Discursive crises in the political domain : Research into the applicability of theories of discourse analysis on the Dutch political debate on immigration

Discursive crises in the political domain

on the Dutch political debate on immigration

Master Thesis

Just Bär

4156870

Research conducted for the completion of the Master Specialization ‘Conflict, Territories and Identities’, Faculty Human Geography, Department Management Studies, Radboud University Nijmegen

Thesis supervisor:

Jaïr van der Lijn

Acknowledgements

This thesis would not have been written if it weren’t for the tireless effort of certain individuals.

The majority of the research was conducted while doing an internship at FORUM Instituut voor multiculturele vraagstukken. During this period, I was under the supervision of Chris van der Borgh, Renée Frissen and in particular Floris Müller. I wish to thank them for all their support and constructive criticism, which greatly influenced in shaping the thesis. Moreover, I wish to thank them for actively involving me in the activities of FORUM. I very much enjoyed the working environment and appreciated the interest of all colleagues in my research.

I owe special thanks to my thesis supervisor Jaïr van der Lijn of Radboud University Nijmegen/ Instituut Clingendael for all his advice and above all his patience. I understand that this research subject somewhat deviates from the field of conflict studies; and realize that on occasion this student was somewhat negligent in following university regulations.

The process of writing this thesis has proven to be very interesting but difficult. The subject of Dutch political discourse has been on my mind for a long time, far before starting the master of Conflicts, Territories and Identities. The master’s thesis provided me with an opportunity to conduct a research on this subject. The results of that research lie before you in the form of this master’s thesis. Enjoy reading,

Table of content

1.4 AIM OF RESEARCH AND HYPOTHESES 1-11

1.5 OPERATIONALIZATION 1-12

1.6 RELEVANCE 1-14

1.7 STRUCTURE 1-15

2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2-17

2.1 DISCOURSE 2-17

2.2 DISCURSIVE CONSTRUCTION OF CRISIS 2-20

2.3 IDEOLOGY IN DISCOURSE 2-21

2.4 DISCOURSE COALITION 2-22

2.5 POWER OF LANGUAGE 2-23

2.6 LEGITIMIZATION AND POLARIZATION 2-24

2.7 DOMINANCE AND AUTHORITY IN SPEECH ACTS 2-26

3. CONTEXT 3-29

3.1 HISTORICAL CONTEXT 3-29

3.2 GOVERNMENT POLICY ON IMMIGRATION AND INTEGRATION 3-32

3.3 CASE STUDIES 3-37

4. METHODOLOGY 4-42

4.1 GROUNDED THEORY METHOD 4-42

4.1 SENSITIZING CONCEPTS 4-46 4.2 DATA COLLECTION 4-46 4.3 DATA ANALYSIS 4-47 4.4 RESEARCH LIMITATIONS 4-48 5. CASE KOPVODDENTAKS 5-50 5.1 REPERTOIRES 5-50

5.2 ANALYSIS PER PARTY 5-63

5.3 RESPONSE TO THE DISCURSIVE CRISIS OF THE HEADSCARF TAX 5-67

6. CASE NORWAY ATTACKS 6-70

6.1 REPERTOIRES 6-70

6.2 ANALYSIS PER PARTY 6-81

7. CASE PLATFORM MEE-LANDERS 7-88

7.1 REPERTOIRES 7-88

7.2 ANALYSIS PER PARTY 7-100

7.3 RESPONSE TO THE DISCURSIVE CRISIS OF THE MEE-LANDERS PLATFORM 7-110

8. CONCLUDING REMARKS 8-113

8.1 EMPLOYMENT OF DIFFERENT REPERTOIRES 8-113

8.1.1 “HOW DID DUTCH POLITICAL ACTORS RESPOND TO DISCURSIVE CRISES IN THE DUTCH POLITICAL

DEBATE ON IMMIGRATION, IN THREE CASE STUDIES?” 8-119

8.1.2 (2)POLITICIANS DISCURSIVELY CONSTRUCT A CRISIS TO GAIN SUPPORT FOR THEIR POLITICAL

AGENDA. 8-122

8.1.3 (3)IDEOLOGY IS THE DRIVING FORCE BEHIND POLITICAL DISCOURSE ON IMMIGRATION. 8-123 8.1.4 (4)POLITICIANS FORM ALLIANCES THAT FIT THE NOTION OF HAJER’S DISCOURSE COALITION TO

ADVANCE THEIR INTEREST IN THE IMMIGRATION DEBATE. 8-125

9. REFLECTION ON RESEARCH 9-127

10. LITERATURE 10-129

10.1.1 ACADEMIC ARTICLES 10-129

10.1.2 PARLIAMENTARY DOCUMENTS 2

List of abbreviations

CDA Ch r isten Dem o cr a tisch Ap p èl CU Ch r isten Un ie

D6 6 Dem o cr a ten 6 6

GL Gr o en Lin ks

Ho C Ho u se o f Co m m o n s LPF Lijst Pim Fo r tu yn

LURA Lessen u it r ecen te a r b eid sm igr a tie MEE Mid d le a n d Ea ster n Eu r o p ea n MP Mem b er o f Pa r lia m en t

PM Pr im e Min ister

Pvd A Pa r tij va n d e Ar b e id Pvd D Pa r tij vo o r d e Dier e n PVV Pa r t ij vo o r d e Vr ijh eid

SGP Sta a tku n d ig Ger efo r m eer d e Pa r tij SP So cia listisch e Pa r tij

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

Fo r th e p a st d eca d es, im m igr a tio n a n d in tegr a tio n h a ve b een to p ics o f h ea ted d eb a tes with in th e Du tch p o litica l a r en a . Bein g a n o p en so ciety , th e Neth er la n d s is su b ject o f a n o n -go in g in flu x o f p eo p le. Ma n y im m igr a n ts a r r ive with exp e cta tio n s o f b u ild in g a life with in Du tch so ciety – t h is d em a n d s fr o m th e p o litica l d o m a in th a t it co n tin u o u sly a ssesses th e fr a m e wo r k o f im m igr a tio n a n d in tegr a tio n . In th e la st d eca d e , a lin e o f th o u gh t th a t is m o r e r estr ictive o f im m igr a tio n h a s b eco m e p r e va len t in th e p o litica l a n d p u b lic d eb a te .

Th er e a r e p o litica l a cto r s th a t wa r n for th e d a n ger s o f a llo win g cer ta in im m igr a n ts in to th e Neth er la n d s – t h ey sp ea k o f th e p h en o m en a o f im m igr a tio n a n d in tegr a tio n a s cr ises . Esp ecia lly Mu slim im m igr a n ts a r e co n sid er ed to b e a th r ea t a n d so m e p o litica l a cto r s h a ve fu elled d istr u st to wa r d s th em . Sta tem en ts o f th is so r t h a ve b eco m e co m m o n p la ce in th e p o litica l a n d p u b lic d eb a te. Co n co m ita n tly , a vo ice th a t o p p o ses th ese sta tem en ts h a s a r isen ; p o liticia n s th a t u se it em p h a size th e n ega tive effects o f a d istr u st in g a ttitu d e . Th ese d iffer en t ty p es o f d isco u r ses co m p ete with in th e p o litica l d o m a in to effectu a te p o licy ch a n ges th a t a r e in lin e w ith eith er lin e o f th o u gh t.

1.2 Theoretical discussion

Th e p er cep tio n o f th e r o le o f la n gu a ge in so cia l life h a s gr a d u a lly ch a n ged in th e a ca d em ic wo r ld . ‘In th e p o sitivist tr a d itio n in th e so cia l scien ces, la n gu a ge wa s seen a s a m ean s, a s a n eu tr a l sy stem of sign s th a t d escr ib ed th e wo r ld . With th e co m in g o f th e p o st -p o sitivist so cia l scien ces, h o wever , la n gu a ge lo st th is n eu tr a l sta tu s a n d itself b eca m e p r o b lem a tized .’ (Ha jer 1 9 8 9 ; 4 4 ) After th is lin gu istic tu r n , la n gu a ge is r eco gn ize d a s a m ed iu m ; a cto r s d o n o t

o n ly d escr ib e th e wo r ld b u t create th e wo r ld th r o u gh la n gu a ge. Th is r esea r ch b u ild s o n th e wo r ks o f th a t sch o o l o f th o u gh t.

Th e a ca d em ic field o f wo r k th a t h a s b r o u gh t fo r th a m a ssive a m o u n t o f a r ticles o n th e field o f la n gu a ge stu d ies is th a t o f d isco u r se a n a ly sis. In th is field o f r esea r ch , la n gu a ge p r o vid es in su fficien t in fo r m a tive p o wer . Fo r a co m p lete u n d er sta n d in g o f th e fu n ctio n o f la n gu a ge, it m u st b e p la ce d with in its co n text str u ct u r e to ca r r y exp la n a to r y weigh t. Th a t la n gu a ge m a tter s h a s b eco m e a co m m o n a ssu m p tion , u p o n wh ich m u ch r esea r ch h a s b een co n d u cted .

Differ en ces o ccu r in th e wa ys th a t m ea n in g is a tta ch ed to la n gu a ge a n d sp eech a cts – m a n y in ter p r eta tio n s exist with in th e a ca d em ic field o f d isco u r se a n a ly sis in th is r ega r d . Th e o r igin o f th is r esea r ch stem s fr o m th e p er ceived d iscr ep a n cies b etween th eo r ies o n th e m a tter s o f im m igr a tio n a n d in tegr a tio n with in th e p o litica l d o m a in . A few o f th ese th eo r etica l d iffer en ces a r e lo o ked in to a n d a r e fu r th er exp lo r ed .

