gowan, & Lautenschlager, 1993), which are important means within employer branding (Elving et al., 2013). These job advertisements can positively influence potential employees and help the organisations become an employer of choice (Elving et al., 2013). According to Berthon et al. (2005) and Van Hoye (2012) it is important that organisations put effort into employer branding, and therefore include writing detailed job advertisements. In order to attract and positively influence the workforce, the recruitment sources could highlight certain aspects of the organization or the job to make it a more desirable place to work. Elving et al. (2013) suggest that members of the generation Y, thus born after 1980, are more focused on professional freedom, better work-life balance and flexibility, than older employees. The assumption is that these benefits within a job or an organisation are also more likely to be

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seen as attractive, thus positively influencing employer attraction. Spiro (2006) supports the assumption by pointing out that especially the generation Y, accounting for approximately 21% of the today's workforce and additionally being characterised by its open-mindedness, craves for jobs with flexibility. Besides, the generation Z, the children of generation Y, born between 1994 and 2000 and therefore also representing nowadays students, who will graduate soon and enter the workforce, desire opportunity for growth, work-life balance and flexibility in their future job (Schawble, 2015).

This is the reason why the working conditions of an organisation, representing one aspect within employer branding, come into play. Offering certain working conditions could have an effect on the employer brand image and ultimately on the employer attraction of the organisation. Hence, the research model (see Model 1) shows that this study will investigate the effects of working conditions, both flexible and traditional, as the independent variable, mediated by employer brand image, on employer attraction as the dependent variable. Furthermore, the effects of the moderating variable openness will be tested. Openness could moderate the effect in the sense that it sways the person-organisation fit of the student and the organisation as an employer, which is a key factor in the satisfaction of both parties. The relationship of openness as moderator and employer brand image as mediator can also be described as moderated mediation effect.

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Employer branding

Branding principles and strategies applied to human resource management can be portrayed as "employer branding" (Tüzüner & Yüksel, 2009). According to Elving et al. (2013) employer branding reflects a powerful tool and strategy to attract potential employees. Employer branding is furthermore described as "a targeted, long-term strategy to manage the awareness and perceptions of employees, potential employees, and related stakeholders with regards to a particular firm" (Backhaus & Tikoo, 2004, p. 501). The literature additionally indicates that employer branding, is used by organisations in order to attract highly skilled and loyal employees, develop human capital, and therefore succeed and survive in the competitive environment (e.g. Bonaiuto, De Dominicis, Illia, Rodriguez-Canovas, & Lizzani, 2013; Van Hoye, Bas, Cromheecke, & Lievens, 2013). Organisations apply employer branding

especially by highlighting particular aspects, like the working conditions, within their campaigns, thus in job advertisements or other recruitment sources.

In general, the concept of employer branding indicates that the organisation attempts to differentiate itself and its involving characteristics as an employer from its competitors in order to attract potential employees (Backhaus & Tikoo, 2004). From this, Tüzüner and Yüksel (2009) suggest, that the distinctiveness of an organization as a brand leads to the acquisition of distinctive and marvelous human capital. In addition, Zhu et al. (2014, p. 934) describe employer branding as "the process of an organisation as employer in the labor market establishing a distinctive image among prospective and current employees". The distinction of an organisation’s position as an employer is possible through many ways and means, and through many different characteristics which the organisation possibly offers.

In their research Ambler and Barrow (1996) suggest that the employer brand can be divided into three dimensions (see Appendix A). The first is the functional dimension which for example involves career opportunities or the flexibility within the organisation. Thus, offering a certain level of flexibility with regards to working conditions, express a prime

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example for the functional dimension, and therefore helps the organisation to differentiate itself from its competitors. The second dimension is the economic one that implicates the financial factors, such as salary for instance. The last dimension is the psychological dimension, which can for example refer to the employees feeling of identification and belonging to an organisation. According to the definition of Ambler and Barrow (1996, p. 187) the employer brand is characterised by these three dimensions and its’ inherent benefits: "the package of functional, economic and psychological benefits provided by employment, and identified with the employing company."

Employer brand image. Employer branding and therefore also the organisations standpoint as an employer, affects how current and potential employees see and think about the organisation. Thus their perceptions can be influenced by employer branding. These perceptions can also be identified with employer brand image (Elving et al., 2013). Knox and Freeman (2006, p. 697) describe employer brand image as "the image associated with an organisation uniquely in its role as an employer". As stated in the literature, employer brand image has a great influence on factors like decisions and beliefs about employment and the organisations as an employer (Knox & Freeman, 2006), the decisions and intentions to take the job at the employing company (Priyadarshi, 2011), or applicants attraction to that

respective organisation (Backhaus & Tikoo, 2004). Agrawal and Swaroop (2009) additionally indicate that many students for instance have no prior experience with working or applying to organisations. Therefore, the students base their decisions regarding employment with a certain firm on their employer brand image about the organisation (Agrawal & Swaroop, 2009).

