A self-sufficient food system for Mauritius

A Self-sufficient food system for Mauritius

An interdisciplinary research that investigates if a degrowth perspective on

increasing local food production is feasible on the SIDS of Mauritius

Datum: 31-05-2020 Jaap Rothuizen Woordenaantal: 6563 Max van Soolingen | 10676767 Nina Verspeek | 11293020 Tessa Scheltema | 11302313

Content

5. Selected methods & data 8

6. Results 9

6.1 The current situation concerning the food system of Mauritius 9

6.1.1 Human development 10

6.1.2 Soil fertility 10

6.2 What are possibilities concerning land use, in order to grow multiple different crops? 11 6.2.1 Opportunities in employment 11

6.2.2 Minimize soil erosion 11

6.2.3 Bio farming 12

6.3 How would a self-sufficient food system influence different groups in Mauritius? 12

6.3.1 National food production 12

6.3.2 Gender inequality 13

6.4 Integrated perspective 14

7. Conclusions 15

Abstract

Mauritius has a challenging landscape and environment for the agricultural sector. Sugarcane is a crop that works well on the island, the sugarcane is exported and food for local consumption is imported. Resulting in a situation where there is a dependence on the import of agricultural goods for

consumption. This research investigates if Mauritius can create a self-sufficient food system with a degrowth perspective in an interdisciplinary way to cover multiple parts of the society. The self-sufficient food system of Mauritius aims to reduce imported food so that the country is no longer dependent on foreign production and fluctuating food prices on the world market. Reciprocity is an important mechanism of degrowth and consists of the subsidiary production principle and the concept of conviviality. Employment should focus more on the agricultural sector in order to produce enough and varying crops for local consumption. It is important to minimize the amount of land degradation in order to grow different crops. With a degrowth perspective organic farming could contribute in

reducing the effects of land degradation. In line with conviviality, the self-sufficient food system is based on community support, trust and well-being. Well-being for the entire population is paramount in the self-sufficient food system in Mauritius. Women who are currently restricted from producing food should get equal rights to enhance the food security. In addition, income inequality can be reduced as the availability of food for the whole society is prioritized in comparison to individual economic wealth.

1. Introduction

Currently, the global food system is led by trade, and more and more countries are relying on import (Bailey & Wellesley, 2017). However, countries that rely mostly on export and import are sensitive for fluctuating food prices (Clapp, 2017). Latouche (2003) is an advocate of the degrowth approach. He and many other proponents believe that the current globalized economic systems are not viable (Trainer, 2012). "His thesis was rooted in the idea of achieving social prosperity without the need for the infinite growth demanded by mainstream development pundits" (Fletcher et al., 2019, p. 1751). Degrowth focuses on a simple way of life with mostly small and local businesses providing a high level of self-sufficiency for the state, that is not driven by market forces but by well-being of local citizens (Trainer, 2012). Stimulating a nation’s self-sufficiency will limit imports, which means that they no longer need to be economically and culturally dependent on other countries (Fletcher, 2019).

Mauritius is an African island, worthwhile studying as it epitomizes a state that does not produce enough food to feed its own citizens and is depended on trade. With its area of 1.865 km², Mauritius is a small island and belongs to the Small Island Developing States (SIDS) (Luximon & Nowbuth, 2010). SIDS are economically vulnerable because of a specific set of characteristics that distinguishes them from other states. They have a limited amount of resources available because of the limited amount of land. Because of their lack of resources they depend on unstable trade markets. Subsequently, the small size of the island can be a limiting factor for diversifying their economies (Brizmohun, 2019). As a result of these characteristics that SIDS have, they heavily rely on the import of products for consuming such as processed foods, wheat, corn, meat and dairy (Fao, 2017).

The arable land of Mauritius is for 80% used for the sugarcane production (Etwaroo, 2017), and therefore makes it the most important export product of the country (van Berkum, Roza & van Tongeren, 2005). However, Mauritius has suffered from a decrease in the sugar price because of the European sugar reform in 2004, which affects their export position (van Berkum, Roza & van Tongeren, 2005). The income on export is decreased and the prices of agricultural products are fluctuating, resulting in an unstable food system.

As a result of the focus on exports, there is hardly any room for domestic trade, resulting in almost complete dependence on the import of goods. Rapid economic growth, as a result of the thriving tourism sector, has created an uneven distribution of income and prosperity, low income levels, high unemployment and under-utilization, low levels of industrial development hampered by a small domestic market and high dependence on agriculture for export earnings (Durbarry, 2004). In addition, rapid economic growth not only has negative effects for residents of the island, but also for the environment. Agriculture influences the biotic and physical environment and is also beneficial for the quality of life, especially with heavy use of artificial fertilizers (Bieleman, 1999).