Th e issu es th a t p o liticia n s wa n t to p u t o n th e a gen d a a r e o ften co m m u n ica ted a s b ein g u r gen t p r o b lem s; cr ises th a t ca ll fo r th o r o u gh a ctio n . Su ch a cr isis is co n str u cted th r o u gh a d iscu r sive p r a ctice – sp eech a cts ser ve to sh o w th e u r gen cy o f a n issu e in o r d er to m o b ilize a p u b lic. Pa u l ‘t Ha r t (1 9 9 3 ) sta tes th a t ‘la n gu a ge is th e m o st im p o r ta n t in str u m en t o f cr isis m a n a gem en t’ a n d th a t “[th ose] wh o a r e a b le to d e fin e wh a t th e cr isis is a ll a b o u t a lso h o ld th e key to d efin in g th e a p p r o p r ia te str a tegies fo r r eso lu tio n ”. (‘t Ha r t 1 9 9 3 :9 1 ) Th is wo u ld su ggest th a t th e p o liticia n th a t r a ises a n issu e m igh t a lso b e th e o n e wh o se p o licy p la n s a r e a d o p ted , in d eed , h e d efin ed wh a t th e cr isis wa s a b o u t. Bu t “[c]r ises a r e th e d o m a in o f m u ltip le r ea lities a n d co n flictin g co gn itio n s”, (‘t Ha r t 1 9 9 3 ;9 9 ) a n d th o se wh o r a ise a n issu e d o n o t a u to m a tica lly r eceive su p p o r t for th eir ca u se.

Ma a r ten Ha je r h a s wr itten o n th e to p ic o f a u th o r ity in cr isis situ a tio n s. Sp ecifica lly , h e h a s r esea r ch ed th e r e a ctio n s o f figu r es o f a u th o r ity in th e wa ke o f th e m u r d er o f Pim Fo r tu y n a n d o f Th eo va n Go gh (Ha jer & Uiter m a r k 2 0 0 7 ; Ha jer & Ve r steeg 2 0 0 9 ). With in p o litics, a cto r s co m p ete with th e u se of d iffer en t d isco u r ses in o r d er to in flu en ce p o licy o n d iver se to p ics. Th e ten sio n s b etween th e lin es o f th o u gh t m a ke th e d eb a tes in to a d y n a m ic field . Ha jer a n d Uiter m a r k (2 0 0 7 ) sp ea k o f a ‘d iscu r sive str u ggle’ in wh ich p o litica l a cto r s en ga ge to “a ctively in flu en ce th e m ea n in g o f [a n ] even t” (2 0 0 7 ;1 3 -1 4 ). Co n cr etely , th is in flu e n ce ca n tr a n sla te to d esir a b le p o licy ch a n ges fo r th e p o litica l a cto r t h a t su cceed s.

Ha jer a n d Uiter m a r k (2 0 0 7 ) n o te h ow p eo p le loo k to a u th o r ity fo r cla r ifica tio n a n d in ter p r eta tio n o f eve n ts in tim es o f cr isis. Figu r es o f a u th o r ities in th eir tu r n ‘a r e en ga ge d in a p o wer str u ggle to im p o se th eir view o f r ea lit y o n to o th er s’ (Ha jer a n d Uiter m a r k, 2 0 0 7 ). Th ey sta te th a t in tim es o f cr isis, a u th o r ities m u st fo r m a llia n ces a n d co m m u n ica te a co h er en t a n d u n ified a cco u n t o f th e even ts to effective ly ter m in a te a cr isis. By d o in g so , th ey co n so lid a te th eir p o wer , legitim a te th eir a u th o r ity a n d ga in tr u st o f co n stitu en ts b y sh owin g th ey a r e ca p a b le o f h a n d lin g a cr isis.

Acco r d in g to Co lin Ha y (1 9 9 6 ), p olitica l a cto r s ca n ‘co n str u ct a cr isis’ in o r d er to ga in su p p o r t to in stiga te ch a n ges in th e p o litica l str u ctu r e. Beca u se th e co n str u ction o f cr isis is a d iscu r sive p r a ctice, th e m eth o d o f in q u ir y h er ein to is d isco u r se a n a ly sis. If th e th eo r y o f Ha y is p la u sib le, th is r esea r ch sh o u ld y ield r esu lts in wh ich we en co u n ter p o litica l a cto r s co n str u ctin g a cr isis th r o u gh d iscu r sive p r a ctice a n d co n seq u en tly r eceivin g su p p o r t fo r th eir ca u se. Cr isis is m o r e th a n a co n d itio n o f r u p tu r e a n d b r ea kd o wn ; it is a p r o cess o f tr a n sfo r m a tio n . Th e co n str u ctio n o f a cr isis is a m ech a n ism th a t a im s to cr ea te m o m en tu m fo r (p o litica l) ch a n ge. “Th e n a r r a tive o f cr isis co n stitu tes a n o b ject a s in n eed o f d ecisive in ter ve n tio n , a n d a p r o ject th r o u gh wh ich th a t d ecisiv e in ter ven tio n ca n b e m a d e.” (Ha y

1 9 9 6 ; 2 5 4 ). In texts a n d sp eech a cts, su b ject p o sitio n s a r e str u ctu r ed with in th e n a r r a tive to r ecr u it th e r ea d er s a n d a d d r essees. ‘Me d ia texts in vite u s a s r ea d e r s, a ctive d e co d er s a n d p o ten tia l ‘in ter p ella tes’ to id en tify with a p a r ticu la r ‘p r efe r r ed ’ su b ject p o sition . It is in th is m o m en t o f id en tifica tio n th a t we r eco gn ise o u r ‘h a ilin g’.’ (Ha y 1 9 9 6 ; 2 6 2 ). In th e p o litica l d o m a in , th is p r o cess o f co n vin cin g is a lwa y s p r esen t in sp eech a cts, d iffer in g in sty le a n d su b tlen ess, in Ha y ’s view.

Va n Dijk (2 0 0 6 ) sta tes th a t ‘th er e is a clo se r ela tio n sh ip b etween d isco u r se, id eo lo gy a n d p o litics, in th e sen se th a t p o litics is u su a lly d iscu r sive a s well a s id eo lo gica l, a n d id eo lo gies a r e la r gely r ep r o d u ced b y te xt a n d ta lk’ (2 0 0 6 ; 7 3 9 ).

He d efin es id eo lo gies ‘a s th e b a sis o f so cia l r ep r esen ta tio n o f gr o u p s, wh ich a r e a n y kin d o f so cia lly sh a r ed m en ta l r ep r esen ta tio n ’ (Va n Dijk 2 0 0 2 ). Pa r lia m en ta r y d eb a tes a r e esp ecia lly in ter estin g a cco r d in g to Va n Dijk, a s th ey ‘a r e th e site wh er e th e va r io u s id eo lo gica l fo r ces in so ciety (…) a r e co n fr o n tin g ea ch oth er in th e p u b lic sp h er e’ ( Ib id .). In th is r esea r ch , excer p ts o f d eb a tes will b e a n a ly sed o n th e p r esen ce o f id eo lo gica l co n text – “in its m o st str a igh tfo r wa r d gu ise [id eo lo gica l a n a ly sis] in vo lves d etectin g in text a n d ta lk th e exp r essio n o f (…) id eo lo gica lly b a sed o p in io n s” ( Ib id .). Th is r esea r ch a ssesses wh eth er p o litica l d isco u r se in d eed is em in en tly id eo lo gica l d isco u r se, in a cco r d a n ce with th e tea ch in gs o f Va n Dijk.

Ma a r ten Ha jer (1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 3 ) em p lo y ed th e co n cep t o f d isco u r se co a litio n in h is a r ticles o n ch a n gin g p o litica l d isco u r se. Th e m o st b a sic d efin itio n is ‘a gr o u p o f a cto r s wh o sh a r e a so cia l co n str u ct’ (Ha jer 1 9 9 3 ; 4 5 ). In th is r esea r ch , th e co n cep t is u sed to id en tify t h e in sta n ces wh er e p o litica l a cto r s a ffilia ted with d iffe r en t p a r ties em p lo y sim ila r r ep er to ir es. Fr o m a n id eo logy -th eo r etica l p er sp ective, a d isco u r se co a litio n m a y o ccu r in th e a r e a in wh ich d iffer in g d iscu r sive r ep er to ir es h a ve id eo lo gica l in ter fa ces. ‘A n ew

d isco u r se co a litio n is likely to b e o r ga n ised a r o u n d a n ew u n itin g p r in cip a l th a t a p p ea ls to d iffer en t gr o u p s’ (Ha jer 1 9 8 9 ;2 5 8 ). Po litica l a cto r s a d o p tin g th e sa m e a r gu m en t in d ica tes a t co n sen su s o r a gr eem en t – o r a t th e sh a r ed r en u n cia tio n o f a p o litica l o p p o n en t’s d isco u r se. If th e con cep t o f d isco u r se co a litio n is va lid , th is r esea r ch wo u ld y ield r esea r ch in wh ich we see d iffer en t p o litica l a cto r s a d h er in g to th e sa m e d isco u r se.

1.3 Problem definition

As a n a tio n th e Neth er la n d s d ep en d s o n its r ela tio n s with o th er co u n tr ies to a ssu r e b o th d o m estic a n d fo r e ign so cio -eco n o m ic d evelo p m en t. Hea lth y in ter n a tio n a l r ela tio n s a r e p a r a m o u n t to th e n a tio n ’s sta b ility a n d gr o wth , b u t sta b le r ela tio n s a r e n o t a given . Th e d y n a m ics o f in ter n a tio n a l r ela tio n s m a ke th em vu ln er a b le to d istu r b a n ces. Th is r esea r ch fo cu ses on a p a r ticu la r ty p e o f p o ten tia l d istu r b a n ce: elem e n ts o f xen o p h o b ia in d o m estic p o litica l d eb a tes o n im m igr a tio n .