Employer brand image can also be divided into two different dimensions of benefits (see Appendix A) analogous to the employer branding classification by Ambler and Barrow (1996). The first dimension represents the functional benefits of the organisation as an employer. That means that these benefits are worthwhile in rather objective aspects, such as

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salary and leave allowances. The second dimension reflects the symbolic benefits, which deal especially with the perceived prestige of the organisation and the feelings the employees will have if they work for the organisation. Potential employees will be more attracted to an organisation when they believe that the organisation provides these desired attributes and benefits (Backhaus & Tikoo, 2004).

Supportive of that distinction, Lievens and Highhouse (2003), and Lievens, Van Hoye, and Anseel (2007) introduce the framework of the instrumental and symbolic attributes of an organisation. The instrumental attributes, which can also be linked to the functional benefits as suggested by Backhaus and Tikoo (2004), describe the job or the employing company in objective terms. The employer either possesses or does not possess these concrete, and tangible attributes like salary, bonuses and flexible working hours (Lievens & Highhouse, 2003; Lievens et al., 2007). In general, the instrumental attributes embody the utility of a job or the organisation, thus to what extent the job maximizes the benefits and reduces costs (Lievens & Highhouse, 2003). The symbolic attributes, which are similarly related to the symbolic benefits (Backhaus & Tikoo, 2004), expresses subjective, intangible and rather abstract attributes. These symbolic attributes are about trait inferences like innovativeness or prestige, which current and potential employees, ascribe to the organisation (Lievens & Highhouse, 2003; Lievens et al., 2007).

Lievens et al. (2007) extends the framework by indicating that especially the symbolic attributes of an organisation are able to affect the attractiveness of an organisation as an employer. Thus the literature already indicates that the symbolic attributes explain to a great extent the variance in employer attraction. Though, the question remains unsolved whether the same applies if a certain instrumental attribute is manipulated. Thus in order to shed further light into the framework and the effects of the attributes on employer attraction, it is important to supplementary research the working conditions of an organisation. They express the functional dimension of employer branding, which influence the instrumental attributes of

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employer brand image (see Appendix A for a classification of employer branding and employer brand image and the role of the working conditions). It is argued that the working conditions especially influence the functional or instrumental attributes of an organisation (employer brand image), because the working conditions allude rather to the tangible and concrete attributes which can reinforce the utility of a job or organisation for instance.

Employer attraction. According to Berthon et al. (2005, p. 156) employer attraction or the similar concept of attractiveness can be defined "as the envisioned benefits that a potential employee sees in working for a specific organisation." Employer attractiveness is displayed by the extent to which the workforce, thinks about an organisation as a desirable and great place to work (Elving et al., 2013). Employees have different needs and wants and in order to satisfy those needs, they search for jobs and organisations that are the most attractive and promising to them. The attractiveness of an employer is thus linked to the perceived characteristics an employee has about the job, and the organization (Elving et al., 2013). According to Universum (2015) Google is for instance one of the most attractive employers in 2015, because the company fosters work-life balance, participation, innovativeness, collaboration and conversation.

Flexible working conditions

One aspect within employer branding, which could influence employer brand image and employer attraction, are the working conditions of an organisation. Increased

competitiveness, rapid changes on the labor market, and technological developments are common reasons for implementing flexible work conditions (Martens, Nijhuis, Van Boxtel, & Knottnerus, 1999). Workplace flexibility even belongs to the top 10 workplace trends of 2016 according to the Forbes, because more and more workers even demand the flexibility and switch to employers with flexible work programs (Schawble, 2015). As stated by Tüzüner and Yüksel (2009) flexibility within the workplace can be seen as a crucial strategy to attract and

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maintain highly skilled and talented employees, which additionally supplies the organisations with a competitive advantage (Tüzüner & Yüksel, 2009).

Due to the changing environment, economic market, lack of time and also work overload, the needs of the workforce changes as well. One way to be responsive to the new needs and wants of the employees, and thereby becoming attractive as an employer, is to offer workplace solutions like flexible working conditions (Pedersen & Lewis, 2012). As opposed to traditional working conditions, primarily characterized by inflexible and impermeable boundaries with regard to the time and space of working and therefore well represented by the 9 to 5 day in the office (Rau & Hyland, 2002), flexible working conditions offer increased control and flexibility of space and time (see Table 1 for key characteristics of the two working conditions).

Table 1

The Two Different Working Conditions and Their Key Characteristics

Working Conditions Key Characteristics

Flexible Working Conditions Flexible timing,

Flexible workplace/ locations,

Communication via new communication technologies (e.g. LinkedIn)

Traditional Working Conditions Traditional timing (e.g. 9 to 5), Office workplace,

Communication via traditional media technologies (e.g. e-mail)

Note. This table is based on the articles of ten Brummelhuis et al. (2012), and Rau and Hyland