This research will contribute to the existing literature by bringing together the concepts of self-sufficiency and degrowth within different disciplines for a Small Island Developing State. The aim of taking a degrowth perspective for Mauritius into account, is to investigate if there could be a rise in equality, a reduction in unemployment and poverty, indigenous cultural identities are

preservative and the ecological footprint will be reduced. The theoretical framework will illustrate a more specific image of how degrowth can possibly make changes to a nation’s society and

environment. This research uses a degrowth perspective that relies mainly on the implementation of self-sufficiency at national level. This means that as many products for local consumption as possible must be produced by the island itself (Trainer, 2012).

This study will investigate the specific characteristics of Mauritius relative to two main concepts ‘degrowth’ and ‘self-sufficiency’. This leads to the research question: What are the

possibilities for the small island developing state Mauritius to create a self-sufficient food system, with a degrowth perspective? The research question focuses on the whole society of Mauritius that consists of intertwined social and environmental structures. Therefore, the research question has to be

answered in an interdisciplinary way. This research is based on the connection of three disciplines: Earth Sciences, Social Geography and Business Administration. To answer the research question, the report is structured as follows: first it will discuss the theoretical framework that will be the leading focus of the research. Following with a clear description of the research problem and consecutively the constructed research question. Subsequently, there will be a further presentation of the proposed methods and data. Finally, the results will be discussed followed up with a conclusion.

2.

Theoretical Framework

In order to implement the three disciplines into one interdisciplinary research there is a focus on two key concepts that compose the basis of all the different aspects. To answer the research question, the key concepts ‘self-sufficiency’ and ‘degrowth’ need to be defined.

Degrowth

The concept of degrowth comes from “the idea of achieving social prosperity without the need for infinite growth being demanded by regular developers" (Fletcher et al., 2019, p. 1751). This research uses the term degrowth with the goal to reach well-being for everyone in a specific society, without the need for personal economic growth. We define well-being as “how people feel, think, experience, and act as they work together, resisting oppression and struggling to create a better world” (Natale, Di Martino, Procentese & Arcidiacono, 2016, p. 48), taking into account that this should happen on a collective level, not individual. According to Natale et al. (2016), well-being is solidly related to the availability and accessibility of resources of the environment.

Equality is of significant importance for well-being, there should be no individuals that put their well-being over another by actively attaining more environmental resources. According to a degrowth perspective, growth destroys society more than it delivers (van der Slycken, 2018). It is possible for privileged groups to appropriate a larger part of the profit, which contributes to income inequality (Peeters, 2016).

Andreoni and Galmarini (2014) stress that reciprocity is an important mechanism of degrowth. Reciprocity is based on the subsidiary production principle and the concept of conviviality. The subsidiary production principle states that consumption has to be satisfied through products that are nearest to the production of those products. This means that a local distribution chain is preferred over a long trade distance chain. As a result the biophysical consequences of economic activities are reduced (Andreoni and Galmarini, 2014). In addition, the social sphere also benefits from consuming local products. There can be a higher level of trust between the consumer and the producer, resulting in a request for products of good quality that have a positive effect on human society and the

environment (Andreoni and Galmarini, 2014).

Besides the subsidiary production principle, conviviality is also a component of reciprocity. Conviviality a social system that is based on community support and voluntary work. According to Andreoni and Galmarini (2014, p. 80) conviviality is increased by the voluntary downscaling of consumption by ‘reducing the time devoted to consumerism and personal assets and increasing the time devoted to leisure, life in society or social relationships.’

Reciprocity is an important aspect of degrowth as it enables social local relationships and decreases the environmental impacts of consumption. Well-being of the society is a number one priority that stands above individual economic wealth.

Self-sufficiency

There are several definitions of food self-sufficiency. The most basic one, created by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (Clapp, 2017, p. 89) is: “the concept of food self-sufficiency is generally taken to mean the extent to which a country can satisfy its food needs from its own domestic production”. This definition weights the concepts food production and food

consumption against each other, illustrated in Figure 1 (Clapp, 2017). In Figure 1, countries above the slope are 100% self-sufficient, or more when they produce more food than they consume. Countries underneath the slope are consuming more food than they are producing, and are therefore less than 100% self-sufficient (Clapp, 2017).