Xen o p h o b ia h a s b een th e to p ic o f ea r lier a ca d em ic r esea r ch , a n d a ll a u th o r s co n cu r th a t th e p h en o m en on is n ega tive fo r h a r m o n y a n d co h esio n with in co m m u n ities (see fo r exam p le Cisn er o s 2 0 0 8 ; Do m m er in g 2 0 0 9 ; Flo r es 2 0 0 3 ; Flü ckiger 2 0 0 6 ;). Ad o p tin g th is p o in t o f view, th is r esea r ch b u ild s u p o n th e p r esu m p tion th a t th e o ccu r r en ce o f xen o p h o b ia with in p olitica l d eb a tes is n ega tive o n b o th a d o m estic level – a s a h igh level o f p o la r iza tio n ca n b e d ivisive fo r a sta b le so ciety -, a n d o n a n in ter n a tio n a l level – a s th e p o litica l d eb a t e r eflects th e in stitu tio n a l p o wer to co p e with d esta b iliza tio n . A co u n tr y th a t h a s h igh ly p o la r ized d e b a tes in th e p o litica l d o m a in wo u ld p r o b a b ly b e a less tr u stwo r th y p a r t n er o n a n in ter n a tio n a l level.

Po la r iza tio n cr ea tes a sta te o f co n flict b etween gr o u p s in so ciety . Acco r d in g to Ca r st en d e Dr eu (2 0 0 9 ), co n flicts ca n co n tr ib u te to ‘lea r n in g ca p a b ilit y , cr ea tivity , in n o va tio n , a n d th e q u a lit y o f

d ecisio n m a kin g’, p r o vid ed th a t th e co n flict is ‘a im ed a t co n ten t, is m ed iu m in ten se, a n d th e gr o u p clim a te is ch a r a cter ise d b y m u tu a l tr u st, p a r ticip a tio n a n d co o p er a tio n ’ (2 0 0 9 ;1 3 2 ). Po la r iza tio n a n n u ls th ese p r o visio n s a n d ca n a ggr a va te ten sio n s. With r ega r d to th e p o litica l d eb a te, p o la r iza tio n ca n lea d to ten sio n s b etween p o litica l p a r ties, a n d , exten d ed to so ciety , b etween gr o u p s in society . Wh a t ty p e o f d isco u r se p o litica l a cto r s em p lo y is d ecisive fo r th e ch a r a cter istics o f a d eb a te.

Do m m er in g (2 0 0 9 ) ela b o r a tes u p o n th e ch a r a cter istics o f th e d eb a te o n m igr a tio n a n d th e r esp o n sib ilities o f th e p a r ticip a n t s. He sta tes th a t ‘th e d eb a te o n m igr a tio n is b ein g p o llu ted ’ a n d p r o p o ses th a t th e go ver n m en t m igh t a ttem p t ‘to cr ea te a “gr een b o o k” with p r o p er d efin itio n s fo r com m o n ter m s [with in th e m igr a tio n d eb a te], a s ter m in o lo gica l p o llu tio n is a n o r igin o f p r eju d ice a n d h o stility’ (Do m m er in g 2 0 0 9 ; 2 0 9 ). Th is co u ld b e p a r t o f ‘a b r o a d er p o licy to ed u ca te a ll Du tch p eo p le (n o t ju st m igr a n ts) in p r o p er d em o cr a tic citizen sh ip ’ (ib id .). Sch in ke l (2 0 0 8 ; 1 1 9 ) r em a r ks th a t ‘co n ten t -r ela ted c-r iticism o n ext-r em ism is wea k o -r la ckin g, in th e Neth er la n d s’ (Sch in kel 2 0 0 8 ; 1 1 9 in Do m m er in g 2 0 0 9 ), r efer r in g to th e co u r se o f th e Fitn a-a ffa ir . He co n clu d es th a t ‘th e go ver n m en t wa s m o stly co n cer n ed with d a m a ge co n tr o l o n th e in ter n a tio n a l sta ge’; a fter th e m o vie r elea se, su b sta n tive d is cu ssion wa s h eld (ib id .).

Th e ca se stu d ies o f th is r esea r ch ca n b e lo ca ted to th e field o f in ter p la y b etween th e p o litica l d eb a t es o n im m igr a tio n , id eo lo gica l co n ten t o f p o litica l d isco u r se, elem en ts o f xen o p h o b ia a n d th e r esp o n se to d iscu r sive cr ises. Th is r esea r ch lo o ks in to th e o ccu r r en ce o f d iscu r sive cr ises with in th e p o litica l d eb a te; a n d a ssesses wh eth er , a n d if so , h o w p o litica l a cto r s h a ve r e sp o n d ed to th ese cr ises. A p a r ticu la r ty p e o f xen o p h o b ia – Isla m o p h o b ia – h a s b eco m e co m m o n to th e Du tch p o litica l d eb a te o n im m igr a tio n . Stu d ies o n in tegr a tio n h a ve sh ed a ligh t o n th e issu es su r r o u n d in g

th e n ega tive p o r tr a y a l o f Isla m , b o th in p o litica l d isco u r se a s in m ed ia . Uiter m a r k a n d Gielen (2 0 1 0 ) a r gu e th a t m ed ia tisa tio n ‘m a y a u gm en t p o wer in eq u a litie s b etween go ver n a n ce a ct o r s’. Mu ch a ca d em ic r esea r ch h a s b een co n d u cted o n th e to p ic o f p o litica l d eb a tes a n d its fa cets. Disco u r se a n a ly sis h a s b r o u gh t fo r th a la r ge b o d y o f liter a tu r e o n th e fu n ctio n a n d im p a ct o f la n gu a ge in th e p o litica l d o m a in (see Va n Dijk 2 0 0 1 , 2 0 0 2 , 2 0 0 6 a , 2 0 0 9 ; Ha jer & La ws 2 0 0 6 ; Ha jer & Uiter m a r k 2 0 0 7 ; Ha jer & Ver steeg 2 0 0 9 ; Ha y 1 9 9 6 ; Ho en isch 2 0 0 6 ; Ja co b s 1 9 9 8 ; McKen zie 2 0 0 5 ; Po tter & Weth er ell 1 9 8 7 , 1 9 9 3 ; Str a u ss 1 9 8 7 ; Str a u ss & Co r b in 1 9 9 0 ; Ta lja 1 9 9 9 ).

Beca u se o f th e p o ten t ia l co n seq u en ces o f d iscu r sive cr ises in p o litica l d eb a tes, r esea r ch in to th e r esp o n se to cr ises is n ecessa r y . In cr ea sed kn o wled ge o n th e d y n a m ics o f d iscu r sive cr ises m igh t b e o f u se fo r p o litica l a cto r s th a t en co u n ter th em in p o litica l d eb a tes. Th e d isp la y o f xen o p h o b ia with in th e p o litica l d eb a te m a y u ltim a tely lea d to d iscr im in a tio n o f gr o u p s o f p eo p le a n d n a tio n a lism , wh ich a r e in d ica to r s o f fu tu r e co n flict. Th e co u n tr ies o f fo r m er Yu go sla via a n d Rwa n d a b o th a r e exa m p les o f th e h o r r en d o u s co n seq u en ces o f n a tio n a lism a n d d iscr im in a tio n tu r n in g vio len t. To in cr ea se o u r kn owled ge a n d b ette r o u r u n d er sta n d in g o f th e co m p lexity o f p o lit ics a n d cr ises is to wo r k o n p r even tin g esca la tio n a n d sa fegu a r d sta b ility with in society . Resea r ch o n p o ten tia l sp o ilin g m e ch a n ism s su ch a s p o litica l cr ises is b en eficia l b o th to scien tific kn o wled ge o n p o litica l d isco u r se, a n d so cieta l so lid ity .

1.4 Aim of research and hypotheses

Th e a im o f th is r esea r ch is to exa m in e h o w d istu r b a n ces in th e in ter n a tio n a l r ela tio n s – d iscu r sive cr ises in th e p u b lic d eb a t e – h a ve b een r esp o n d ed to . Th r ee h y p o th eses a r e b ein g tested to a sses s wh ich th eo r ies h o ld in th e p o litica l d iscu r sive d o m a in . Th ey a r e 1 ) Ha y ’s th eo r y o n th e d iscu r sive co n str u ctio n o f cr isis; 2 ) th e th eo r y o f Va n Dijk on id eo lo gy in d isco u r se; a n d 3 ) Ha jer ’s co n cep t o f

d isco u r se co a litio n ; o f a n o r ch estr a ted d iscu r sive p r a ctice th a t vo ices a u n ified r e sp o n se. Th is r esea r ch a p p lies th ese th eo r ies a n d a ssesses wh eth er th ey h o ld in fu ll o r p a r tia lly .

Main questio n

(1 ) Ho w d id Du tch p o litical acto rs resp o n d to d iscu rsiv e crises in th e

Du tch p o litical d eb ate o n im m igratio n , in th ree case stu d ies?

Hy po th eses:

(2 ) Po litician s d iscu rsiv ely co n stru ct a crisis to gain su p p o rt fo r th eir

p o litical agen d a.

(3 ) Id eo lo gy is th e d riv in g fo rce b eh in d p o litical d isco u rse o n

im m igratio n .

(4 ) Po litician s fo rm allian ces th at fit th e n o tio n o f Hajer’s d isco u rse

co alitio n to ad v an ce th eir in terest in th e im m igratio n d eb ate.

1.5 Operationalization

To fo r m u la te a n a n swer to th ese q u estio n s, a n a n a ly tic fr a m ewo r k ser ves to id en tify cer ta in in d ica to r s in text a n d sp eech a cts. Th e u n it o f a n a ly sis is wr itten a n d sp o ken la n gu a ge with in t h e p o litica l in stitu tion a l settin g o f th e p o litica l d eb a te . As a fu r th er d em a r ca tio n , th r e e ca se stu d ies in r ecen t p o litica l h isto r y h a ve b e en selected o n th e b a sis o f th eir p e r ceived r ela tio n with xen o p h o b ia . Th ey sh a ll b e lo o ked in to in ch r o n o lo gica l o r d er , so th a t a d evelo p m en t o ver tim e m igh t b eco m e a p p a r en t.