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Hence, flexible working conditions represent a certain resource for employees as indicated by Mauno, Kinnunen, and Ruokolainen (2006), since it enables employees to deal with competing demands from work and private life which results in a better work-life balance and reduced stress (Halpern, 2005; Rau & Hyland, 2002), which again is especially important for the generation Z (Schawble, 2015). The private life does not only include having a family, but also the friendship with people as indicated by Pederson (2012). This could be especially important for students, as it is a big change from being a student to becoming an employee (Hagan, 2015). Students are accustomed to spend a lot of time with their friends, but a demanding job, could get in the way of having free time. Thus if a job gives the possibility to also have time for friends, it could increase the student's perception of employer attraction.In addition, the offer of flexible working arrangements can result in lower levels of stress and burnout, and increased job satisfaction (Rogier & Padgett, 2004), which is also desirable for students and could therefore improve the employer branding process of organisations. This is in line with Casper and Buffardi (2004) who state that flexible working conditions, which are closely related to work-life benefits, can be linked to an enhanced recruitment process, and job pursuit intentions. Rau and Hyland (2002) also argue that a flexible work arrangement is a factor which influences employer attraction positively by indicating that students have a greater attraction to organisations that offer flexible working conditions than to those that offer a standard or traditional work arrangement. Following this reasoning the first hypothesis is formulated as follows:

H1: Flexible working conditions have a positive effect on employer attraction compared to traditional working conditions.

However, between the relation of the working conditions and employer attraction there is an intermediate step, namely the employer brand image. This is in line with the conceptual framework of Backhaus and Tikoo (2004), who state that employer branding influences employer brand image and then ultimately employer attraction. It is argued in this study that

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offering flexible working conditions within organisation is a strategy or part of employer branding, which positively influences the employer brand image because of all its advantages (e.g. work-life balance, reduced stress, increased job satisfaction). Therefore it is expected, that flexible working conditions are positively associated with employer brand image as it is similarly associated with employer attraction. In summary, the forecast is that flexible

working conditions positively reinforce and enhance employer brand image in comparison to traditional working conditions. Therefore the second hypothesis is:

H2: Flexible working conditions have a positive effect on employer brand image compared to traditional working conditions.

According to the conceptual model of employer branding by Backhaus and Tikoo (2004), employer brand image has again an influence on employer attraction. Also Berthon et al. (2005) point out that recruitment strategies and also employer branding indirectly influence decisions and intentions about employment with an organisation through employer brand image. In addition, Van Hoye et al. (2013) point out that job applicants attraction to an organisation as an employer is based on their employer brand image about that respective organisation, thus by the applicants perceptions of the instrumental and symbolic attributes of the organisation. This suggests the mediating role of employer brand image between the working conditions, both flexible and traditional working conditions, and employer attraction. Therefore the third and fourth hypotheses are formulated as follows:

H3: Employer brand image is positively associated with employer attraction. H4: Employer brand image mediates the relationship between the working conditions and employer attraction.

Openness

It is argued that the effects of the working conditions on employer brand image and therefore also on employer attraction depend on the students' openness. The rationale behind

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that argument is that students' openness could influence the person-organisation fit of the student and the organisation or the job. And a person-organisation fit is important if both parties, thus the student and the organisation, want to have a positive output of the

employment (e.g. Tüzüner & Yüksel, 2009). Therefore it is so important to further research the relationship between working conditions, as an organisational characteristic, and the students' openness as personal characteristic.

Openness or openness to experience is one of the big five personality traits,

representing individual-level characteristics, which can influence the way people think and react to the environment, thus actually influencing their attitude and behaviour. Gerber et al. (2011) indicate that individuals scoring high on the trait of openness, are amenable to new experiences and tend to new and challenging stimuli. They have broad interests, are more imaginative (Gerber et al., 2011), expose themselves to new and unfamiliar people, ideas and experiences (Caprara & Zimbardo, 2004), and are creative, curious, and autonomous (Judge & Cable, 1997). Individuals scoring low on the personality trait of openness are rather down-to-earth, practical and traditional (Gerber et al., 2011). Following this reasoning, people who are more open are less attracted to cultures and organisations, which are detail-oriented, narrow-minded and follow strictly every rule and procedure (Judge & Cable, 1997). In addition, Nisbet, Hart, Myers, and Ellithorpe (2013) suggest that people who are close-minded are more likely to resist changes and to prefer the status quo compared to open-minded individuals.

Person-organisation fit. A person with openness to experience stands out by its imaginative, curious, broad-minded and intelligent character (de Jong et al., 2001). The authors further indicate that a good fit or match between an individual and his or her

characteristics and a jobs characteristics is crucial. A mismatch of the individual and the job can yield negative effects such as low job satisfaction and turnover intentions. On that

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account, de Jong et al. (2001) further emphasise the important role of the personality traits on attitudes and behaviours with regard to certain work conditions.

Elving et al. (2013) support the assumption of the important role of a fit between the employee and the organisation. The compatibility between the two sides or the person-organisation (P-O) fit is crucial, because it can improve the attractiveness of an person-organisation. The so called P-O fit is ensured when the individual and the organisation, who offers the job, have similar characteristics (Elving et al., 2013). Tüzüner and Yüksel (2009) also state that if you want to ensure the best placement of an employee, there needs to be a

person-organisation fit. Both parts, thus the individual and the person-organisation, form their attitudes and make their decisions as a result of their needs, preferences, and expectations. So, the

employee should fit to the organisation in order to yield positive outcomes (Tüzüner & Yüksel, 2009). The person-organisation fit, stimulated in this study by the students' openness and the working conditions, could also be a reason for organisations to hire some students and some not. It is more likely that organisations who offer flexible working conditions for

instance, also want to employ students who would like and are open to work flexible, thus fitting to the job.

