The growing role of the Pallikaranai Marshland in Flood Events

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The growing role of the Pallikaranai

Marshland in Flood Events

Perception of different actors on the role of the Pallikaranai marshland in flood events, especially during the floods of December 2015, Chennai, India.

27-6-2016

Supervisor: Jaap Rothuizen Author: Laura van Wetering

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Acknowledgements

To many individuals I owe thanks for their help, advice, information, personal reminiscence and encouragement.

To: Jaap Rothuizen, who read the concept paper and whose comments, suggestions and encouragement were immensely helpful.

To my contact persons and people interviewed in Chennai, India:

Dr. L. Venakatachalam, Mr. Thirunaranan, Mr. Ramadoss, Dr Jayshree Vencatesan, Mr. Srinivasalu, Mr. Srinivasan, Dr M. V. Ramana Murthy, Prof. A. Lakshmi.

To the students from the Anna University in Chennai, India, who helped with general information and explanation of the city of Chennai.

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Introduction

India is one of the countries in the world that is urbanizing rapidly with cities growing fast. Chennai these rapidly expanding cities with a population of approximately 4,5 million people that is growing in a variety of sectors, such as the industrial, educational and health sectors (Krishnamurthy and Desouza, 2014). The growth of these sectors attracts laborers into the city who are in search of jobs, causing a steady increase in population size and putting pressure on the demand for housing. This increase in human settlements, industrial growth and infrastructure development causes the rapid urbanization of cities. According to Malalgoda, Amaratunga and Haigh (2014) one of the major challenges for cities includes increased density, which influences land and services. This is also the case in Chennai, because the city has a topographically plain terrain and experiences an average of 1300 mm of annual rainfall, especially during October to December (Gupta & Nair, 2010). The city lacks natural gradient for free runoff, which necessitates an effective storm water drainage system. But experts at the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) mentioned that rapid urbanization has destroyed natural drainage systems, making the city vulnerable to flooding (CSE, 2015) and according to Vasudeva for the Hindu newspaper (2015) the excessive construction leads to poor recharge of groundwater aquifers and the blocking of natural drainage systems. During recent extreme weather events in December of 2015, Chennai experienced heavy rainfall causing the city to flood. According to Vasudeva (2015), damage could be prevented if the city had paid adequate attention to the natural water bodies that exist in them. One of those water bodies is the Pallikaranai marsh, situated in the southern part of the city of Chennai and it is one of the last remaining natural wetlands in South India (Drescher et al., 2007). It has been significantly reduced in size which is due to construction and urbanization around the edges of the marsh (SIAUDF, n.d.). The natural drainage capacity of the wetland is being disrupted, causing flooding in the city (Swaminathan, 2015).

This research focuses on water management and urbanization in and around Chennai city, especially around the Pallikaranai wetland. It also looks at the perception of different actors, such as researchers and activists, and what they think can be done to prevent future damage due to flooding. In this research the main focus is on the different opinions of different actors regarding changes surrounding Pallikaranai in the aftermath of the 2015 December floods. These different opinions are being researched following the framing theory presented by Benford & Snow (2000). This information provides the following research question: What are differences in the view of researchers, activists and media regarding Pallikaranai Wetland in the aftermath of the 2015 December Floods in Chennai, India?

In this research there will first be an explanation of important concepts used in this research. Different terms will be addressed and explained. Following this, the methodology of the research will be explained. In this chapter an overview of the study area will be given, the used research methods will be explained and the data collection methods will be mentioned. After that the context of the Pallikaranai Marsh and its current situation will be given. In this chapter there will also be a reconstruction of the recent December floods. The following chapter focuses on the perception and views of different actors regarding the Pallikaranai Marsh, giving information based on the interviews with these different actors. Finally, the research will end with a discussion and an overall conclusion.

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Theoretical Framework

This chapter will focus on the different concepts used in this thesis. First the concept of urbanization and a growing population will be discussed and its relation to the Pallikaranai marsh. Secondly the term Wetland will be further elaborated on in order to create a clear image of what it actually is. Lastly the term framing will be elaborated on and it will be explained how this term is of use in this research.

Urbanization

In the near future, almost two thirds of the world population will live in urban areas, making urbanization one of the most prominent mechanisms present (Vlahov & Galea, 2002). Managing this growing urban population will be one of the main challenges in the next few decades (Brockerhoff, 2000). What is important is that urban population growth is described by two measures: the level of urbanization and the rate of urban growth (ibid.). The rate of urban growth indicates the number of persons added to an urban population during a year per 100 urban dwellers and the level or urbanization and represents the share of a country’s total population that lives in urban areas (ibid.).