Th e va r ia b les th a t sh o w a co r r ela tio n b etween sp eech a cts a n d xen o p h o b ia , a r e to b e fo u n d with in th e la n gu a ge th a t p o litica l a cto r s

em p lo y in th eir a d d r ess a n d r esp o n se to fello w p o litica l a cto r s with in th e Du tch p o litica l in stitu tio n a l settin g o f th e Ho u se o f Co m m o n s. Th is r esea r ch lo o ks in to th e u se o f d iscu r sive r ep er to ir e, o r in ter p r eta tive r e p er to ir es. Th e ch o ice o f cer ta in wo r d s, r h eto r ica l to o ls, d isp la y o f kn o wled ge, u se o f sta tistics a n d sen tim en ts a r e th e m a in va r ia b les to a n a ly se in o r d er to id en tify wh a t r ep er to ir e a p o litica l a cto r is em p lo y in g. Th e key va r ia b le in th e a n a ly sis o f d iscu r sive r ep er to ir es is p o la r iza tio n – t o a ssess to wh a t exten t a p o litica l a cto r em p lo y s p o la r izin g la n gu a ge is to lea r n wh eth er h is r ep er to ir e h a s xen o p h o b ic elem en ts.

Th e d a ta sets co n ta in eve r y r eleva n t p o litica l d eb a te with in th e in stitu tion a l settin g o f th e Ho u se o f Co m m o n s, o f th e th r ee p o litica l ep iso d es u p till th e p o in t in tim e wh er e a r e n o lo n ger m en tio n ed . Th is wo u ld su ggest th a t a to p ic h a s seized to b e a n issu e fo r th e m a jo r ity o f p o litica l a cto r s. Th e m et h o d o f r esea r ch is th e stu d y o f a ca d em ic lite r a tu r e a n d seco n d a r y so u r ces. Seco n d a r y so u r ces a r e th e o fficia l tr a n scr ip ts o f p a r lia m en t a r y d eb a tes h eld in th e Du tch Ho u se o f Co m m o n s. Fo r so m e o f th ese d o cu m en ts, th er e is d a ta a va ila b le in th e fo r m o f vid eo r eco r d in gs o f th e live d eb a tes. Ad d itio n a l d o cu m en ts th a t wer e r efe r r ed to in th e p a r lia m en ta r y d o cu m en ts a r e co n sid er ed to b e p r im a r y so u r ces a s well.

Tr a n scr ip ts o f p a r lia m en ta r y d eb a tes a r e to b e fo u n d o n lin e o n th e o fficia l go ver n m en t web sites. Th ese tr a n scr ip ts wer e th en b u n d led , ca tego r ized a n d o r d er in ch r o n o lo gica l o r d er . Th e co m p u ter p r o gr a m MAXQDA fo r q u a lita tive r e sea r ch is a n a id fo r la b ellin g va r ia b les with in d a ta sets – it ser ved to id en tify a n d ca tego r ize th e va r ia b les, a cco r d in g to th e co n sta n t co m p a r a tive m eth o d (gr o u n d ed th eo r y ). Th is m eth o d m a d e a p p a r en t wh ich p o litica l a cto r s u se th e sa m e d iscu r sive r e p er to ir es in wh ich d eb a tes. Disco u r se a n a ly sis is em p lo y ed a fter th e id en tifica tio n o f d iffer en t r ep er to ir es, in o r d er to a ssess th eir id eo lo gica l elem en ts, a ctivities in la n gu a ge su ch a s

co n str u ctin g a cr isis, o r th e a p p e a r a n ce o f a d isco u r se co a litio n . Th ese a n a ly ses la y th e fo u n d a tio n fo r a n swer in g th e h y p o th eses.

Th is r esea r ch is d r ive n b y a p o stm o d er n ist a n d p o ststr u ctu r a list a p p r o a ch . Th is sch o o l o f th o u gh t r ests u p on th e p r esu m p tio n th a t th er e is n o o n e tr u th o th er th a n in ter p r eta tio n . Th e o b ject o f stu d y – d isco u r se -, a n d th e m eth o d o f r esea r ch – d isco u r se a n a ly sis – en tir ely d ep en d o n in ter p r eta tio n b y th e r esea r ch er . Th e r esu lt o f th e r esea r ch is th e r esea r ch er ’s r ea d in g o f h o w d iffer en t d isc o u r ses r ela te to ea ch o th er . Th e p o ststr u ctu r a list a sp ect o f th is r esea r ch is th e fa ct th a t it r e lies o n th e d eco n str u ctio n o f la n gu a ge to y ield r esu lts. In th is r esea r ch , th e fo cu s lies o n d iffer en t d isco u r ses th a t r ela te to im m igr a tio n .

1.6 Relevance

As m en tio n ed ea r lier , wh a t is d iscu ssed in a p o litica l d eb a te h a s gr ea t in flu en ce o n so ciety . No t o n ly d o es it h a ve a steer in g effect o n p u b lic o p in io n , b u t a lso p o licies th a t co m e in to b ein g m a y d ir ectly a ffect th e p o p u la ce o f a co u n tr y . As th e Neth er la n d s h a s a p a r lia m en ta r y d em o cr a cy , th e p o litica l d o m a in is to a gr ea t exten t a r eflectio n o f so ciet y – p o litica l a cto r s r ep r esen t p eo p le in so ciety . Th u s, wh a t is b ein g sa id in th e p o litica l d o m a in is a m ea su r in g m ech a n ism fo r p u b lic o p in io n . Th e d evelo p m en t o f a d eb a te in th e Ho u se o f Co m m o n s m a y b e r ega r d e d a s a r eflectio n o f a d iscu ssion in th e p u b lic sp h e r e. An in ter estin g fea tu r e o f th e p o litica l d eb a te, a n d su b ject o f th is r esea r ch , is th e wa y th a t p o litica l a cto r s r ea ct to d iscu r sive cr ises.

Fu r th er a n a ly sis o f th ese d eb a tes m a y p r o vid e va lu a b le in fo r m a tio n o n h o w d iscu r sive cr ises a r e h a n d le d with in th e p o litica l d o m a in . Mu ch h a s b een wr itten o n h o w a cr isis co m es in to b ein g th r o u gh

d iscu r sive p r a ctice , b u t little r esea r ch h a s b een d o n e in to h o w su ch cr ises a r e su b seq u en tly a p p r o a ch ed . Th er e a p p ea r s to b e a th eo r etica l ga p in a n a ly sis o f p o litica l d isco u r se. Th e th r ee h y p o th eses a ll a d d r ess d iffer en t se gm en ts o f p o litica l d isco u r se; th ey a d d r ess r h et o r ica l tech n iq u es a n d th e d y n a m ics o f ga in in g su p p o r t. Bu t a s th e th r ee a ll a p p e a r to h a ve so m e exp la n a to r y p o wer , a co m b in ed th eo r y m igh t m o r e a p p r o p r ia tely co ver a b r o a d er sco p e o f a n a ly sis. Per h a p s su ch a n a m a lga m a tio n m igh t p r o ve to b e a n a d eq u a te m o d u s o p er a n d i fo r a n a ly sis o f p o litica l d isco u r se.

Th is r esea r ch a d d s to p r evio u s stu d ies o n p o litica l d isco u r se in r ela tio n to th e d eb a te o n im m igr a tio n a n d in tegr a tio n . As th e Neth er la n d s a s a n a tio n gr ea tly d ep en d s o n in ter n a tio n a l p a r tn er sh ip s fo r so cio -eco n o m ic sta b ility a n d gr o wth , a str ict exclu sio n a r y sta n ce o n im m igr a tio n m igh t in ter fer e with th a t – a s th e ca se stu d y o f t h e MEE-la n d er s p la tfo r m in p a r ticu la r h a s sh o wn . As will b e d iscu ssed in ch a p ter 3 , th e Neth er la n d s h a s m a n y exa m p les in r ecen t p o litica l h isto r y th a t sh ow th e p r o b lem s o f p o litics o f im m igr a tio n a n d in tegr a tio n . In gen er a l, th e Neth er la n d s is ver y sta b le a n d eco n o m ica lly str o n g. Sin ce th e la st d e ca d e, fa ilin g im m igr a tio n a n d in tegr a tio n h a ve b e en m en tio n ed a s im p ed im en ts to th e n a tio n ’s str en gth . Th e p o litica l la n gu a ge th a t is a sso cia ted with th a t sta n ce is th e to p ic o f r esea r ch in th is th esis. Th is r esea r ch a im s to p r o vid e m o r e in sigh t in to th e co n seq u en ces o f d isco u r se em p lo y m en t in th e p o litica l d o m a in a n d th e d e velo p m en ts in th a t field .

1.7 Structure

Th e th esis co n sists o f n in e ch a p ter s, in clu d in g th is in tr o d u ctio n . Ch a p ter 2 d iscu sses th e a ca d em ic lite r a tu r e th a t h a s b e en b r o u gh t fo r th b y p r evio u s stu d ies o n th is su b ject. Th eo r etica l a r ticles th a t exp la in co n cep ts th a t th is r esea r ch wo r ks with a r e in clu d ed , a s well

a s th e th eo r ies th a t will b e u sed fo r t h e a n a ly sis o f th e ca se stu d ies. Th e seco n d ch a p ter p r o vid es th e th eo r etica l fr a m ewo r k o f th is r esea r ch . Ch a p ter 3 th en co m p r ises o f th e m eth o d o lo gica l p a r t o f th is th esis – it co n ta in s in fo r m a tio n o n h o w th e r esea r ch h a s b een co n d u cted , wh a t m eth o d s h a ve b een u sed a n d h ow d a ta wa s co llected . Th e fo llo win g ch a p ter s a r e th e ca se stu d ie s th a t th is r esea r ch lo o k ed in to . Ch a p ter 4 d iscu sses th e h ea d sca r f ta x a n d ch a p ter 5 is th e ca se stu d y o f th e No r wa y a tta cks d iscu ssio n . Th e 6th

ch a p ter is th e ca se stu d y o f th e MEE-la n d er s p la tfo r m a n d in ch a p ter 7 th e th r ee ca ses a r e co m p a r e d with ea ch o th er . In th is ch a p ter , I lo o k in to th e in clu sio n a r y o r exclu sio n a r y ch a r a cter o f ea ch d isco u r se th a t h a s b een id en tified in ch a p ter s 4 , 5 a n d 6 . Ch a p ter 8 is th e co n clu sio n in wh ich th e m a in q u estio n a n d h y p oth eses will b e a d d r esse d .