Potential employees or today's students adjust their needs, personality and their values with the organisations and search for the best match. The students are more likely attracted to an organisation of whom they think they have a good fit with, compared to an organisation with whom they have no characteristics or values in common, thus no fit (Backhaus & Tikoo, 2004), which will then ultimately affect their job choice decision (Cable & Judge, 1996). Following this reasoning, it is argued that students who have higher levels of openness, are also more open for flexible working conditions. Therefore they would also shape a better P-O fit with the organisation that offers flexible working conditions compared to an organisation that does not offer flexibility within the working conditions, which is crucial and desirable if both, the potential employee or the student and the organisation, want to harvest positive

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outcomes. On the contrary, students who score low on openness, prefer the traditional, standard work arrangements instead of flexible working conditions and would therefore also form a better P-O fit with an organisation, which offers the traditional working conditions. Therefore, the last hypotheses are:

H5a: Openness positively moderates the relationship between flexible working conditions and employer brand image.

H5b: Openness negatively moderates the relationship between the traditional working conditions and employer brand image.

Methods Design

The research was conducted with the means of an online survey experiment. Thus the survey experiment consisted of two parts as further described below. Completing the survey experimenttook approximately 10 minutes. The present study did not provide any incentives to its participants for filling in the survey experiment.

Experiment. First, there was an experiment about the factor of working conditions within the two different job descriptions. The first job description (first condition) offered flexible working conditions to its future employees. The second job description (second condition) offered traditional working conditions. In order to assure consistency and therefore internal validity of the experiment, similar job descriptions were used. For both conditions, the change of the stimulus material was held constant (see Appendix B for the two job descriptions/ conditions). The participants were randomly assigned to one of the two conditions (job descriptions). The flexible working conditions appeared 74 times (49.70%) and the traditional working conditions 75 times (50.30%).

Survey. Second, the participants had to fill in the survey where openness, employer brand image and employer attraction were measured with different items. In the end, the

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participants had to declare their demographic information. The survey dealt with the self report of the participants, because it was important in this study to assess their own subjective opinion. The online survey experiment was programmed using the research software

Qualtrics. The entire survey is presented in Appendix C.

Measures

The survey consisted of five subscales with a total number of 26 different items (a total overview of the used items are presented in Appendix D). A 5-point Likert scale was used for all the items ranging from 1 = totally disagree and 5 = totally agree, except for the manipulation check questions, where the participants had to choose between flexible working conditions and traditional working conditions (see Appendix C for the survey and the answer options). Factor analysis were conducted for all the scales to test the validity of the items (see Appendix E). The descriptive information about the scales is presented in Table 2.

Openness. A validated scale by Gerber et al. (2011) was used to measure the

personality trait openness. According to the factor analysis only three items (instead of four) loaded high on this construct, which resulted still in a low Cronbach's alpha of 0.51, which is even below the acceptable threshold. Furthermore, the reliability analysis indicated that the Cronbach's alpha would be about 0.06 higher with only three items instead of four. Besides, that specific item, which dealt with the complexity of the participants, was the most

ambiguous compared to the other items. It might be that this specific item caused some confusion, especially when it was in relation to the working conditions, which were presented exactly before the questions about the openness were asked. In addition, the original scale used by Gerber et al. (2011) showed low correlations between the items as well, which makes it even more reasonable to delete at least one item in order to raise the Cronbach's alpha. Therefore that one item was deleted. The scale consisted of items like "I see myself as open to new experiences" (three items, α = 0.51).

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Employer brand image. The variable was measured using the 20 attributes scale invented by Knox and Freeman (2006). The employer brand image scale in this study selected 12 items of these 20 attributes, which were the most applicable to the job descriptions.

However, whether the organisation actually offered all of the 12 attributes was not of

importance, because these items dealt especially with the participants beliefs and expectations about the organisation, thus how they estimated the employer and to what extent they believed that the organization, would possess certain attributes or not. A factor analysis was conducted, which indicated that one item did not load on the construct of employer brand image. Also the reliability test suggested that the Cronbach's alpha would be the highest if that one item was deleted. Additionally, that specific item required the participants the most to be imaginative and to put their selves in the position of being an employee of that organisation, which could be the reason for the low loading. Hence, one item was deleted and the scale consisted in the end of 11 items (e.g. "The organisation allows a lot of freedom to work on your own

initiative"; α = 0.92).

Employer attraction. A combination of two validated scales by Lievens, Van Hoye, and Schreurs (2005) and Rau and Hyland (2002) was used to assess the employer attraction. The combined scale consisted of eight items (e.g. "I would be interested in pursuing

employment opportunities with this company"; α = 0.97).