The definition of urban and urbanization varies widely from country to country, making it difficult to name one definition. According to Vlahov and Galea (2002) urbanization refers to a change in size, density and heterogeneity of cities. It involves the process of the emergence and growth of cities and factors such as population mobility, segregation and industrialization accompany urbanization. If in this thesis the term urbanization is mentioned, this is what is referred to. In India, where 1/6th_{of the world population resides, at the moment 70% of the population lives in} rural areas. But it is expected that by 2030 the population will grow with enormous amounts, making the population of India in 2030 the combined total populations of the United States, Russia, and Japan (Brockerhoff, 2000). In the picture below one can see that the amount of people living in urban areas in India will grow enormously in 2030. This growing population will have enormous effects on the areas where these people live in, making sure these people have access to the basic necessities to survive, like food and water. Large amounts of food are needed to feed this growing population, which influences agriculture and its role to produce enough food. Also, enough fresh water is needed to make sure people have access

to clean drinking water. With growing populations, also around coastal and non-coastal wetlands, the hydrological regime changes, having an impact on water quality (Lee et al., 2006). These growing populations and their growing need for food and water puts enormous pressure on the environment.

Figure 2 - Projected Urban and Rural Populations 2000 and 2030. Source: Brockerhoff, 2000

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6 Problems with rapid urbanization as mentioned before focus on the crunch of space in these fast growing cities. As this crisis regarding space in the city increases, the building of illegal structures and violation of building restrictions is more common (The Hindu, 2015). The newspaper the Hindu (2015) mentions the following

“The lack of a balanced approach to urban planning and the inability to implement and enforce the existing regulatory framework has resulted in haphazard and unchecked development.”

The newspapers also mention that some major laws regarding real estate regulation still have to be implemented, causing Chennai, and India in general, to lag behind when it comes to overcoming problems with illegal building and housing. People connected with this illegal housing end up in slums, mostly situated on the outskirts of the city. They end up in areas such as the Pallikaranai Wetland, causing problems in this area and to the wetland itself. In the next subchapter, it will be explained what a wetland is and of what importance they are.

Importance of Wetlands

According to Patnaik, Srihari and Anand (2010) wetlands are defined as areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters. They also mention that wetlands retain water during dry periods, maintain the water table of a certain area, remove silt and most importantly, control floods. Wetlands also are an important area for wildlife and make sure a variety of different species can live in this area. They are biologically diverse and provide habitats for different species of animals and plants. Next to being ecologically diverse, they can also have a commercial and recreational role and deliver indirect services to the local population (Lee et al., 2006). Other important ecological services are flood storage and water quality maintenance (Faulkner, 2004).

It is very important to protect wetlands and their vital roles, but they are often used for a number of destructive and consumptive reasons such as waste dumping, reclamation of land for building purposes and dredging for navigational channels and canals. All over the world, wetlands are under pressure from rapidly increasing urban populations in coastal areas (Lee et al., 2006). Ongoing urbanization is a major cause for the loss of coastal wetlands, and wetlands in general (ibid.). The impact of urbanization on wetlands is mainly through alteration of the hydrological and geomorphological processes such as a decrease in surface water storage, loss of water quality, decrease in groundwater recharge and alterations in shape and size (ibid.). Fragmentation and loss of wetland ecosystems can impact flora and fauna in the area, but it can also impact the hydrological regime of the wetland, causing problems in times of flooding in the area.

Causes and impact of Floods

In addition to the previous subchapter, Floods is another important concept when looking at the case of Chennai.

According to Gupta and Nair (2010) floods result from “the overflow of land areas, temporary backwater effects in sewers and local drainage channels, creation of unsanitary conditions, deposition of materials in stream channels during flood recession, rise of ground water coincident with increased stream flow and other geo-environmental influences”. When taking this definition into account, India witnessed increased flooding in the recent past (Gupta & Nair, 2010). Floods

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7 occur because of changes in the hydrology of a certain area. In the table below one can see different causes of floods in Chennai according to Lavanya (2012). Increase in rainfall due to global climate change influences the peak flow that the area should transport into the sea. Urbanization as a direct cause is mainly because of encroachment around water bodies. Urban infrastructure reduces the rain water carriage capacity of the few existing water ways, causing the city to flood (Lavanya, 2012). The reduction of existing water bodies due to this urbanization reduces the water holding capacity of the city’s surface. Also the increase in concrete spaces increases the surface run-off and reduces the retention capacity if the land cover (Gupta & Nair, 2010). When looking at Chennai, it is a low lying, flat area, which lack natural gradient for free run-off.

Lavanya (2012) mentions a number of different types of factors. The first is an improper and inadequate drainage system. According to Gupta & Nair (2010) the city of Chennai only has 855 km of storm drains, which is not enough. This in combination with poor maintenance induces floods in the city. A second factor is the disposal of waste, which has a major influence on the drainage system of the city. Extended observations of, not just the area of Pallikaranai, but of the whole of Chennai shows lots of solid on the street in the form of plastics. This solid waste disposal in the streets and water bodies causes blockage of water ways, increasing the change of flooding. Such factors need to be addressed and tackled in order to solve the problem of flooding, or at least reduce the change of flooding. The table below lists these factors.