2. Theoretical Framework

In th is ch a p ter , th e co n cep ts a r e exp la in ed th a t a r e r e leva n t fo r th is r esea r ch . Disco u r se a n a ly sis o f sp eech a cts in a p o litica l settin g r eq u ir es a clo se in sp ectio n o f wh a t is b ein g a n a ly sed , a n d wh a t h a s to b e lo o ked fo r . Th e h y p o th eses a r e fo r m u la ted in su ch a wa y th a t th ey a ssess th e va lid ity a n d a p p lica b ility o f th e th eo r ies o f Ha y , Va n Dijk a n d Ha jer . Fir st we lo o k in to th e d efin itio n o f d isco u r se. We th en m o ve o n to d iscu ss th e th eo r ies th a t u n d er lie th e h y p o th eses. Ha y p r esu m es th a t p o litica l a cto r s co n str u ct a cr isis t o ga in su p p o r t fo r th eir ca u se; Va n Dijk sta tes th a t p o litica l d isco u r se is in h er en tly id eo lo gica l; a n d Ha jer cla im s th a t p o litica l a cto r s m a y fo r m d isco u r se co a litio n s in o r d er to a d va n ce th eir in ter ests. La ter , we r eview wh y la n gu a ge is r eleva n t u n it o f a n a ly sis, a n d a d d itio n a l th eo r ies a r e m en tio n ed th a t in vigo r a te th e th eo r etica l fo u n d a tio n .

2.1 Discourse

Disco u r se a n a ly sis is b a cked u p b y a va st a m o u n t o f d a ta fr o m p r evio u s stu d ies. Ma n y o f th ese th eo r ies em p lo y d iffer e n t ter m s b u t in fa ct a r e o ver la p p in g in th eir m ea n in g a n d co n cep ts. Fo r in sta n ce, th e n o u n s ‘(p o litica l) d isco u r se’; ‘d iscu r sive r ep e r to ir e’ a n d ‘in ter p r eta tive r ep e r to ir e’ a r e to a la r ge exten t in ter ch a n gea b le. Th is r esea r ch em p lo y s th e b r o a d d efin itio n o f d isco u r se a s fo r m u la ted b y Va n Dijk .

“[Disco u rse] is a m u lt id im en sio n al so cial p h en om en o n . It is at t h e sam e t u n e a lin gu ist ic (… ) o b ject (… ), an act io n (… ), a fo rm o f so cial in t eract io n (… ), a social p ract ice (… ), a m en t al rep resen t at ion (… ), an in t eract ion al of co m m u n icat iv e ev en t o r act iv it y (… ), a cu lt u ral p ro d u ct (… ) o r ev en an eco n o m ic co m m o d ity t h at is b ein g so ld an d b o u gh t (… ).”

(Va n Dijk,

Va n Dijk em p h a sizes th e d ifficu lty o f fo r m u la tin g a n a ll-en co m p a ssin g d efin itio n o f d isco u r se. Disco u r se a n a ly sis la cks in scien tific str en gth in th a t its d ep en d en ce o n th e r esea r ch er ’s in ter p r eta tio n m a kes it su b jective a n d b ia sed . Yet d iscu r sive p r a ctice in essen ce is a su b jective p r o d u ctio n in wh ich a n a ct o r a tta ch es m ea n in g to a n e ven t. Disco u r se a n a ly sis will ser ve to a n a ly se th e co n ten t o f th e d iffer en t sp eech a ct s a n d texts. Th e m eth o d of d isco u r se a n a lysis m a kes so m e p r esu m p tio n s with r ega r d to id en tity , m in d a n d r ea lity .

“Id en t it y / p erson alit y – Th er e is a n a cto r wh o h as a r a n ge o f d efin in g

fea t u r es: a p er so n a lit y , a self o r id en t ity , a n d p ossib ly a r a n ge o f co m m o n ly a va ila b le r o les.

M in d – Wit h in t h e acto r a r e a va r iety o f en t it ies t h a t a r e b asic t o t h e

exp la n a t io n o f b eh avio u r : a t t it u d es, a t t r ib u t io n a l sch em a t a , ca t ego r y system s, m em o r ies, so cia l r ep r esen t at io n s a n d so o n . (…)

Reality – Th e a ct o r is con st r u ed a s a ct in g in som e en vir o n m en t, th e

wo r ld , t h e sit u a t io n , o r co n text . Th is m a y co n sist o f o th er p eo p le, socia l set t in gs, o r va r io u s p h y sica l ob jects a n d even ts.”

(Pot ter , Ed wa r d s a n d Wet h er ell

1 9 9 3 )

Th is r esea r ch exa m in es th e em p lo y m en t o f in ter p r eta tive r ep er to ir es b y p o liticia n s. Th is ter m , wh ich h a s b een co in ed b y Po tter a n d Weth er ell (1 9 8 7 ), en co m p a sses th e ‘r ela tively in ter n a lly co n sisten t, b o u n d ed la n gu a ge u n its’ with in a r a n ge o f a cco u n ts o f th e sa m e p h en o m en o n (McKen zie, 2 0 0 3 ; 2 ). With in th e p lu r a l, ver sa tile field o f p o litics, m u ltip le a cto r s will d evelo p d iffer en t views o f th e sa m e even ts a n d co n seq u en tly will sp ea k in a d iffe r en t m a n n er a b o u t th em ; th ese a r e d iffer in g in ter p r eta tive r ep er to ir es. Th is r esea r ch m a kes a n a ssessm en t o f th e Du tch p o lit ica l clim a te with in a fixed p e r io d o f tim e , b y id en tify in g a n d a n a ly sin g th e co n ten t o f in ter p r eta tive r ep er to ir e s. To d o so , it d r a ws fr o m p r evio u s stu d ies in th e field s o f p o litica l a n d so cia l scie n ces, cr isis m a n a gem en t, p sy ch o lo gy a n d so cio lin gu istics.

Th e lin gu istic co n ten t o f a r ep er to ir e co n sists o f th e issu es th a t a r e a d d r essed , th e a r gu m en ts th a t a r e p r o p a ga ted a n d th e r em a r ks th a t a r e m a d e in r ela tio n to th e su b ject. Ha jer a n d Ver steeg (2 0 0 9 ) h a ve a r gu ed th a t “[wh a t] p o liticia n s sa y a b o u t a cr isis (…) h a ve a d isp r o p o r tio n a te effect o n th e p u b lic’s p er cep tio n o f th a t cr isis”; th u s “wo r d s a r e cr u cia l” (Ha jer & Ver steeg 2 0 0 9 ;2 ). Ho wever , n o t o n ly w h at is sa id m a tter s, w h o sa id it is eq u a lly a s im p o r ta n t. Au th o r ity p la y s a cr u cia l r o le with in th e field o f p o litics. Cr itica l la n gu a ge stu d y ‘a n a ly ses so cia l in ter a ctio n s in a wa y wh ich fo cu ses u p o n th eir lin gu istic elem en ts, a n d wh ich sets o u t to sh o w u p th eir gen er a lly h id d en d eter m in a n ts in th e sy stem o f so cia l r ela tio n sh ip s, a s well a s h id d e n effects th ey m a y h a ve u p o n th a t sy stem ’ (Fa ir clo u gh , 1 9 8 9 ; 5 ). In th is r esea r ch , th e a n a ly sis m u st p r o vid e in sigh t in to th e d iffer en t id eo lo gica l b a ckgr o u n d s of p a r ticu la r r ep er to ir es.

Va n Dijk n o tes th a t it is im p o ssib le to p r ecisely d efin e th e d o m a in o f p o lit ics, a s it h a s fu zzy b ou n d a r ies: “T h e first o b serv atio n th at n eed s to b e m ad e ab o u t p o litical d isco u rse is th at it is n o t a gen re, b u t a class o f gen res d efin ed b y a so cial d o m ain , n am ely th at o f p o litics. (… ) [I] sh all fo r sim p licity 's sak e assu m e th at p o litical d isco u rse is th e d isco u rse o f p o litician s. (… ) Hav in g th u s lim ited th e ran ge o f p o litical d isco u rse to th e 'p ro fession al' realm o f th e activ ities o f p o litician s, th e n ext o b serv atio n is th at su ch d isco u rse is b y th e sam e to k en a fo rm o f in stitu tio n al d isco u rse. T h at is, o n ly th o se d isco u rses o f p o litician s are co n sid ered th at are p ro d u ced in in stitu tion al settin gs, su ch as go v ern m en ts, p arliam en ts o r p o litical p arties. (… ) [T h e] d isco u rse m u st b e p ro d u ced b y th e sp eak er in h er p ro fession al ro le o f a p o litician an d in an in stitu tio n al settin g.”

(Va n Dijk, 2 0 0 2 ; 1 9 )

th e d a ta d em a r ca tio n to b e b o u n d ed to th e p o litica l d eb a tes in th eir in stitu tion a l settin g, th u s exclu d in g sp eech a cts fr o m o th er fo r a . Ha vin g ela b o r a ted u p o n th e d efin itio n o f d isco u r se, we ca n n o w lo ok in to th e d iffer en t t h eo r ies th a t stem fr o m th e a n a ly sis o f d isco u r se.