However, this definition is broad and it is difficult for countries to produce all the food they consume without any form of trade. Therefore, the FAO created an application of food self-sufficiency that includes import and export, in this case food self-sufficiency is defined as “a country producing a proportion of its own food needs that approaches or exceeds 100% of its food consumption” (Clapp, 2015, p. 2). This application is less focussed on where the food is produced, but still manages to give an insight in the self-capacity of food production of a country. In this case, self-sufficiency can mean that a country produces their own food to some extent, but also import and export food (FAO, 2008). The self-sufficiency ratio shows to what extent a country is self-sufficient in percentages, while taking own production, import and export into account.

How countries attain food security does not have to be an ‘either, or’ situation, it can be a mix between producing own food and relying for the other part on trade. Where countries end up in this spectrum between closed borders for complete food self-sufficiency and complete reliance on trade for food supply depends on the policy a country implements, illustrated in Figure 2. The policy a country decides to implement depends on specific aspects and attributes of the country, taking the economic benefits and costs into account.

As large scale economic systems are not viable for everyone in a society there has to be shift to thriving local economies that provide a society’s basic goods and services. Degrowth focuses on a simple way of life with mostly small and local businesses providing a high level of self-sufficiency for the state that is not driven by market forces but by well-being of local citizens (Trainer, 2012). In this research we use a degrowth view for self-sufficiency, thus we want to use policy in such a way that self-sufficiency moves more to the left of the spectrum in Figure 2. Resulting in a situation where Mauritius is producing more of its food for own consumption and not for trade.

3.

Problem definition

The rising food prices are detrimental for the import of Mauritius and therefore for the economy of the island. As shown in figure 3, the export profits do not cover the costs of rising food prices. As 80% of the arable land is used for the production and export of sugarcane (Etwaroo, 2017), the prices of sugar remain unstable (Vorster & Drive, 2019).

Figure 3: Food import and export on Mauritius from 1980 to 2016 (Statistics Mauritius, 2016)

Besides the unstable price of sugarcane, the price of imported food is increasing (Brizmohun, 2019). For the case of Mauritius this is mostly rice (Brizmohun, 2019). Climate change is influencing rice crop growth and yields causing rice prices to increase 32%-37% in the period 2000-2050 (Brizmohun, 2019). Rice costs are subsidised by the government (Brizmohun, 2019), but the consequences can mainly be felt for the poorest part of the population causing undernourishment to increase (Trading economics, 2020). As only 4% of the GDP is profit from the sugar export, while import costs are twice as much (Brizmohun, 2019), Mauritius might benefit from a self-sufficient food system.

With the two principles of reciprocity within a degrowth approach, self-sufficiency is an interesting new approach to tackle the problems of the island of Mauritius. Interdisciplinarity is necessary in order to answer the research question as the aspects of self-sufficiency and degrowth reaches beyond the boundaries of one discipline, as mentioned in chapter 2.

4.

Interdisciplinary integration

In order to make the results interdisciplinary an integration of the results is necessary. According to Menken & Keestra (2016, p. 42) interdisciplinary integration can be defined as “the synthesis of two or more disciplinary insights - drawn from different perspectives - into new knowledge”. When the different disciplines bring their personal knowledge together the results have to be integrated in order to become interdisciplinary. Integration can occur by adding one interdisciplinary element to another interdisciplinary theory, adjusting a concept with other disciplinary knowledge or connecting different concepts with the same name but another meaning (Menken & Keestra, 2016).

5.

Selected methods and data

This paper focuses on the current situation of Mauritius in comparison with a situation where

Mauritius is self-sufficient resulting from more own diverse production and less trade. In this research we will mainly focus on secondary data, including scientific articles and documents. The research question ‘What are the possibilities for the small island developing state Mauritius to create a self-sufficient food system, with a degrowth perspective?’ is answered based on four sub-questions. Each sub question is answered on the basis of indicators, Table 1 gives an overview of all the indicators and how they are measured.

Indicator Measurement

Income inequality Gini-coëfficiënt

Food security Availability, Access, Utilization and Stability for food Employment

structures Gross Value Added (GVA) per sector Employment

opportunities Descriptions of possibilities for the government and citizens to use a self-sufficiency food system for the generation of jobs Land degradation Quality of the soil

Crop choice Suitability of the crop

Table 1: overview of the indicators and the corresponding measurements

What is the current situation concerning the food system of Mauritius?