Causes of Chennai Floods according to Lavanya (2012). Causes Types of Factors Elements

Direct

Factors Increase in rainfall Urbanization Due to global climate change Encroachment of all water bodies, wetlands, etc. Construction of transportation networks all along the major watercourses

Increase in concrete spaces which stops percolation of water into the ground

Decrease in open areas/green spaces

Lack of transportation facilities (esp. in slums) Topography Plain terrain lacking natural gradient for free run-off

Indirect

Factors Inadequate & poor drainage systems Sewage systems were planned originally before 4 decades and only few minor modifications made which is far below the required capacity

Heavy siltation all along the drainage channels Lack of coordination between agencies Disposal of solid waste

& other debris

Attitude of people

Lack of management measures by agencies Vehicle parking on

roads Increase in concrete spaces Discrepancies between public & local authority Table 1 - Cases of the Chennai Floods according to Lavanya (2012).

This table mentions these factors that may have caused flooding in the city of Chennai. What emerges from this table is that there is not one view in which people look at the causes for the floods. Different types of factors play a role in the flooding of Chennai. It is not just an increase in rainfall which makes the city flood. Other factors such as the topography of the city and other

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8 indirect factors such as poor drainage systems, disposal of solid waste and an increase in concrete spaces cause flooding. What is important here is that these different types of factors mentioned are based on different ideas from different people or groups. These groups see problems on different levels and places, creating this large table of causes for floods.

Different frames and perceptions

In social sciences, the concept of framing is a much used term. The concept of framing that is used in the study of social movements is based on the definition of framing defined by Goffman (1974). Goffman defines framing as “schemata of interpretation that enable individuals to locate, perceive, identify and label occurrences within their life space and the world at large” (Benford & Snow, 2000: p614). The term framing was used in sciences such as psychology, communication and media studies and political science and policy studies (Benford & Snow, 2000; p611).

Framing was also used to further investigate collective action and the relation to framing, creating collective action frames, a term introduced by Benford and Snow (2000). According to Benford and Snow (2000), collective action frames are action-oriented sets of beliefs and meaning that inspire and legitimate the activities and campaigns of a social movement organization. Collective action frames are not just individual opinions about certain subjects, but they are a shared meaning of a certain group. Collective action frames can be divided into three component parts, referred to as the core framing tasks. These are; ‘diagnostic framing’, ‘prognostic framing’ and ‘motivational framing’. Diagnostic framing is used for he identification of the problem and who to blame for this problem. The responsibility may lie with a person or group, but can also be explained by certain phenomena. The second are prognostic frames, which suggest solutions, strategies and tactics to solve the problem. The last are motivational frames, which provides a rationale for engaging in collective action. This focuses on mobilizing people and the construction of appropriate vocabularies is a necessity. By using this framing method one can get a clear view of what the problem is, how it can be solved and how collective action can help to solve this problem.

Figure 3 - Core Framing Tasks. Source: Benford & Snow, 2000.

Framing can be used in qualitative and quantitative research. It can clarify why certain actors act a certain way. In this research it is useful to analyze the outcomes of the research according to these three frames to give an overview of where different actors see the problem surrounding Pallikaranai, and what they want to do to solve the problem. In this way, it helps to analyze the perception of different actors regarding the problems surrounding Pallikaranai Wetland. This perception can be divided according to the different frames mentioned earlier. Different actors can see different problems and different ways in which these can be solved.

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Methodology

Study Area1

The research location studied in this thesis is situated in the city of Chennai, on the south-east coast of India. The population of Chennai has grown 8 times its size since 1901(Gupta & Nair, 2010). The total population of Chennai in 2001 was approximately 4,3 million people and the city has registered a significant population growth in the recent decades (Kale & Joshi, 2012). The average population density is 6042 persons/km2_{, which is 19 times higher than the national average (ibid.).} This implies a very high population pressure on land and on the demand for housing and work, and thus on the construction of homes and offices, etc. In the figures below one can see the location of Chennai in India and the population density in the metropolitan area of Chennai. The approximate location of the Pallikaranai wetland, which is the specific studied area is in the southern part of the Chennai Metropolitan Area (CMR).

Figure 4 – Map of India with the location of Chennai. Source: U.S. Passports & International travel website.

1_{For more information on Pallikaranai Marsh and its ecological situation visit the following website:}

http://nammapallikaranai.org/

Figure 5 – Population density(persons/km2_{) in the metropolitan} area of Chennai in 2001. Source: Kale & Joshi (2012)

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Used Research Methods

The main research question of this research is formulated as:

What is the view of different actors regarding Pallikaranai Wetland in the aftermath of the 2015 December Floods in Chennai, India?

This main question has been divided into different sub-questions ◊ What is the current situation of the Pallikaranai Wetland?

◊ What happened during the floods in December 2015 in Chennai, India?