Manipulation check questions. These questions had the aim to check whether participants understood the manipulation of the working conditions within the two different job descriptions. The items (e.g. "What did the employer offer in the job description regarding the working conditions?") were designed by the researcher. A crosstabs test was used for the both manipulation check questions in order to check whether the participants understood the difference between the two conditions, thus between the flexible and traditional working condition within the job descriptions and whether they gave the correct answer to these questions. The test indicated that in total 15 of the participants had it wrong (9.15%) and were

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therefore deleted from the final sample. Furthermore a correlation test was conducted to test the association between the two items. The test revealed that there was a perfect, positive association between the first and the second manipulation check question, r = 1.00, p = <.001.

Demographical questions. These questions were about the demographical

information of the participants. The items included questions about the nationality, place of residence, age, gender, study, phase of study (e.g. Bachelor), and job experience (number of months/ sector).

Table 2

Descriptive Scale Analysis

Scales N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Openness 149 2 5 3.79 .62

Employer Brand Image 149 1 5 3.02 .83

Employer Attraction 149 1 5 2.90 1.06

Data collection

The data was collected by means of an online survey experiment to ensure a high and reliable number of participants. In addition, this method had the advantage of preserving the anonymity of the participants. The online survey was distributed via the online platform Facebook and via e-mail. The participants were not randomly selected due to the fact that the survey experiment was distributed via the researchers personal accounts in the first place, which means that only friends and acquaintances could be reached. Hence, a convenience sample with students was used in this study. However, a snowball sampling technique was also used, which assured additionally that a high number of people participated in this study. The link to the digital questionnaire was distributed a second time as a reminder to gather enough data.

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Participants

The sample was composed of 225 students. A requirement was that the participants were at least 18 years of age. Due to wrong answers of the manipulation check questions, 15 participants were deleted. Additionally, after excluding not completed questionnaires, the final sample had a size of 149 students, including 57 males (38.30%) and 92 females

(61.70%). The participants mean age was 23.74 years (SD = 1.89). Of these 149 students, 145 lived in the Netherlands during this survey experiment. The other students lived in Germany, Belgium, and Washington DC. The nationalities German, Dutch, American, Australian, Austrian, Bahraini, Belgian, Brazilian, British, Bulgarian, Chinese, Danish, French, Italian, Japanese, Lithuanian, Mexican, Norwegian, Polish, South African, Spanish and Swiss were represented in this survey experiment.

In order to check for randomisation of the participants demographics between the two conditions of the experiment, the Fisher´s exact test and the Pearson chi-square were

conducted. The results indicated that there were no significant differences among the

participants demographics, including gender, nationality, place of residence, study, and phase of study, within the randomisation of the conditions. Thus there was no statistically significant association between the conditions and the demographics of the participants under study meaning that the randomisation of the conditions worked.

Results

To test the first hypothesis, thus whether the flexible working conditions yielded a higher score on employer attraction than the traditional working conditions, an independent sample t-test was conducted. The two conditions (flexible vs. traditional working conditions) were compared with regard to their effect on employer attraction. The results showed that the first condition with flexible working conditions reached a significantly higher score on employer attraction than the second condition with traditional working conditions, t (147) =

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-8.55, p = <.001, 95% CI [-1.50; -0.94] (see Table 3). Therefore hypothesis 1 was confirmed. This indicates that these days, students are more attracted to organisations as an employer, when flexible working conditions are offered.

To test the second hypothesis, a second independent sample t-test was conducted. The two conditions were compared with regard to their effect on employer brand image in order to test whether flexible working conditions achieved a higher score on employer brand image than the traditional working conditions. The test suggested that the first condition with

flexible working conditions scored a significantly higher score on employer brand image than the second condition with traditional working conditions, t (147) = -15.51, p = <.001, 95% CI [-1.47; -1.13] (see Table 3). Therefore hypothesis 2 was confirmed. The results reveal that flexible working conditions enhance the employer brand image of the organisation more than traditional working conditions. The first confirmed hypothesis already points out that flexible working conditions have a positive effect on employer attraction compared to traditional working conditions. It was foreboded that the working conditions would influence employer brand image and employer attraction similarly. Hence, it is only in line with the forecast and the first hypothesis that flexible working conditions also have a positive effect on employer brand image compared to traditional working conditions.

Table 3

Differences in Employer Attraction and Employer Brand Image Between the Two Conditions

Flexible Working Conditions Traditional Working Conditions Variable M SD N M SD N df t p Employer Attraction 3.52 .87 74 2.30 .88 75 147 -8.55 .000

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Employer Brand Image

3.67 .52 74 2.37 .51 75 147 -15.51 .000

To test the third hypothesis, thus whether employer brand image was positively associated with employer attraction, an one simple linear regression with the both variables was operated. The model was significant, F (1, 147) = 253.10, p = <.001.Employer brand image, b* = 1.02, t = 15.91, p = <.001, 95% CI [0.90; 1.15], had a significantand positive association with employer attraction. Therefore hypothesis 3 was confirmed.The fit was strong: 63.3% of the variance in employer attraction can be predicted on the basis of employer brand image (R² = 0.63). The first and second hypothesis point out that both employer brand image and employer attraction are similarly affected by flexible working conditions, which could forebode the association between the two. As a matter of fact, the results indicate that employer brand image is positively associated with employer attraction.