It is necessary to illustrate what the current situation is to answer the research question, because it offers a basis to see how self-sufficient Mauritius currently is and what aspects of characteristics offer opportunities or drawbacks for a self-sufficient food system. This sub-question will investigate which sectors are important for the economy of Mauritius and the corresponding perceptions of the local citizens on the sectors. In addition, the effect that the import and export of Mauritius have on social structures and inequalities are examined. Finally, the current status of the climate, soil and agricultural structures of Mauritius are described. All this is indicated by the following indicators:

· Income inequality · Food security · Employment structures · Land degradation · Crop choice

What are possibilities concerning land use (at the local scale), in order to grow multiple different crops?

This sub-question is important to answer the research question because it gives a perspective on what can be done on the land to reach self-sufficiency. This sub-question will investigates how local businesses can contribute to self-sufficiency by producing staple crops for local citizens.

Subsequently, the technical support for the social structures is studied, how do the soil and climate allow Mauritius to become self-sufficient? Indicators will be:

· Employment opportunities

· Land degradation

· Crop choice

How would a self-sufficient food system influence different groups in Mauritius?

Rising food prices limit access to food, indicating that there is inequality in food security. It is being investigated whether increasing food production for national use and changes in income inequality due to gender inequality in a self-sufficient food system can promote food security.

· Income inequality

· Food security

When the sub-questions above are answered, the results are connected to a degrowth perspective. In this last chapter the three disciplines come together and the relationships between different

indicators become clear when developing a self-sufficient food system from this perspective. The two drivers of degrowth “the subsidiary production principle” and “conviviality” are linked to the results, and an analysis of how self-sufficiency affects a degrowth perspective on Mauritius is made.

6.

Results

The ability to achieve a self-sufficient food system depends on site-specific features such as soil and climate, access to irrigation water and other essential resources (Agarwal, 2014). Figure 3 shows that Mauritius is importing more agricultural products than it is exporting. This trade cannot be eliminated, otherwise there would be a shortage to feed the population (Koop, 2005). In addition to these

characteristics, social characteristics also play an important role. The food system depends on the people who produce the crops, therefore employment and inequality of the population must be taken into account (Agarwal, 2014). In the chapters below the results related to creating a self-sufficient food system in Mauritius are detailed.

6.1 The current situation concerning the food system of Mauritius

As a result of the fluctuating food prices and the corresponding insecurities, the agricultural sector and the employment structure of the country has changed (Etwaroo, 2017). The agricultural sector is nowadays perceived as an unreliable sector to make a career in (Etwaroo, 2017). Figure 4 shows that the primary sector, which consists mainly of agricultural activities, is weakening. Mauritius is

gradually moving towards a service-economy as the Gross Value Added (GVA) of the primary sector was 5.9% in 2006, in 2018 this percentage decreased to 3.4% (Statistics Mauritius, 2018). This decline in local businesses that are able to engage in the Agricultural sector reinforces the need to rely on import for food. Currently, the agricultural food sector still has a main focus on the production of sugarcane, it represents 80% of the total arable land, 19% is used for the cultivation of food crops and 1% for the cultivation of tea (Etwaroo, 2017).

Figure 4: Gross Value Added (GVA) at current basic prices per sector Statistics Mauritius (2018)

Figure 5: Annual Growth Value Added (GVA) rate (%) per industry, 2017 - 2018 Statistics Mauritius (2018)

6.1.1 Human development

The dependence on food imports and exports on the world market has an impact on food security in Mauritius. The current economic system does not guarantee food availability, access, use and stability for the entire population (Lapiña & Catelo, 2018). Fluctuating world food prices have affected wages (Meade, 2011, p. 11) and thus access to food. The unequal income and the division of labour have already led to forms of poverty and exclusion in the past (Koop, 2005). Figure 5 shows that all sectors have shown an positive growth in GVA, with the exception of agriculture, forestry and fishing. Citizens who have ever worked in the agricultural sector, especially the sugar cane sector, cannot adapt to fluctuating food prices and changing land and are therefore looking for jobs in, for example, the growing tourism sector (Etwaroo, 2017). Figure 5 shows an increase in GVA in the

accommodation and food service activities, which is a substantial component of the tourism sector (Statistics Mauritius, 2018).