2.2 Discursive construction of crisis

A key co n cep t o f th is r esea r ch is ‘d iscu r sive cr isis’. Th is ter m r efer s to “th e d iscu r sive co n str u ction o f a cr isis” wh ich “ca n (…) b e seen a s a p r o cess in vo lvin g th e m a p p in g to geth er o f a gr e a t va r ie ty o f

d isp a r a te even ts u n ified th r o u gh th e id en tifica tio n o f so m e co m m o n essen ce” (Ha y , 1 9 9 6 :2 6 6 ). In h is p a p er s o n p o litica l d isco u r se Co lin Ha y a r gu es th a t p o litica l a cto r s m a y u se d iscu r sive a n d te xtu a l str a tegies to co n str u ct a cr isis. An y given even t m a y b e sp u n a n d twisted to p r o vid e it with a sen se o f u r gen cy . A d iscu r sive cr isis co n sists o f gettin g th e a tten tio n o f a p u b lic, a le r t in g th e m a n d m o b ilizin g th em to r esp o n d . Th e p r efer r ed r esp o n se will b e to su p p o r t th e a cto r th a t r ep o r ted th e cr isis; to ch o ose th a t figu r e to a ct o n th eir b eh a lf to so lve th e cr isis.

Th er e is a m ech a n ism to th e d iscu r sive co n str u ctio n o f a cr isis, a cco r d in g to Ha y (1 9 9 6 :2 6 7 ). Histo r y is n o n -lin ea r a n d m u ltip le even ts ta ke p la ce sim u lta n eo u sly . It is co m m o n fo r th e h u m a n m in d to su b co n scio u sly fit even ts in to fr a m es. Su ch fr a m in g wo r ks a s a r efer en ce p o in t fo r la ter r em em b r a n ce , a n d r e d u ces th e co m p lexity o f ever y d a y life . Discu r sive co n str u ctio n o f a cr isis u ses a sim ila r fr a m in g m ech a n ism to a ctiva te a p a r t icu la r co gn itive fr a m e in r ela tio n to cer ta in even ts. “Th e sp ecificity a n d co m p lexit y o f ea ch even t is (…) d en ied , a s a n a b str a cted a n d sim p lified m eta -n a r r a tive ca p a b le o f a cco u n tin g fo r ever y ‘sy m p to m ’, a n d ca p a b le o f

u n a m b igu o u sly a ttr ib u tin g r esp o n sib ility , is o ffer ed in its p la ce” (Ha y , 1 9 9 6 :2 6 7 ).

Th ose wh o wa n t to co n str u ct a cr isis selectively p ick e ven t s th a t fit th e ‘cr isis-fr a m in g’; th is is th e p r o cess o f “p rim ary n arratio n ,

r esu ltin g in th e co n str u ctio n o f a ser ies o f in d ep en d en t n a r r a tives wh ich still r eflect (a lb eit to va r y in g d e fr ees) th e sp ecificit y o f ea ch ‘sto r y ’. Th e d iscu r sive co n str u ctio n o f cr isis, h o wever , is t h e p r o d u ct o f a p r o cess o f secon d ary m ed iatio n , a b str a ctio n a n d m eta

-n a r r a tio -n ” (Ha y , 1 9 9 6 :2 6 7 ). Th r o u gh seco -n d a r y m ed ia tio -n , ‘-n o tio -n s o f d ir ect r esp o n sib ility , ca u sa lity a n d a gen cy a r e d eleted (…); [th e] d ir ect a gen t is su b seq u en tly r ep la ced b y a n a b str a ctio n ’ (Ha y , 1 9 9 6 :2 6 7 ). Pr im e e xa m p les a r e th e p r o b lem a tizin g o f wea r in g a h ea d sca r f, o r lin kin g n u isa n ce o f y o u n gster s to eth n icity o r r eligio n . Disp a r a te even ts m a y b e p la ted in a fr a m e o f ‘sy m p to m s’ a n d ‘p r o o f o f fa ilin g in tegr a tio n a n d tr o u b leso m e im m igr a tio n ’. Su ch fr a m in g m a y ser ve a s a to o l fo r ga in in g p o litica l su p p o r t. If m o r e even ts a r e m o u ld ed to fit th e cr isis fr a m e, th en e ven tu a lly a cr isis m a y o ccu r , a s m o r e p eo p le a d o p t it a n d view it a s cr isis.

Th e co n str u ction of a cr isis is th u s a ver y p o wer fu l m ech a n ism , fo r it ca n a ctiva t e o r m a n ip u la te th e in ter p r eta tive r ep er to ir e o f

in d ivid u a ls. Th e im p a ct o f su ch fr a m in g is co n sid er a b le, fo r “ if m en d efin e situ a tio n s a s r ea l, th ey a r e r e a l in th eir co n seq u en ces”

(Th o m a s a n d Th om a s, 1 9 2 9 ; p . 5 7 2 ). Fo r a n issu e to b e

a ckn o wled ged b y m u ltip le a cto r s a s a legitim a te p r o b lem th a t n eed s a so lu tio n , it n eed s to b e p o sed a s a p r o b lem . An exa m p le wo u ld b e a p o liticia n sta tin g th a t th e in flu x o f n o n -Wester n im m igr a n ts is a p r o b lem , fo r it m a y en d a n ger th e d o m estic eco n o m y o n th e lo n g-ter m . Pr o b lem a tiza tio n is n ecessa r y for a p o liticia n ; h is in str u m en t is la n gu a ge. Th a t is wh y d isco u r se a n a ly sis ser ves to id en tify

p r o cesses o f p r o b lem a tiza tio n in p o litica l sp eech . 2.3 Ideology in discourse

Acco r d in g to so cio lo gist Teu n va n Dijk ( 2 0 0 6 ), “[p o litics] is o n e o f th e so cia l d o m a in s wh ose p r a ctices a r e vir tu a lly exclu sive ly d iscu r sive; p o litica l co gn itio n is b y d efin itio n id eo lo gica lly b a sed ; a n d p o litica l id eo lo gies a r e la r gely r ep r o d u ced b y d isco u r se” (Va n Dijk, 2 0 0 6 ). Mo r eo ver , va n Dijk (2 0 0 1 ) sta tes th a t ‘co n tr o llin g

d isco u r se is a (…) m a jo r fo r m o f p o wer ’; a ll d iscu r sive p r a ctices a r e a im ed a t p r o d u cin g a n d r ep r o d u cin g p o wer a n d d o m in a n ce (Va n Dijk, 2 0 0 1 ). In a d eb a te, ver b a l a n d wr itten textu a l exp r essio n s a r e a im ed a t p r o cla im in g o n e’s p er so n a l sta n ce o r th a t o f t h e p o litica l p a r ty , o r r efu tin g t h a t o f th e o p p o n en t. Th e p o litica l d e b a te th u s is a n in ter a ctive p r a ctice in wh ich d om in a n ce m u st b e exer ted o ver o th er s, in o r d er to sh ow th e va lid ity o f o n e’s sta n d p o in ts. Va n Dijk em p lo y s a m u ltid iscip lin a r y a p p r o a ch ; h e a r gu es th a t id eo lo gy , d isco u r se a n d p o litics a r e clo sely r ela t ed a n d in ter twin ed .

Id eo lo gica l d iffer e n ces a r e in d ica t ed th r o u gh p o la r iza tio n in p o litica l d isco u r se, a s Va n Dijk p o sits th a t “u n d er ly in g p o litica l id eo lo gie s a r e ty p ica lly exp r essed in p o litica l d isco u r se b y em p h a sizin g Ou r [sic] go o d th in gs a n d Th eir [sic] b a d th in gs a n d d e -em p h a sizin g Ou r [sic] b a d th in gs a n d th eir go o d th in gs” (Va n Dijk 2 0 0 6 ; 7 3 9 ). If Va n Dijk’s th eo r y is va lid , p o liticia n s u se d iscu r sive tech n iq u es th a t exp r ess th eir id eo lo gica l sta n ce to ga in su p p o r t a n d d elegitim ize th e o p p o n en t’s views. In sp eech a cts, p o la r iza tio n m a y b e a m o n g th ese tech n iq u es.

2.4 Discourse coalition

Ma a r ten Ha jer (1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 3 ) em p lo y ed th e co n cep t o f d isco u r se co a litio n in h is a r ticles o n ch a n gin g p o litica l d isco u r se. Th e m o st b a sic d efin itio n is ‘a gr o u p o f a cto r s wh o sh a r e a so cia l co n str u ct’ (Ha jer 1 9 9 3 ; 4 5 ). In th is r esea r ch , th e co n cep t is u sed to id en tify th e in sta n ces wh er e p o litica l a cto r s a ffilia ted with d iffe r en t p a r ties em p lo y sim ila r r ep er to ir es. Fr o m a n id eo logy -th eo r etica l p er sp ective, a d isco u r se co a litio n m a y o ccu r in th e a r e a in wh ich d iffer in g d iscu r sive r ep er to ir es h a ve id eo lo gica l in ter fa ces. ‘A n ew d isco u r se co a litio n is likely to b e o r ga n ised a r o u n d a n ew u n itin g p r in cip a l th a t a p p ea ls to d iffer en t gr o u p s’ (Ha jer 1 9 8 9 ;2 5 8 ). Po litica l a cto r s a d o p tin g th e sa m e a r gu m en ts in d ica tes a t co n sen su s o r a gr eem en t – o r a t th e sh a r ed r en u n cia tio n o f a p o litica l o p p o n en t’s d isco u r se. If th e con cep t o f d isco u r se co a litio n is va lid ,

th is r esea r ch wo u ld y ield r esea r ch in wh ich we see d iffer en t p o litica l a cto r s a d h er in g to th e sa m e d isco u r se.