◊ What is the perception of different actors regarding Pallikaranai Wetland and its role during the floods and in the future?

This question can be divided into three different parts:

o Where do these actors see the problems regarding Pallikaranai Wetland (diagnostic framing)?

o What is done to suggest solutions, strategies and tactics to solve the problem (prognostic framing)?

o How the suggested solutions implemented (motivational framing)?

During this research a mix of qualitative and quantitative methods have been used in order to answer the mentioned questions. First of all, it is important to choose a research design. A research design provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data (Bryman, 2012; p.46). The basic case study design entails the detailed and intensive analysis of a single case (Bryman, 2012; p. 66). In this case, it was chosen to use a case study design, focusing on a specific place in Chennai, namely the Pallikaranai Wetland because of its ecological importance for the area. The research is focused on a specific location and the effects of a certain event on that place. This study is mainly a descriptive study and after choosing a research design and a specific case, a review of literature and theories relating the topic has been done to further look at the specific case.

Different methods were used to collect data concerning the Pallikaranai Wetland. A research method is simply a technique for collecting data (Bryman, 2012; p.46). The methods used during this research were a literature study, observations in the research area and semi-structured interviews. During the preparation of the research, a lot of literature study was done to get a clear image of the current situation and to collect background information. Topics like the ecological, physical and legal situation have been investigated to get a clear picture of the area. Next to information about the Pallikaranai Wetland, a large number of detailed news articles regarding the floods that happened in November and December of 2015 were studied. Reading about the floods and the consequences they had, helped to get a clear picture about the choices policy makers made regarding these floods. This literature research was helpful to get background information on the Pallikaranai Wetland and helped to create a timeline of the floods. Beforehand, a course at the University of Amsterdam, named India Lecture Series provided better insight in the country and relevant factors. During this course subjects like culture and political situations were elaborated on.

Data Collection

During the research different methods for the collection of data were used. First, literature study was still a large part of this, continuing with collecting more data provided by other researchers.

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11 Secondly, I personally visited and observed the Pallikaranai area. This gave a good impression of the area and helped to create a proper map. During these observations photographs were taken to illustrate how the area looked like. During these observations, Google Earth was also used to get a clear overview of the area and it also allowed insights in how the area changed over time.

Third, a large part of the research consisted of semi-structured interviews with people relevant to the subject. To select these people, a small population was selected to take a sample from due to my specific research question. Following my research question, the selected group consisted of activists, politicians and researchers familiar with the research area. This is a very specific and small group, and was a case of representative sampling. I personally selected the people I wanted to talk to. This in combination with snowball sampling, which is a form of convenience sampling. A convenience sample is one that is simply available to the researcher by virtue of its accessibility (Bryman, 2012; p202). According to Bryman (2012, p202) the researcher makes initial contact with a small group of people who are relevant to the research topic and then uses these to establish contacts with others. This is what is know as snowball sampling. During my research, this form of sampling has been used.

Bryman (2012) mentions that “The problem with snowball sampling is that it is very unlikely that the sample will be representative of the population”. But the snowball sampling method was used during the more qualitative part of the research, getting more in depth information about the subject. According to Bryman (2012) concerns about validity and the ability to generalize information are not that problematic during qualitative research as they do in quantitative research.

In the table presented below, one can see the people whom I spoke with, where I spoke with them and what their importance is for the research.

Semi-structured interviews with key-persons of interest for the research

Who? Where Importance to research

Mr. KVRK. Thirunaranan, Founder of the Nature Trust In the southern part of the Pallikaranai Wetland in a building of the Forest Department.

Mr. Thirunaranan knew very much about the Pallikaranai Wetland itself, giving vital information regarding the current situation of the marsh.

Mr. Ramadoss, A retired Ranger from the Forest Department of Chennai At the Forest Department Building in Chennai

Mr. Ramadoss worked for many years in the Pallikaranai area, and is still working with the Forest Department. Mr. L. Venkatachalam Professor at the Madras Institute of Development Studies At the Madras Institute for Development Studies

Professor Venkatachalam had extensive knowledge regarding the current situation of the Pallikaranai Marsh but also about the future perspectives of the marsh. He wrote papers for the government about the current situation of Pallikaranai Marsh.

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Vencatesan Care Earth Trust

At the Starbucks Dr. Vencatesan is one of the most important persons when looking at the Pallikaranai Marsh. She works for the Care Earth Trust and works very hard to protect the wetland. She also worked on a management plan for the protection of the marsh.

Mr. Srinivasalu & Student

Anna University This discussion was a useful discussion regarding the floods that happened in December 2015 in the city of Chennai. The discussion was mainly with the student about the floods in December 2015 and the effects on people. The student had done research to the local population and the impact of the floods. This gave a good impression of the floods and the garbage and dumping issues.