The Gini coefficient is used to determine the income inequality between groups (Brakel-Hofmans, 2007). A Gini index of 0 means total equality and 100 means total inequality. Despite rapid economic growth, unlike many other Sub-Saharan African countries, Mauritius has reduced income inequality and the index is now at 35.9 (World Population, 2020). Also, less than 2 percent of the population was below the absolute poverty line in 2010 (Chuhan-Pole & Angwafo, 2011). This is partly due to the subsidy for the cost of rice, the most important food of a Mauritian diet, which the government of Mauritius has introduced to increase food security (Brizmohun, 2020). Thus, Mauritius is well on the way in terms of human development compared to economically comparable countries (Chuhan-Pole & Angwafo, 2011). However, if we focus on Mauritius as a country in itself, and looking at inequality at the local level, improvements can be made. Here, women and the low-skilled are most affected by low wages and unemployment. In addition, residents of urban suburbs and remote rural homes also feel the effects of economic changes. Income inequality affects access to food and thus food security. This causes deterioration in the living conditions of this group (Koop, 2005).

6.1.2 Soil fertility

In addition to the fluctuating food prices, the arrival of artificial fertilizers also made the agricultural sector less profitable. At first the crops benefit from the extra nutrients and thus yields will increase (Pingali, 2012), however the use of more and more artificial fertilization leads to infertile soil in the long run. It is a reinforced process where more artificial fertilizers are added to compensate for the infertile soil (Statistics Mauritius, 2018; Ramborun et al., 2020), leading to a decrease in yield and increase in pest incident, costs and pollution risks (Ramborun et al., 2020; Cheong & Umrit, 2015).

Pesticides, herbicides and fungicides also have a detrimental impact on the soil organic carbon (Ramborun et al., 2020).

Mauritius’ climate, rugged topography, extensive sugarcane cultivation and the reduced amount of soil organic matter in the top soil increases the risk of erosion (Nigel and rughooputh, 2010; Cheong & Umrit, 2015). Soil erosion is the most pervasive form of land degradation on Mauritius (Le Roux et al., 2005), as a result of two factors: steepness and rainfall (Le Roux et al., 2005; Nigel & Rughooputh, 2010). Intensive cultivation on the steep slopes leads to erosion rates up to 100 times higher. As general rainfall is decreasing, the intensity is increasing (Ramborun et al., 2020), causing flash floods damaging the agricultural system (Le Roux et al., 2005). Nigel and Rughooputh (2010) discovered that almost all year there is barely any erosion except for the wet season with peaks in January and February. Because sugarcane is a soil conserving crop, the amount of soil loss is significant lower than for different crops (Le Roux et al., 2005). In addition, sugarcane is wind resistant, therefore it can handle the increasing amount of cyclones (Brookfield, 1959; Dore & Singh, 2013). However, Cheong & Umrit (2015) state that the long-term sustainability of sugarcane is unsure as soil organic matter is depleted in the topsoil with sugarcane cropping.

Sugarcane production on Mauritius can be considered as a monoculture. Long-term

monoculture could decline the productive capacity of the soils (Cheong & Umrit, 2015). Besides that, a monoculture is more vulnerable for perturbations. Therefore are these monocultures controlled by pesticides, herbicides and fungicide, resulting in opportunities for competitors (weeds, insects and pathogens), which are able to resist the artificial eradication (Thomas & Kevan, 1993).

6.2 What are possibilities concerning land use, in order to grow multiple different crops? Since it is not possible for all countries to reach self-sufficiency, it is important for Mauritius to investigate to what extent their resources allow them to be self-sufficient. In this chapter it

is considered what kind of food production can be set up to raise self-sufficiency to their best capacity and complement it with trait (Agarwal, 2014). As a higher self-sufficiency results in the availability of food that is produced locally, self-sufficiency is related to the concept of the subsidiary production principle that partly determines degrowth.

6.2.1 Opportunities in employment

If Mauritius wants to be less dependent on import for their food it is of great importance that the agricultural sector will achieve a greater positive image and become more attractive. For the future it is especially of importance for youngsters to make a career in this sector to stop the declining workforce (White, 2012). The government of Mauritius can use available land to generate a higher workforce in the agricultural sector. As small farmers are leaving their lands to find work in other sectors, these lands can be used to make the agricultural sector more attractive. The government can set up a project where these lands are leased to young entrepreneurs to produce crops for local consumption. As young farmers and entrepreneurs are usually better educated, it is a great opportunity for them to start a business where they can implement new agricultural technologies. To get their businesses started, the project can provide young entrepreneurs loans and supervision for setting up a business plan (Etwaroo, 2017).