Dir k Ja co b s (1 9 9 8 ) sta tes th a t ‘p o licy ch a n ges d o n ot h a ve to b e th e r esu lt o f a gen u in e co m p r o m ise o n th e a r gu m en ta tive level o r th e d o m in a n ce o f o n e sp ecific ty p e o f r ea so n in g, b u t ca n ju st a s ea sily b e th e r esu lt o f a n a d h o c d isco u r se co a litio n ’. (Ja co b s, 1 9 9 8 ; 3 7 1 ) I fo llo w Ja co b s in h is p r esu m p tio n th a t ‘n o sin gle id eo lo gy (…) co n tr o ls th e d eb a te, b u t th a t we a r e (…) co n fr on ted with a n on -go in g str u ggle b etween d iffer en t id eo lo gies (b o th a s p o litica l n a r r a tives a n d wo r ld views) wh ich a r e a r ticu la te d in va r io u s d egr ees in p u b lic sta tem en ts’. (Ja co b s, 1 9 9 8 ; 3 5 4 ) Th e d evelo p m en t o f th r ee d eb a tes is a n a ly sed ; ca ses th a t co m m en ce w ith a d iscu r sive cr isis.

2.5 Power of language

Disco u r se a n a ly sis r eviews th e co n ten t o f a p a r ticu la r in ter p r eta tive r ep er to ir e to d evelo p a b etter u n d er sta n d in g o f it. Ho wever , ‘t Ha r t a r gu es th a t a n a d d itio n a l in str u m en t is u sefu l in p o wer -cr itica l a n a ly sis, wh ich lo oks b eyo n d th e tech n ica lities a n d o fficia l r h eto r ic: th e r esea r ch o f th e sy m b o lic d im en sion s o f o fficia l a ctio n s. An a ly sis o f sy m b o lism ‘exp o ses th e wa y s in wh ich o fficia l a cto r s u se p o wer fu l la n gu a ge a n d o th er sy m b o lic to o ls to sh a p e in ter p r eta t io n s o f even ts a n d a ch ieve th eir en d s.’ (‘t Ha r t 1 9 9 3 :8 5 ). In th e d isco u r se a n a ly tica l sectio n o f th is r esea r ch , in ter p r eta tive r ep er t o ir es will b e a n a ly sed o n b o th th eir co n ten t a n d sy m b o lism . Pa r t o f d isco u r se a n a ly sis a im s to exa m in e th e sy m b o lica l la y e r , th e im p licit u lter io r m o tives a n d co n seq u en ces o f th e em p lo y m en t o f a cer t a in la n gu a ge. It d o es so b y d eco n str u ctin g th e r ep er to ir e a n d tr y in g to la y b a r e its b a sic p r em ises.

Wh en fo r in sta n ce, we co m e a cr o ss th e fo llo win g fr a gm e n t: “It is an eco n o m ic calcu latio n fo r m an y p eo p le [Mu slim im m igr a n ts] to co m e to th e Neth erlan d s. Pen n iless o v er th ere, w elfare o v er h e re. (… ) Is it th en stran ge , th at w e w o n d er h o w m u ch th at leftist h o b b y

[r efer en ce to im m igr a tio n ] is co stin g u s, th at w e also m ak e an eco n o m ic calcu latio n . If th ey d o it, w h y d on ’t w e th en ?” [Or igin a l em p h a sis].1 _{It is h elp fu l to lea r n a b o u t th e b u ild in g b lo cks o f a fr a m e}

th a t p r o d u ces su ch p h r a ses. By d eco n str u ctin g th is exa m p le, we lea r n th a t 1 ) th er e is a n ‘o th er ’ (th ey ) wh o a r e in h er en tly d iffer en t th a n u s (we, u s); 2 ) wh o co m e to th e Neth er la n d s so lely fo r m o n ey ; 3 ) wh ich is a b a d th in g b eca u se it ‘is co stin g u s’; 4 ) h elp in g th ese p eo p le is a ‘leftist h o b b y ’ – clea r ly a n u n d esir a b le fea tu r e a s well. Cisn er o s (2 0 0 8 ) h a s exp la in ed h o w su ch p o r tr a y a ls a r e n o t fr ee o f r isk, a s ‘th ey in fo r m so ciety ’s r ela tion sh ip to im m igr a n ts a n d th ey in flu en ce th e d ir ectio n o f p u b lic p o licy o n im m igr a tio n ’ (Cisn er o s, 2 0 0 8 ; 5 9 1 ).

Th e lin gu istic d eco n str u ction a n d a n a ly sis o f a n excer p t p r o vid es d eta iled in sigh t in to th e wa y a fr a m in g is co n str u cted , a n d th u s in to h o w a cr isis m a y b e co n str u cted . It b r in gs u s to th e ty p e o f r esea r ch th a t ‘t Ha r t (1 9 9 3 ) co n d u cts. Th e b a sic p r em ises tea ch a b o u t id en tity , va lu es a n d a ctio n s: we lea r n wh o we a r e, wh o th ey a r e, wh a t we sta n d fo r a n d h o w we p r o tect o u r va lu es. Th e lin gu istic d eco n str u ctio n o f th e d iffer en t r ep er to ir es p r o vid es a m o r e co m p lete o ver view.

2.6 Legitimization and polarization

Ad o p tin g th e co n cep t o f Rey es (2 0 1 1 ;7 8 1 ), legitim iza tio n ‘r efer s to t h e p r o cess b y wh ich sp ea ker s a ccr e d it o r licen se a ty p e o f so cia l b eh a vio u r ’. Acco r d in g to Rey es, ‘it seem s p la u sib le th a t cer ta in co r e str u ctu r es o f legitim iza tio n r esp o n d to co gn itive str u ctu r es th a t h a ve b een n a tu r a lized th r o u gh tim e in o u r p sy ch e, wh ic h we a ll sh a r e a s so ciety ’ – e.g., th e d efin itio n s o f wh a t is r igh t a n d wh a t is a p p r o ved o f a r e so cio cu ltu r a l p r o d u cts. Legitim iza tio n is p a r ticu la r ly im p o r t a n t in p o litica l d isco u r se, a field th a t is fo r em o st co n cer n ed with co n vin cin g in ter lo cu to r s.

1

Rey es id en tifies five d iffe r en t legitim iza tio n str a tegies: 1 ) th r o u gh em o tio n s; 2 ) th r o u gh a h y p o th etica l fu tu r e; 3 ) th o u gh r a tio n a lity ; 4 ) vo ices o f exp e r tise; a n d 5 ) a ltr u ism (Rey es 2 0 1 1 ;7 8 6 ). Th ese str a tegies m u st legitim ize th e id eo lo gica l p o sitio n o f th e sp ea ker , a n d m u st co n vin ce th e a d d r essee o f th e p r o p o sa ls th e sp ea ker m a kes. Th e fir st str a tegy co n sists o f a n a p p ea l to em o tio n s to in flu en ce th e a u d ien ce’s view. By m a kin g clea r d istin ctio n s b etween r igh t a n d wr o n g, o r go o d a n d evil, a sp ea ker ca n a c co m p lish to r ep r esen t cer ta in so cia l a cto r s a s o p p o n en ts th a t sh ou ld n o t b e su p p o r ted . Th e seco n d str a tegy m a y fo r in sta n ce o ccu r in th e co n str u ctio n o f a cr isis; th e a d d r essee is wise to len d su p p o r t to th e sp ea ker in o r d er to p r even t a cr isis in th e n e a r fu tu r e. Legitim iza tio n th r ou gh a n a p p ea l to r a tio n a lity is ver y p o wer fu l a n d o m n ip r esen t in p o litics. Acts o f p er su a sio n a r e in vigo r a ted b y sa y in g th a t len d in g su p p or t is r a tio n a l, a n d o p p o n en ts a r e d iscr ed ited o n th e sa m e b a sis. Th e fo u r th str a tegy stem s fr o m a n a p p ea l to a u th o r ity , wh ich m u st co n vin ce a d d r essees, a n d fin a lly th e fifth str a tegy o f a ltr u ism is to sh o w th a t (o r m a ke it a p p ea r so ) ta kin g a cer ta in co u r se o f a ctio n is h elp in g th ose o f lesser fo r tu n e.

Str a tegies o f legitim iza tio n p r o vid e va lu a b le in fo r m a tio n o n th e id eo lo gica l b a ckgr o u n d o f a p o litica l a cto r . Mo r eo ver , th e legitim iza tio n th r ou gh a h y p o th etica l fu tu r e h a s in ter fa ces with th e co n str u ctio n o f a cr isis. Next to str a tegies o f legitim iza tio n , th e sta n d p o in ts o n top ics th a t co n cer n s o ciety a r e exp r essio n s o f id eo lo gy .

Ja co b s (1 9 9 8 ) id en tified fo u r m a jo r d isco u r ses in Du tch p o litica l d eb a tes o n im m igr a tio n a n d in tegr a tio n . He co d ed th em b y with la b els o f citizen sh ip a s p o sited b y Ca stles (1 9 9 4 ); ‘a ssim ilia tio n ist exclu sio n a r y , a ssim ilia tio n ist in clu sio n a r y , p lu r a list in clu sio n a r y a n d p lu r a list exclu sio n a r y ’ (Ja co b s 1 9 9 8 ; 3 5 8 ). Ju st a s th e d isco u r ses th a t wer e id en tifie d in th is r esea r ch , ‘it is n o t im p o ssib le to see th em b ein g u sed a lter n a tively b y th e sa m e a cto r s in sh o r ts

ep iso d es o f d iscu ssio n ’ (Ib id .). In th e stu d y o f Ja co b s, th e ter m s im p lied a fa vo u r a b le (in clu sio n a r y ) or u n fa vo u r a b le (exclu sio n a r y ) a ttitu d e to wa r d s im m igr a tio n , a n d p r o vid ed in fo r m a tio n a b o u t o n e’s p o sition o n in tegr a tio n ; a ssim ila tion ist p la ces r esp on sib ility to in tegr a te with th e im m igr a n t, wh er ea s p lu r a list p r esu m es a sh a r ed r esp o n sib ility o f b o th a llo ch th o n e a n d so ciety . Th is r esea r ch lim its its sco p e to th e in clu sio n a r y a n d exclu sio n a r y ch a r a cter o f d isco u r ses, a s th e a ssim ila tio n ist a n d p lu r a list a r e n o t well a p p lica b le to a ll ca ses. It tells u s som eth in g a b o u t th e id eo lo gica l sta n ce o f th e p o litica l a cto r , a n d th u s is u sefu l fo r a n swer in g h y p o th esis (3 ) o n Va n Dijk’s th eo r y .