To test the fourth hypothesis and whether employer brand image mediates the

relationship between the working conditions and employer attraction the program Process by Andrew F. Hayes (Hayes, 2013) was used. Hence, a mediation analysis was conducted with the program. The first requirement for the mediation was that the independent variable (working conditions) was associated with the dependent variable, in this case employer attraction, F (1,47) = 73.05, p = <.001, R² = .33. The second requirement was that the independent variable was also associated with the mediator employer brand image, F (1,147) = 240.45, p = <.001, R² = .62. After that, a multiple regression was calculated with employer attraction as the dependent variable and the working conditions and employer brand image as the predictors F (2,146) = 129.37, p = <.001, R² = .64. In order to see whether employer brand image mediated the relationship between the working conditions and the employer attraction, the direct effect of the working conditions on employer attraction and the indirect effect of the

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working conditions on employer attraction via employer brand image were compared. The indirect effect, thus the effect of the working conditions on employer attraction controlled for employer brand image, had to be no longer significant in order to have a full mediation. The results showed that the indirect effect of the working conditions on employer attraction via employer brand image was no longer significant (b* = -.28, t (146) = -1.65, p = .102, 95% CI [-.62; .06]) compared to the direct effect of the working conditions (b* = 1.22, t (147) = 8.55,

p = <.001, 95% CI [.94; 1.50]). In addition, the Sobel Z test indicated that the difference

between the direct effect and indirect effect was significant, Z = 9.04, p = <.001. Therefore the hypothesis 4 was confirmed. That means that the relationship between the working conditions and employer attraction was fully mediated by employer brand image.

The program Process (Hayes, 2013) was used to test the fifth hypothesis and whether the working conditions and openness had an interaction effect on employer brand image. It was expected that openness would positively moderate the relationship between the flexible working conditions and employer brand image, and negatively the relationship between the traditional working conditions and employer brand image. Therefore a moderation analysis was conducted (see for the regression summary of the moderation Table 4). The overall model was significant, F (3, 145) = 82.41, p = <.001, R² = .63.The model (see Table 4) revealed one significant and positive main effect of the working conditions(b* = 1.30, t (145) = 15.50, p = <.001, 95% CI [1.13, 1.47]) on employer brand image.However, the main effect of openness on employer brand image was not significant (b* = .03, t (145) = .53, p = .60, 95% CI [-.09, .15]).Furthermore, the expected interaction of the working conditions and openness on employer brand image was positive and significant(b* = .29, t (145) = 2.32, p = .022, 95% CI [.04, .53]), which implicates that students' openness functions as a moderator between the working conditions and employer brand image.

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Table 4

Regression Analysis of the Working Conditions and Openness on Employer Brand Image

95% CI

Variable b* t p Lower Upper

Working Conditions 1.30 15.50 .000 1.13 1.47

Openness .03 .53 .600 -.09 .15

Working Conditions x Openness

.29 2.32 .022 .04 .53

Note. Dependent variable: Employer brand image.

Figure 1, reflecting the interaction effect of the working conditions and openness, pointed out that the effects of the working conditions on employer brand image were stronger for the participants with a high score on openness. In addition, employer brand image reached the highest score when flexible working conditions were applied, regardless of the level of openness. However, when additionally the levels of openness were high, the employer brand image yielded higher outcomes compared to low levels of openness and flexible working conditions, which indicated that openness positively moderated the relationship between the flexible working conditions and employer brand image. Therefore hypothesis 5a was

confirmed. For that reason, it could be argued that thus flexible working conditions and open students form the best fit.

On the contrary, when high levels of openness were combined with traditional

working conditions, the employer brand image decreased significantly more compared to low levels of openness and traditional working conditions, which indicates that openness

negatively moderated the relationship between traditional working conditions and employer brand image. This is an indication that traditional working conditions and high level of

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means generally that if traditional working conditions are present, less open people fit better than more open students.

Figure 1. Interaction Effects of the Working Conditions and the Openness on Employer Brand Image

Discussion

This research aims at investigating the effects of the working conditions, flexible working conditions and traditional working conditions in comparison, on employer attraction. Furthermore the moderated mediation of openness and employer brand image is researched in this relationship. Hence, this research was guided by the overall question "To what extent have flexible working conditions, moderated by openness, and mediated by employer brand image, an influence on employer attraction by students?"

This current study reveals some main findings. The working conditions, both flexible and traditional, can be seen as a part or strategy within employer branding, thereby

representing the functional dimension of employer branding, which reinforces and influences 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 Traditional Working Conditions Flexible Working Conditions E m p loyer B ran d Im age Low Openness High Openness

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employer brand image and ultimately employer attraction (e.g. Backhaus & Tikoo, 2004). However, this research points out that flexible working conditions have a positive effect on employer brand image and employer attraction, compared to traditional working conditions. Thus, when flexible working conditions are applied in the job description, employer brand image and employer attraction are enhanced compared to when traditional working conditions are applied.