6.2.2 Minimize soil erosion

The crops that are harvested on Mauritius have to deal with land degradation. Soil erosion is highest during the stage of harvesting, soil preparation and replanting. It is therefore necessary to have a crop with an effective canopy cover during periods with high rainfall (Le Roux et al., 2005), for Mauritius this is during their summer. However the risk of a cyclone is highest during these months as well (Ramborun et al., 2020). Vegetables, including rice, have a short crop cycle and therefore 2 crop cycles a year (Le Roux et al., 2005). The soil will be disrupted twice as much than annual crops, such as sugarcane. In order to reduce erosion Le Roux et al. (2005) states that vegetables should only be allowed on low slope angles and should be supported by soil management practices. Forestry,

sugarcane and natural vegetation have the lowest amount of erosion and can therefore be considered as most suitable crop choice.

Crop diversification is a big risk concerning erosion and therefore will be expected that land resources are strained leading to more soil degradation (Le Roux et al., 2005). However, monoculture could have detrimental effects as well (Cheong & Umrit, 2015; Thomas and Kevan, 1993). Some kind of crop rotation or crop diversification is advisable for these monocultures to create a better ecological succession. Crop rotations could stimulate soil organic processes (like decomposition and material cycling), a more useful use of nutrients and a reduction in pests (Thomas & Kevan, 1993).

Furthermore to reduce land degradation it is recommendable to decline the use of fertilizers,

pesticides, herbicides and fungicides. They destroyed soil fertility over time and nowadays this means that fertilizers are necessary to maintain soil productivity and the soil can only sustain plant growth by using a fertilizer (Ramborun et al., 2020; Havlin et al., 2006).

As Mauritius currently achieved a self-sufficiency of 23% with 19% of the arable land (Etwaroo, 2017), the necessary location specific characteristics are not limited yet, which could result in a reduction of the amount of critical land used. This will lead to an increase in yield per land unit and thus increases the carrying capacity (Lutz & Holm, 1993).

6.2.3 Bio farming

Bio farming is based on the use of less and natural fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and fungicides (Facknath & Lalljee, 2002). As Facknath & Lalljee (2002, p. 81) quote that organic agriculture is the “cultivation that not only excludes the use of synthetic agents or agrichemicals, but which maintains or even improves the fertility, organic quality and sustainability of the soil”. Thereby are growth

regulators, and livestock feed additives largely excluded (Mandal, 2007). Therefore erosion rates are much lower in organic soils due to higher levels of organic matter and a better soil structure. As land degradation is likely to reduce, possibilities concerning growing multiple different crops are

increasing. This can be done in a profitable way as 50% can be saved in fertilizer and pesticides costs, yields are likely to increase on the long run and a market price of 40% higher could be achieved (Facknath & Lalljee, 2002).

In addition to chapter 6.2.1, the agricultural sector can be made more attractive for youngsters as the term ‘farming’ is represented in a more promising way. The University of Mauritius provides agricultural studies where students learn skills and capabilities to implement bio-farming (Armoogum, Ramasawmy & Driver, 2016). The development of agriculture offers new practices and it challenges students to contribute to a society that is working towards a self-sufficient food system.

6.3 How would a self-sufficient food system influence different groups in Mauritius? The food security framework established by the FAO is dynamic and is influenced by several factors (Lapiña & Catelo, 2018). On Mauritius rapid economic growth, social and political factors, agro-ecological indicators and climate change have influenced food security. The definition is made up of four dimensions: availability, access, utilization and stability (Lapiña & Catelo, 2018). Food security is the aim to reduce hunger, poverty and malnutrition and to contribute to health and development results (Lapiña & Catelo, 2018). This aim is contributing to a facet of degrowth, conviviality, where locals support each other to improve their relationships and to increase the well-being of the whole society. However, when the island becomes self-sufficient and has the ability to self-produce enough different food products to meet food needs, food security is not yet equal (Lapiña & Catelo, 2018). The self-sufficient food system will therefore mainly focus on access to food, especially for the poorer excluded section of the population.

6.3.1 National food production

Access to food is mostly determined by the income of the population. The less the income of the residents varies the less income inequality and thus access to food is guaranteed for the entire population (Lapiña & Catelo, 2018). In chapter 6.1.1 it became clear that Mauritius has a Gini

coefficient of 35.9 and a population where less than 2 percent live below the poverty line. This is well on the way on human development. In order to reduce income inequality in Mauritius and poverty to 0, the income of the poorest part of the population will have to increase.