Mr. Srinivasan, Safe Pallikaranai Forum

At his residence Mr. Srinivasan is an activist at the Safe Pallikaranai Forum and knows a lot about the Pallikaranai Marsh and its current situation. He also knew a lot about the garbage problem in the area, affecting the wetland.

Dr M. V. Ramana

Murthy NIOT This was a conversation about the area and the recent floods.

A. Lakshmi, Anna University lecture

Anna University, after her lecture about on Coastal Disaster

Management

The lecture focused on the tsunami of 2004 and the floods of December 2015. After her lecture was finished, me and two other student asked some more questions about the floods of December. She gave useful information about people who we could contact and about what happened during the floods.

Difficulties and limitations Situation in Chennai

It should be taken into account that research in Chennai would be very different from research in the Netherlands. The political situation in Chennai influenced the research. The research period in Chennai was from 30th_{of March until the 15}th_{of May. During this period the State of Tamil Nadu} Elections took place, which lasted until the 16th_{of May. This limited the number of people available} and willing to talk to me. Because of the political situation it was especially difficult to speak with people from the government or governmental organizations. This forced me to adapt my research question.

I didn’t use the services of a translator during the research, because the people I wanted to speak to would be capable of speaking sufficient English. But during the research I did experience some problems with language. Although people could speak adequate English, their accent and use of words made it very difficult to have a normal and easy conversation. Related to this, was the issue of making appointments with people I wanted to speak to. I contacted a lot of researchers and other actors like activists through the mail, but it took a long time before they send me an answer or they answered by redirecting me to someone else. This slowed down the research, causing me to speak to less people than I expected. This also caused non-response, influencing the outcome of the research, but also its replicability. However, the people I did speak to provided me with a lot of information, and they were very helpful in providing me with even more information.

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13 Reliability

Reliability is concerned with the question of whether the results of a study are repeatable (Bryman, 2012, p: 46). It is concerned with issues concerning the consistency of measures and whether the outcomes of the research are reliable and representative for the whole population. It is very important to take reliability into account when looking at the research that is done. The population from which the subjects have been chosen is limited because of its specialization on the Pallikaranai area. Subjects selected for interviews need to have sufficient and specific knowledge about the area to be able to answer the question asked. Together with non-repsons the population is small but important. This should be taken into account though, when looking at the results of this research, because the population sample may not be representative for the overall population.

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Context and Reconstruction of the Floods

Floods

Reconstruction of the December Floods, 2015

Chennai is situated on the Coromandel Coast off the Bay of Bengal, located on the southeastern coast of India. The city of Chennai, located at 12 degrees’ northern latitude, is closer to the equator resulting in a tropical wet and dry climate with very little variation in temperature (Krishnamurthy & Desouza, 2015). Two major rivers pass through the city, namely the Cooum in the northern part and the Adyar River in the southern part. The Adyar river is most relevant when looking at the Chennai floods.

On average, Chennai receives approximately 1300 mm of rainfall per year (Gupta & Nair, 2010). Most of this precipitation falls during the northeast monsoon period in the months of October through December. The precipitation rate in this period is around 800 mm (ibid.). Because Chennai has a relatively flat terrain and the city lacks natural gradient for free run-off, the city demands an effective storm-drainage system, especially in combination with the monsoon period and the amounts of precipitation in that period (ibid.).

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15 In the period of November and December 2015, Chennai received exceptional amounts of water through consistent rains, which according to official data, started around the 8th_{of November.} According to Skymet data, during November, Chennai received 1218.6 mm of rain, which is three times its monthly rainfall, which is 407.4 mm (Skymet Weather, 2015). On December 1, 2015, 490 mm of rain fell in one day, making it the highest precipitation rate in 100 years in Chennai (BBC, 2015). With the rain continuing and Chennai under water, on December 2 Chennai was officially declared a a disaster zone with flood water at very high levels (IndiaToday, 2015). On December 2 different relief and rescue work started, helping the people in Chennai. The Indian Army, Navy and Air force helped authorities in their efforts (Indian Express, 2015). Also the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) and the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) helped in the time of flooding. Next to the different authorities, help was also offered by NGO’s and collective actions, such as volunteers, by providing shelter and giving away the basic necessities like food and water to people whom were in need (ibid.). With water starting to recede on the 4th_of December, still a lot of areas are submerged with short supplies of food and drinking water. In the following figure one can see a timeline of the major events that happened, according to official sources in newspapers, such as the Hindu. The timeline does not represent the amount of rain in mm, although the figure does suggest this. So the figure is not to scale. The horizontal line represents the time in days, and marks major events that happened during the time of the flooding. This timeline is based on official data as presented in a variety of news articles on the website of The Hindu.

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17 Mentioned causes for the December Floods

Different causes for the flooding were mentioned. Next to the presence of high precipitation rates the exceptionally strong El Nino can be blamed in combination with other events.