It wa s m en tio n ed ea r lier h o w co n cer n s a n d d isp lea su r e h a ve b een exp r essed in th is r e sp ect. Po liticia n s r efe r r ed to th e t o n e o f th e d eb a te; o ften th ey sp oke in ter m s of ‘m o d er a tio n ’, ‘ca u tio n ’ a n d ‘d ecen cy ’. Th ey m en tio n ed th e d ich o to m o u s wo r kin gs o f p o la r isa tio n a n d in fla m m a to r y la n gu a ge. Acco r d in g to p sy ch o lo gist Ca r sten d e Dr eu (2 0 0 9 ) “[co n flicts] ca n co n tr ib u te t o lea r n in g, cr ea tivity , in n o va tiven ess a n d q u a lity o f a d ecisio n m a kin g p r o cess.” Th is ca n h a p p en o n ly u n d er cer ta in co n d itio n s, b u t p o la r isa tio n a n n u ls th ese co n d itio n s. With in a d iscu ssio n , p eo p le a r e p o sitio n ed o n o p p o sin g en d s o f a sp ectr u m o f ‘p o la r isa tio n ’. Cen tr a l to th e issu es with p o la r iza tio n lies th e cla sh b etween d iffer e n t views on wh a t p r o b lem s th er e a r e in th e wo r ld , h o w th ese p r o b lem s sh o u ld b e so lved , a n d h o w we m u st in ter a ct with ea ch o th er to co m e u p with so lu tio n s. Th e d em o cr a tic p o litica l d eb a te is p r e -em in en tly th e d o m a in wh er e p eo p le with d iffe r en t wo r ld views co m e t o geth er to fin d so lu tio n s fo r issu es; in d o in g so , th ey d ep en d o n o th er p o litica l a cto r s fo r th eir su ccess.

2.7 Dominance and authority in speech acts

Fr a n cesca D’Er r ico a n d Isa b ella Po ggi (2 0 1 0 ) h a ve exa m in ed d o m in a n ce sign a ls in d eb a tes, a n d p r o vid ed a m eth o d o f q u a lita tive a n a ly sis o f d o m in a n ce. Th ey d efin e d o m in a n ce a s “a d y n a m ic

co m m u n ica tive a ct b a sed o n a r ela tio n , b y m ea n s o f wh ich a n in d ivid u a l exe r ts p o wer o r in flu en ce o ver a n o th er in d ivid u a l” (Po ggi & D’Er r ico , 2 0 1 0 ; 1 6 4 ). Th ey fo u n d sever a l str a tegies to sh ow d o m in a n t: “a ggr essive o n es [su ch a s] im p er io u sn ess, ju d gem en t, in va sio n , n o r m vio la tio n a n d d efia n ce (…); su b tle o n es like to u ch in ess a n d victim h o o d (…); d ista n cin g o n es o f h a u gh tin ess a n d o th er wa y s (…) like ir o n y a n d r id icu le, ea sin ess, ca r ele ssn ess a n d a sser tiven ess” (Poggi & D’Er r ico , 2 0 1 0 ; 1 7 3 ). Th e in ter p r eta tive r ep er to ir es will b e scr u tin ized o n d o m in a n ce sign a ls. Th eir p r esen ce is a n im p o r ta n t p r o p er ty o f in ter p r et a tive r ep er to ir es, a s a sser tin g d o m in a n ce o ver o th er a cto r s is r eq u isite in effectu a tin g a u th o r ity .

As it is a d eb a te, it co n sists o f m u ltip le a cto r s th a t en ga ge in sp eech a cts to a ch ieve a gr eem en t. Th ey en ga ge in a d y n a m ic ve r b a l p r o cess o f co lla b o r a tio n a n d co n testa tio n . Su ccess d ep en d s o n th e a b ility to str ike a b a la n ce b e tween a sser tin g d om in a n ce o ver th e n a r r a tive o f th e o p p o n en ts. Th is r ela tes to d isp la y in g a u th o r ity in a co n vin cin g fa sh io n , wh ich h a s b een th e s u b ject o f p r e vio u s stu d ies ( see Bo o m ga a r d en & Vr eese 2 0 0 7 ; Va n Dijk 2 0 0 2 ,2 0 0 6 ,2 0 0 9 ; Ha jer & La ws 2 0 0 6 ; Ha jer & Uiter m a r k 2 0 0 7 ; Ha jer & Ver steeg 2 0 0 9 ; ‘t Ha r t 1 9 9 3 ; La ws & Ha jer 2 0 0 6 ).

An o th er level o f a n a ly sis th a t is im p o r ta n t fo r th is th esis in clu d es t h e r esea r ch o n sy m b o lic exp r essio n s a n d id eo lo gica l u n d er p in n in gs o f sp eech a cts (‘t Ha r t 1 9 9 3 ), o n sign a ls o f d o m in a n ce in d eb a tes (Po ggi & D’Er r ico 2 0 1 0 ), a n d o n t h e issu e o f legitim iza tio n in p o litica l sp eech a cts (Va n Dijk 2 0 0 6 b ; Va n Leeu wen & Wo d a k 1 9 9 9 ; Rey es 2 0 0 8 , 2 0 1 1 ; Ro jo & Va n Dijk 1 9 9 6 ). Th ese th eor ies p r o vid e in fo r m a tio n o n wh a t co u ld b e ca lled ‘to o ls’ o f p o litica l d isco u r se. Th ey ser ve a s a d d itio n a l su p p o r t a n d m ea n s to ga in in sigh t in to th e h y p o th eses, wh ich a r e exp la in e d b elo w.

Ha vin g set o u t th e wo r kin g d efin itio n s o f th e co n cep ts, it is n o w clea r th a t in o r d er to a n swer th e h y p o th eses, we h a ve to lo o k fo r

p a r ticu la r elem en ts in sp eech a cts. Th e la n gu a ge in p o litica l d eb a tes will h a ve to b e a n a ly sed o n th e a p p ea r a n ce o f co n str u ctio n o f cr isi s, o n id eo lo gica l b a ckgr o u n d a n d o n d isco u r se co a litio n s b y d iffer en t p o litica l a cto r s. Th eo r ies o n legitim iza tio n , p o la r iza tio n , d o m in a n ce, a n d a u th o r ity in p o litica l sp eech p r o vid e gu id a n ce in id en tify in g wh a t r ep er to ir es a r e b ein g em p lo y ed b y wh a t p o lit ica l a cto r , a n d in to th eir id eo lo gica l b a ckgr o u n d s. Th e n ext ch a p ter will a d d r ess th e m ea n s to d o so ; it d escr ib es m eth o d o lo gica l p a r t o f th is r esea r ch .

3. Context

Th e d eb a tes o f th e ca se stu d ies a r e a ll em b ed d ed in a la r ger co n text o f glo b a l m igr a tio n a n d its co n seq u en ces. Th e d eb a te o n im m igr a tio n a n d in tegr a tio n h a s a lo n g h isto r y , b u t sp a ce p r o h ib its a to o exten sive over sigh t. Ho wever , it is n ecessa r y to p r o vid e in fo r m a tio n o n th e Du tch h isto r ica l co n text o f im m igr a tio n a n d in tegr a tio n to u n d er sta n d th e b a ckgr o u n d to wh ich th e co n tem p o r a r y d eb a tes ta ke p la ce.

3.1 Historical context

In th e wa ke o f th e Seco n d Wo r ld Wa r , im m igr a n t wo r ker s wer e b r o u gh t in fr o m a b r o a d to Eu r o p ea n co u n tr ies to h elp with th e r eco n str u ctio n . See ger s’ stu d y (2 0 0 7 ) o n th e tr a n sfo r m a tio n o f th e Du tch p o litica l d eb a te o n im m igr a tio n a n d in tegr a tio n p r o vid es a n exten sive a cco u n t o f th e h isto r ica l co n text .

In th e 1 9 7 0 ’s, go ver n m en t p o licy o n im m igr a tio n wa s b u ilt o n th e a ssu m p tion th a t la b o u r m igr a n ts wo u ld even tu a lly r et u r n to th eir n a tive co u n tr ies (Seeger s, 2 0 0 7 :1 5 ). In tegr a tio n wa s a m a tter o f m a kin g m igr a n t gr o u p s fit in Du tch so ciety , n o t h a vin g th em a d a p t to th e n ew en vir o n m en t. To ler a n ce o f th e m igr a n t’s cu ltu r a l exp r essio n with in Du tch so ciety wa s p r o p a ga ted . Du r in g t h e 1 9 8 0 ’s, th e go ver n m en t gr a d u a lly a b a n d o n ed th e a ssu m p tio n o f r em igr a tio n . With t h is a wa r en ess ca m e a r esp o n sib ility to m a ke n ew p o licy ; th is m a r ked th e b egin n in g o f p o licy m a kin g o n th e in tegr a tio n o f m igr a n ts in th e Neth er la n d s. Pr eser va tio n o f id en tity wa s a m a in th em e in th e ea r ly d evelo p m en t o f in tegr a tio n p o licy ; in gen er a l th er e wa s u n d er sta n d in g fo r th e d ifficu lty o f m igr a n ts ca u gh t b etween d iffer en t cu ltu r es (Va n Mee ter en 2 0 0 5 ; Du y ven d a k 2 0 0 6 ). It is in th is p er io d o f tim e t h a t th e Neth er la n d s b eco m es d efin ed a s h a vin g a m u lticu ltu r a l so cie ty .