In addition, access to food also depends on sufficient food availability (Lapiña & Catelo, 2018). As becomes clear in chapter 6.2, this self-sufficiency study mainly aims to reduce imported food so that the country is no longer dependent on foreign production and fluctuating food prices on the world market. This could reduce the costs of the subsidy scheme for food security from the government, which currently is MUR 154 million or US$ 5 million (Brizmohun, 2019). Reducing imported food increases the demand for locally produced food and promotes national production. Shortages, for example due to a failed harvest, can be supplemented by imports. In this way, the country can ensure that it has enough food to feed everyone. In addition, the country is no longer dependent on the global market, which means it has less influence on food prices and wages (Meade, 2011, p. 11). These firmer food prices mean less competition and more security for selling and being able to buy food. Also, the fixed wages provide more job security for employees and givers, and this in turn provides more security in consumption. These certainties in sufficient food production and being able to consume through firmer wages contribute to improving food security.

To produce sufficient food, it is important that farmers choose to produce food crops. In developing countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, many smallholders choose to abandon food crops (Agarwal, 2014). The most common reason for this is that the demand for other crops is greater than for food. More demand automatically means bigger profit and is therefore more likely to have food security. In order to promote food production for national use, the government will have to grant subsidies to farmers, to guarantee food security (Chuhan-Pole & Angwafo, 2011). The costs of these subsidies can be largely covered by the costs saved on importing costs of 5 million dollar for rice, if they are going to grow it themselves (Brizmohun, 2019). The rest of the costs will have to be taken out of government reserves, just like they have done before. International and domestic debt stood at 60.4 percent of GDP at the end of 2010, well below a unsustainable threshold (Chuhan-Pole & Angwafo, 2011). This debt amounted to 64 percent in 2017, which means that the government now also has enough reserves to support the subsidies (CIA World Factbook, 2017).

6.3.2 Gender inequality

A self-sufficient food system from a degrowth perspective will strive for the well-being of the entire population (Fletcher, et al., 2019). This also applies to small disadvantaged, especially female farmers. In order to ensure this well-being, account must be taken of the current limitations they experience in food production. Among small farmers, it is mainly women who play a major role in the agricultural sector (Agarwal, 2014). The revival of agriculture and the increase of food production for a self-sufficient food system is therefore in the hands of small, female farmers. Mauritius is doing relatively well on the OECD gender index, the index designed to measure gender equality in a society. The country is now in 11th place out of 102 countries (Chuhan-Pole & Angwafo, 2011). However, there is still much to be gained in this country within the limitations of women that gender inequality entails. Female farmers often have no guaranteed water supply, limited access to inputs such as fertilizers or technology, uncertain rights over the land they work, limited rights to sell, rent or use a piece of land, and limited information about new agricultural practices. Therefore female farmers often have lower yields in most countries of Sub-Saharan Africa (Agarwal, 2014). These points are affecting the productivity of women and small farmers, and thus food security for themselves and consumers.

If these points are improved, this can lead to an increase of 2.5 to 4 percent of the total agricultural production for these farmers in countries within Sub-Saharan Africa (FAO, 2011). Although Mauritius is more economically developed than most Sub-Saharan African countries (Chuhan-Pole & Angwafo, 2011), there is still much to be gained for these farmers and an increase will have a major impact on the national food availability in Mauritius. It is therefore important that the restrictions on women in the agricultural sector are further reduced. However, gender equality in Sub-Saharan Africa is often complex and women's limited rights are rooted in culture (Agarwal, 2014). A self-sufficient food system will therefore be difficult to solve this problem. The food security of female farmers in Mauritius will only change if something is done about gender equality.

6.4 Integrated perspective

Within the degrowth perspective for a self-sufficient food system in Mauritius, reciprocity is an important aspect. The rapid economic growth and the associated goods and tourist sector not only has negative consequences for the inhabitants of the island, but also for the environment and thus the overall well-being. In reciprocity as part of degrowth, the well-being of society is above individual economic wealth. The problem created by trade and economic growth, extends beyond the boundaries of one discipline. The various indicators are brought together for this purpose. Reciprocity is based on the subsidiary production principle and the concept of conviviality.

To make sure that people can consume enough diverse food that is produced as nearby as possible, according to the subsidiary production principle, it is important to minimize the amount of land degradation in order to grow different crops. With a degrowth perspective organic farming could contribute in reducing the effects of land degradation. This goes back to traditional low-input farming that uses as little agricultural chemicals and fossil fuels as possible (Gomiero, 2018). Thus sustaining the soil fertility by organic farming has beneficial effects long-term. A larger variety of different crops are then possible, making self-sufficiency more promising. However for organic agriculture, more land and working time is necessary to produce food crops, causing food prices to increase (Gomiero, 2018). A degrowth perspective should limit endless profits and could help ensuring food access for the entire population.