A first important factor in the Chennai floods was the Chembarambakkam lake upstream of the Adyar river. Authorities were forced to release excessive amounts of water out of the Chembarambakkam lake into the Adyar river, causing it to flood its banks and submerge neighborhoods on both sides of the river. 29 000 cusecs to be precise according to the Hindu (2015). When too much water is released in a short period, the Adyar River floods its banks, submerging residential areas and other parts of Chennai. This is what is believed to have happened on December 1 and 2, 2015. Professor S. Janakarajan from the Madras Institute of Development Studies in the newspaper the Times of India mentioned that the flooding of Chennai could have been averted by better management of water release (The times of India, 2015). The Chembarambakkam reservoir should not be looked at in isolation, but in relation to the downstream areas to prevent future flooding.

The second important factor, mentioned by different people, is that unregulated urban planning made matters worse. This case of urban land use change may affect the outcome of future flooding in Chennai. Different problems connected with unregulated urban planning can be identified; Uncontrolled urban sprawl of a growing population in combination with a loss of natural drainage (Gupta & Nair, 2010). With the growing population in Chennai, more and more people want to live within the city, causing pressure on infrastructure, such as roads and sewage, and on the demand for housing. The growing population caused an increase of slum dwellers on the river banks, which resulted in water pollution, but more importantly damage to sewage systems and natural systems (Krishnamurthy & Desouza, 2014). Urban sprawl located nearby water bodies is more likely to experience impact from the floods than urban sprawl located in other areas (Joerin et al., 2012). This makes the uncontrolled urban sprawl a larger problem when looking at future floods. Urbanization in flood plain areas, like Chennai, increases the risk of flooding due to the topography of the location (Suriya & Mudgal, 2011).

Choking of water exits, an increase in impervious surfaces and lack of maintenance (Gupta & Nair, 2010). Plastic and other solid forms of pollution choke existing water exits, leading to the congestion of storm water drainage system and blocking free water flow. This in combination with poor or no maintenance, of for example the Buckingham Canal and the banks of the river, aggravates floods in Chennai (ibid.). Also an important cause is the loss of nature due to urbanization and encroachment, causing the flood plain area to be reduced (Suriya & Mudgal, 2011).

All the problems mentioned above influence the water flow during the monsoon period in Chennai, causing the water flow regime to be affected. This has implications for the peak discharge of rivers in periods when this is necessary, increasing the change of future floods.

Pallikaranai Wetland

The Pallikaranai marsh is one of the few remaining natural wetlands of southern India. The marsh is part of the Chennai river basin running in the Chennai Plain and is located in the southern part of the city of Chennai (SIAUDF, n.d.). On the eastern side, the marsh is bound by the Old

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18 Mahabalipuram road and the Buckingham Canal, on the western side by Velachery Tambaram Main road, in the north the marsh is bound by Velachery village and in the southern part by Perumbakkam Main Road. It is surrounded by different residential areas such as Pallikaranai, Velachery, Perungudi and Madipakkam. The marsh had a spread of about 60 km2_{in the 1960s,} which has now been reduced to about 5,93 km2_{. The marsh drained about 250 km}2_{and was} historically a flood plain connected with numerous smaller wetlands and tanks upstream. The Pallikaranai marsh is situated in a low lying area, making it possible for water to stay in the marsh throughout the year. The marsh drains through Okkiyam Madavu in the southern part into the Buckingham Canal, which again drains into the Kovalam estuary more south of the city. In the picture below the outline of the marsh has been clearly indicated.

Figure 8 - Pallikaranai Wetland. Source: Google Earth, 2016.

The marsh has been reduced and fragmented due to different forms of construction, such as the building of residential complexes, IT corridors, the Perungudi dump yard and the construction of roads (SIAUDF, n.d.). The area has been split into two parts through the construction of a road, creating the northern part and the southern part of the marsh. The division of the marsh into two sections has consequences for the flow of water in marsh, namely because the outflow of water is in the southern part of the marsh and the inflow is mostly in the northern and western part. Due to all this construction, in the last 50 years a large portion of the marshland has been lost. The marsh is under severe human pressure, coming from all directions. On the picture above it is clear that the marsh is surrounded by high density urban areas.

The marshland gets most of its water during the monsoon period from October to December (Lavanya, 2012). This monsoon period is associated with depressions and frequent cyclones and

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19 the city receives about 1200-1300 mm of rain. Because of lack of good governance and uncontrolled construction activities there is a blockage of the drainage system of the Pallikaranai Marshland, causing a higher risk of floods when the monsoon comes (Drescher et al., 2007). The heavy rains in December 2015 also struck the Pallikaranai Marsh. The excess amounts of water were drained into the sea through the Buckingham Canal. During an interview it was mentioned that too much water was actually let into the sea after the rains stopped, causing the marshland to go dry (Personal Communication, April 18, 2016). This has implications for the bird populations that travel to Pallikaranai during their nesting period. It was observed by the Nature Trust that the birds moved away faster than normal in the year of 2016. There should always be some water in the marsh so that fish populations can reproduce in these shallow water, acting as food for the travelling birds. If too much water is let out of the marsh, these fish populations can’t reproduce, causing the birds not to migrate to the Pallikaranai area. This on its turn has implications for the ecosystem of the marsh itself.