Furthermorethe study announces that employer brand image is positively associated with the employer attraction, which is additionally related to another main finding, namely to employer brand image as having a mediating role.Employer brand image reflects the

mediator in the relationship between the working conditions, both traditional and flexible, and employer attraction, which is in line with the conceptual framework of Backhaus and Tikoo (2004). This means that the working conditions only indirectly influence employer attraction through employer brand image. Hence, the variance in employer attraction can be explained by the students employer brand image about that respective organisation. If students have a positive image about an organisation as an employer due to the fact that it offers flexible working conditions for instance, they are correspondingly more attracted to that same organisation. Generally this means that if the students have a positive image about an

organization, they are also more attracted to it, and if the students have a negative image, they are less attracted to it.

Moreover, the students' openness plays a moderating role between the working conditions and the employer brand image. On the one hand, openness positively moderates the relationship between flexible working conditions and employer brand image, and on the other hand, does openness negatively moderate the relationship between the traditional working conditions and employer brand image. Thus this study points out that openness indeed has a positive interaction effect with the flexible working conditions and a negative interaction effect with the traditional working conditions. That means that employer brand

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image yields the best outcomes when flexible working conditions are offered and the students are also open for this flexibility. Accordingly, the combination of open students and

traditional working conditions decreases the employer brand image the most. Thus, when traditional working conditions are present, students with a low level of openness indicate the highest outcomes with regard to employer brand image, compared to students with a high level of openness. The rationale behind these results is that open people might prefer flexible working conditions, because it shapes a great fit between the characteristics of the person and the job, and therefore enhances employer brand image at its best. This is also in line with the P-O literature (e.g. de Jong et al., 2001; Elving et al., 2013; Tüzüner & Yüksel, 2009), which suggests that a good fit between the student, in this case with regard to their openness, and the organisation, with regard to their working conditions, fetches the best outcomes. Thus the students' openness, expressing a personal characteristic, moderates the relationship between the working conditions and employer brand image and thereby contributes to the person-organisation fit.

In conclusion, organisations apply employer branding in order to become as attractive as possible and to develop human capital. Flexible working conditions, moderated by

openness, and mediated by employer brand image, influence employer attraction to a great deal and reflect therefore a crucial aspect within employer branding. Thus throughout this study, it becomes clear that flexible working conditions (opposed to traditional working conditions) as an aspect of employer branding, students’ openness, and the employer brand image are key elements, which can positively influence the employer attraction of an organisation.

Implications

This current study entails some theoretical and practical implications. First, the theoretical implications will be discussed. One of the main theoretical contributions of this

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study is that it empirically confirms the conceptual model by Backhaus and Tikoo (2004), and even extends it by adding a specific aspect within employer branding, namely the working conditions. According to the conceptual model, employer branding influences employer brand image, which again influences employer attraction. This study confirms this model as the working conditions, flexible or traditional, express a part or strategy within the functional dimension of employer branding, which influence the employer brand image, which then in turn influences employer attraction. Lievens et al. (2007) indicate that the symbolic attributes, characterising one part of employer brand image, especially explain the variance in employer attraction. The question whether the same would apply if the instrumental/ functional

attributes of employer brand image were manipulated, was unsolved. Therefore this study concentrates on the functional dimension of employer branding, which would then especially stimulate the functional/ instrumental attributes of employer branding (see Appendix A). Indeed, the findings show that also the instrumental/ functional attributes of employer brand image, stimulated by the working conditions, influence the employer attraction to a great extent. Thus, this study contributes to the literature in that sense that in confirms the

assumptions by Backhaus and Tikoo (2004) and furthermore introduces the important role of the working conditions within the functional dimension of employer branding, which can reinforce employer brand image (instrumental/ functional attributes) and finally employer attraction.

Additionally, this study introduces the important role of students' openness within the working conditions. Openness moderates the relationship between the working conditions, both flexible and traditional, and employer brand image, which in itself influences employer attraction. The existing literature about openness already indicated that openness has effects on certain attitudes and behaviors like job satisfaction (e.g. de Jong et al., 2001). However, the fact that students’ openness affects the way the working conditions influence employer brand image was not researched or confirmed by earlier literature. Thus, this studies finding

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contribute to the literature in the way that it introduces the moderating role of openness between working conditions and employer brand image. Besides, the findings show that students' openness contributes to the person-organisation fit of the student and the

organisation as an employer. This study points out that open students (personal characteristic) and the offer of flexible working conditions (organisational characteristic) harvest the best outcomes with regard to employer brand image, indicating that open students and flexible working conditions form the best match.

This study also adds some practical implications. The first important practical implication refers to the flexible working conditions. Employer branding, including the flexible working conditions in specific, leads to higher employer brand image and employer attraction. Organisations should thus offer flexible working conditions in order to yield positive outcomes with regard to their employer brand image and employer attraction. It further helps the organisation to differentiate themselves from its competitors and therefore to be perceived as attractive by potential employees, which is one of main challenges for

organisations nowadays (e.g. Zhu et al., 2014).