As Mauritius currently consists of a self-sufficiency of 23% (Etwaroo, 2017), there still is room for improvement and young citizens have to pursue careers in the agricultural sector to make sure that there is enough food available for the local communities. A combination of conviviality and subsidiary production principle can reduce the ecological footprint and achieve social justice and well-being (van der Slycken, 2018). By pursuing a self-sufficient food system, Mauritius can mainly focus on sufficient, rather than increasing, food production which can result in a lower focus on economic growth and a higher focus of well-being of the society (Gomiero, 2018).

Mauritius, from a degrowth perspective, strives for a fair distribution of income (van der Slycken, 2018). According to the principle of conviviality the well-being of society is more important than individual economic wealth. Because access to food is mainly determined by income, greater income equality will benefit food security (Lapiña & Catelo, 2018). As tourism is currently thriving in Mauritius and it represents the third most important sector for the economy (Koop, 2005). However, when the focus of the country centres on the tourists it has a negative impact on the ecology and the well-being of the citizens of Mauritius (Naidoo & Sharpley, 2016). The touristic sector cannot be fully eliminated from the island at once as it would have significant consequences for unemployment, but it should focus more on sustainability. Therefore ecotourism could be considered to reduce the

ecological footprint. Through a degrowth perspective, the touristic sector should be focussed on complement the well-being of the citizens and can also be a driver for a self-sufficient food system. The higher food demand can also create an opportunity for localized produced food and thereby decreasing the foreign exchange leakages for the import of food. Small farmers can sell their food on local markets and provide local citizens with locally produced food, and to tourists that have an interest in local tropical products (Dorodnykh, 2017). In this way, the tourist industry can provide a reliable market for farmers to make their businesses more viable. According to the degrowth mechanisms, this is not fully in line with the concept of conviviality as time here is devoted to consumerism and an increased personal wealth of the farmers. However, if local farmers have a more stable position, this has a positive effect on the well-being of the whole society as the necessary consumption of local products can be provided for everyone in the local society (Alexander, 2012).

7.

Conclusion and recommendation

To answer the main question: ‘what are the possibilities for the small island developing state Mauritius to create a self-sufficient food system, with a degrowth perspective?’ the possibilities within the two parts of reciprocity were examined as part of a self-sufficient food system in Mauritius from a degrowth perspective. The self-sufficient food system of Mauritius aims to reduce imported food so that the country is no longer dependent on foreign production and fluctuating food prices on the world market. This increases the demand for locally produced food and promotes national production. Firmer food prices result in more food security for farmers and consumers. Local food production should be promoted by the government by giving young entrepreneurs opportunities to make a viable career in the agricultural sector. Abandoned lands and the concept of bio-farming can enhance the image of the agricultural sector. The possibilities with regard to land use to grow several different crops as a self-sufficient food system starts by minimizing land degradation. Therefore is first a full canopy cover necessary during summer. Secondly, as vegetables have a high erosion rate they should only be allowed on low slope angles and should be supported by soil management practices. Third, it is recommendable to decline the use of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and fungicides. The locally produced goods are in line with the subsidiary production principle of reciprocity where the preference for a local distribution chain over a long trade chain. In this chain the stakeholders experience more confidence due to the social atmosphere between small businesses and consumers, which means more quality products that have a positive effect on human society and the environment.

The effects of a self-sufficient food system for different groups in Mauritius are consistent with conviviality. The self-sufficient food system is based on community support, trust and well-being. For example, well-being for the entire population is paramount in the self-sufficient food system in Mauritius. The limitations of female farmers in producing food affect food security and thus overall well-being. Women farmers who are currently still restricted from producing food will have to be given equal rights. This will increase the total food production, as well as the well-being of the still disadvantaged women. However, creating a self-sufficient food system for Mauritius from a degrowth perspective appears to be more complex than described in this study. Firstly, the feasibility of equal women's rights is questioned, given the complexity of rooted women's rights in culture. Secondly, not all aspects of socializing have emerged in this study. Third, a self-sufficient food system contains a wider variety of crops that affect the land and society differently. Fourth, a risk assessment is

necessary to control cyclone uncertainties. Finally, since more land is needed for organic farming, it is not certain whether Mauritius has sufficient agricultural land for 100% self-sufficiency with organic farming. These effects, consequences and aspects that have not yet been investigated will have to come to light from a degrowth perspective in a future study of a self-sufficient food system in Mauritius.

8.

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