On the 9th_{of April 2007 the southern part, which consists of 3,17 km}2_{, was declared a Reserve} Forest, making it a protected area (Vencatesan, 2007). Pallikaranai Marsh is one of the 115 wetlands identified under the National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP). According to the NWCP the areas that have been identified require urgent conservation and management initiatives (Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, n.d.).

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Different opinions on and insights in the Pallikaranai Marsh

This chapter focuses on the perceptions of the different actors surrounding the floods that happened in 2015, and its relation to the Pallikaranai Marsh. The analysis of these perceptions will be done through the framing theory, mentioned and described earlier in this research. Different actors surrounding Pallikaranai have been asked about their opinions about the problems surrounding Pallikaranai, but were also asked what they saw as future perspectives for the wetland, and how to solve the current problems. It is important to look at what can be done to prevent future flooding in the area, and what people want to do to prevent this.

An important actor in the protection and conservation of the Pallikaranai Marshland is the Care Earth Trust. This is a technical non-governmental organization, founded in the year 2000 with a clear mission; Conservation of Biology for human well-being through research, advocacy and capacity building (Care Earth Trust Website, 2015). The Care Earth Trust is, especially Jayshree Vencatesan, linked to the restoration of major wetlands, including Pallikaranai. The organization has a very clear image about what needs to be done in the Pallikaranai area. Other important actors are activists, asking attention for the wetland. Next to them, different professors who work closely with the government are very important actors influencing the situation of the Pallikaranai wetland. A last important actor in all of this is the media, and then namely the newspapers such as the Hindu. In this research the focus is on the newspaper the Hindu, because they published a flow of newspaper articles on the floods and the Pallikaranai Wetland. Newspapers are very important in conveying a message to the public. Also framing in important in this matter, because the framing of the information that is published influences the people reading the newspapers.

These three important actors, Care Earth Trust and activists, researchers and newspapers, are examined in the following chapter. This is done by using the framing method.

Diagnostic Framing

With diagnostic framing, the identification of the problem is an important step (Benford & Snow, 2000). Overarching issues are mentioned when looking at problems with the Pallikaranai area. The people in the sample group mention the same problems. They may have different opinions about the ranking of these problems. However, when implementing solutions, you would immediately run into people living and working in and around Pallikaranai who will clearly have different priorities.

The first problem mentioned is the presence of the Perungudi dump yard, but specifically the dumping of garbage in the Pallikaranai Wetland. The government accepts the dump yard and continues to accept it because there are no alternative sites to dump the garbage (Personal communication: Mr. Srinivasan, May, 2016). Different kinds of waste are being dumped onto the dump yard, such as solid waste like plastic bags, liquid or sewage waste from the city and also animal corpses. The waste that is being dumped contains harmful materials and has consequences for the health of people surrounding the marsh but it may also cause harm to the ecosystem of the marsh itself. The dumping of solid waste, which is burnt, causes smoke and air pollution which also causes health problems (Personal communication: Dr. L Venkatachalam, April 20, 2016). Next to this there is no good treatment for sewage waste, and the part that is being treated still pollutes the water areas (Personal communication: Dr. L. Venkatachalam, April 20, 2016). Also there is

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21 dumping of animal corpses, which contaminates the water in the Pallikaranai Wetland, having an impact on the ecological situation in the marsh.

Figure 9 - Burning of garbage at the Chennai Corporation's facilities at Kodungaiyur and Perungudi. Source: The Hindu, 2014. The second problem is that of rapid urbanization in Chennai. As mentioned earlier in this thesis, Chennai is urbanizing rapidly with a population growing by the day. According to a report of the UN written by G.K. Heilig (2012), it is expected that the urban agglomeration of Chennai will have a population of 12.8 million people in the year 2025. This has enormous implications for the environment because a lot of space is needed to make room for people to live in the metropolitan area of Chennai. A lot of this urbanization is being managed by the government, but a large part consists of illegal construction and it therefore unregulated urbanization (The Times of India, 2015). In the pictures below one can see the Pallikaranai area in February 2005, and in February 2014. It is clear that in 2005 the marshland was a lot larger and had more room to expand in times of flooding. In the picture of 2014, one can see the increased urbanization at the edges of the marsh. On the two pictures below it is very clear that the marsh has shrunk in size. The second picture shows the urbanization going on around the marsh. Especially in the southern part of the marsh a lot of changes have happened. It is clear that some construction is done in the southern part, causing it to shrink and become less ‘green’. Here the building of large IT corporations changed the topography, influencing the area and the birds that live there (Personal communication: Mr. Thirunaranan, April 18, 2016). Some parts of the marsh have stayed somewhat the same, this is because of the declaration that made it a Reserve Forest in 2007.