The second crucial, practical implication is the importance of a P-O fit focus. A good fit or match leads to beneficial outcomes for both parties as suggested by Elving et al. (2013), Tüzüner and Yüksel ( 2009) or von Walter et al. (2012). This study points out that there exists a good fit between open people and flexible working conditions, because it yields the best results with regard to employer brand image. Thus organisations, who offer flexible working conditions, should look at how open the potential employees actually are, in order to

positively stimulate their employer brand image and yield the best results, which in turn influences their employer attraction. If the organisations want to have a good employer brand image, then it should offer flexible working conditions to its open-minded potential

employees. However, flexible working conditions in general enhance employer brand image more than traditional working conditions, regardless of the level of openness. Thus even

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though the people are close-minded they are still more attracted to flexible working conditions than to traditional working conditions, which recaps the first practical implication, namely organisations should offer flexible working conditions.

In summary, according to this studies results, the best way for organisations to be perceived as attractive by students as potential employees is by implementing and offering flexible working conditions. The results clearly indicate that nowadays students, both open- and close-minded, perceive an organisation as more attractive, when flexible working conditions are present compared to when traditional working conditions are present.

Although, the best results regarding employer brand image and ultimately employer attraction are guaranteed when students are additionally open-minded when flexible working conditions are offered, because then the students match better with the organisation, which fosters the person-organisation fit. Generally, with the objective of enhancing employer attraction, organisations are best advised to be responsive to the needs of the students and offer flexible working conditions. By doing this they will be able to attract the highly qualified, skilled and talented employees for the future, such as students, who will guarantee the organization's existence, survival and success.

Limitations and future study

The first limitation that this research encountered is its sample. The participants are students, mostly living in the Netherlands, with different nationalities and different studies. Hence, on the one hand the sample is not representative for one specific group of students. On the other hand however, is the sample size is also not big enough to generalise the results and to be representative for all students. Therefore, future studies should put emphasis on the sample size in order to recruit enough participants and to be able to generalise the findings. Nonetheless, the fact that this study still presents significant results, although implementing a

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diversity of students, could indicate that the findings might also be applicable to the students population in general.

The second important limitation is the low Cronbach's alpha of the openness scale, which was even below the threshold. The scale consists only of four items, and one of the four items did not load high on the factor openness. That means that the scale is actually not

reliable for measuring openness. A solution for that problem, which future studies definitely should take into account, could be to use more items or longer scales of openness in the first place to ensure a higher Cronbach's alpha and also to have more scope for experimenting with the different items (e.g. delete more items later on if the factor analysis for example advices that). However, Gerber et al. (2011) who used the scale of openness originally, note that they did not have the intent to reach high correlations between the items, but rather to develop a clear and brief scale, which has in turn a high correlation with more broad scales about the personality traits.

Future study could furthermore conduct a longitudinal study to gain a better insight of flexible working conditions. The longitudinal study could consist of two survey experiments within a fixed interval of several years. The first survey experiment could then focus again on working conditions and employer attraction among students, while the second survey

experiment could focus on the same participant group and research the actual effects of the working conditions within an organisation, and whether students still think that flexible working conditions are attractive and desirable compared to traditional working conditions. Additionally, the longitudinal study could also focus on the role of openness in this

relationship, and test in the second survey experiment whether the working conditions and the openness actually contribute to the P-O fit of that hired student and the organisation.

Another direction for future study is also the distinction between different organisations or sectors which offer flexible or traditional working conditions to its employees. It is possible that the effects of the working conditions are dependent on the

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working environment in general, thus whether the employees would work for example in the private or public sector. In addition, it is possible that the effects of the working conditions on employer attraction among students also differ per study fields. Maybe students seek different things in their future employment due to the fact that their studies also differ from each other. Some studies like communication science, provide the students with the possibility to study flexibly, use communication technologies and so forth. But other studies like electrical engineering require the students to work and study at a lab, which makes flexible working with flexible timing and workplace almost impossible.

Future study could also focus on different aspects within employer branding, which then influences factors like employer brand image and employer attraction. In this study it is argued that flexible working conditions express a part or strategy within employer branding, but there are also other interesting aspects within employer branding, which are hardly researched. One aspect is the promotional opportunity or career advancement opportunity within an organisation, which can possibly influence employer attraction (e.g. Kraimer, Seibert, Wayne, Liden, & Bravo, 2011; Stahl, Chua, Caligiuri, Cerdin, & Taniguchi, 2009). Another aspect is the corporate social responsibility, or the CSR communication of the organisation (e.g. Birth, Illia, Lurati, & Zamparini, 2008; Lis, 2012), which could possibly affect employer attraction as well. In addition, promotional opportunity and CSR could not only function as independent variables as flexible working conditions in this study, but are also presumed to serve as moderators like openness. In summary, this current research offers a starting point for future studies and provides the academic field with new, interesting directions, which can be used for a better understanding of employer branding, flexible working conditions, openness, employer brand image and employer attraction.

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