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22 What is a problem is that when the marshland is dry, people see the area as wasteland and people start building inside the marsh. This way the size of the marsh is reduced, affecting different species of birds an fish, but also of plants and other living organisms. Their habitat becomes smaller and smaller, which leads to the disappearance of species because of habitat changes. Another problem, in combination with this rapid urbanization is the construction of infrastructure. According to dr. Venkatachalam the road through the marshland is another problem. According to him it stops the water flow from the northern to the southern part of the marsh. In the northern part the marsh used to receive fresh water from the connected water bodies upstream. These upstream tanks which were connected with the marshland have been cut-off because of rapid urbanization. In times of flooding, water comes in through the northern part and can flow out through the southern part, which cannot happen because of the construction of the road.

Another problem is that of bad maintenance of waterways and water bodies. During an interview with dr. L. Venkatachalam from the Madras institute of Development Studies (Personal communication: Dr. L. Venkatachalam, April 20, 2016), he mentioned that the Buckingham Canal is not being maintained properly. There is a lot of sludge in the canal and it is encroached upon. This causes problems with the drainage of excessive amounts of water in the monsoon period. Upstream problems also influence the problems in Pallikaranai marsh. The upstream water tanks are well-connected with the Chembarambakkam lake, but these tanks are not properly maintained. These upstream tanks are used for water harvesting on the local level, but when heavy rains come, there are no storage facilities to hold the excess amounts of water in these local tanks. To prevent these tanks from flooding upstream, water is transferred to the Chembarambakkam lake, causing it to get full. Due to bad maintenance there was the risk of flooding of the lake, which is why water was let out of Chembarambakkam, causing the Adyar river to flood its banks and cause damage downstream (Personal communication: Dr. L. Venkatachalam, April 20, 2016). According to dr. Venkatachalam, water management of this lake is too much based on an engineering approach. So the main problems mentioned are the dumping of garbage in the Pallikaranai Marsh and the uncontrolled urbanization in combination with bad maintenance. What should be taken into account is that not just the Pallikaranai area should be looked at, but also problems upstream that

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23 can influence the downstream area. These problems influence the marsh and cause problems in times of flooding.

Prognostic Framing

In the prognostic framing part, it is important to think of solutions, strategies and tactics to solve the problems that were defined in the diagnostic framing part (Benford & Snow, 2000). The problems mentioned before are the problems of garbage dumping in the Pallikaranai marsh, the problem of ongoing, unregulated urbanization and the problem of bad maintenance of waterways and water bodies. Different actors mention different solutions for the problems that were written before. In this sub chapter these solutions, strategies and tactics are discussed.

The first important actor in the case of the Pallikaranai Marsh is Care Earth Trust. Care Earth Trust has been assigned the task of formulating a comprehensive Management Plan for conservation of the Pallikaranai Marshland on October 24, 2015 (Care Earth Trust Website, 2015). According to the website of the Care Earth Trust, the project is aimed at protection, restoration and conservation measures for the Pallikaranai Marshland. It also focuses on the development of a management plan with specific additions or modifications of the area to best preserve the area. Care Earth Trust mentions:

“In view of the significance and long term anthropogenic degradation of the Pallikaranai Marsh, it was recommended that while the first five years be considered as the building blocks for the process, definition of certain goals, notably those pertaining to habitat improvement need to be addressed in blocks of five years.” (Care Earth Trust, 2015, website).

Something that has already been done is that the authority over the marsh has been given to the Forest Department to protect the marsh. This prevented further encroachment of the marsh and caused some sort of ‘stagnation’ in the disappearance of the marsh (Personal communication: Mr. Ramadoss, Forest Department, April. 19, 2016). There are still some encroachments in the marsh which are prohibited and there are cases in court to get these encroachments out of the marshland (Personal communication: Mr. Ramadoss, Forest Department, April 19, 2016).

According to dr. Venkatachalam, there needs to be a change in water management, from an engineering based approach to a more interdisciplinary approach. Water management upstream, near Chembarambakkam is too much engineering based, causing engineers to choose between severe flooding due to the breaching of the dam, or less severe flooding downstream. Water management should also focus on better maintenance of the existing water bodies and drainage systems. One of these drainage system is the Buckingham Canal. This canal is connected to multiple rivers and the Pallikaranai marsh, making it a vital drainage canal for the city of Chennai. If this canal was properly maintained, the flood impact would have been less because the water could easily be transported to the sea (Personal communication: Dr. L. Venkatachalam, April 20, 2016). Something that different actors mention is that it is important to make citizens aware of the waste dumping problem and the importance of the wetland for the ecosystem. If people, on a local level, know what impact they have on the Pallikaranai marsh, they maybe make other decisions regarding their garbage and building actions. One example is the segregation of solid waste, but also the decision to not live near the Pallikaranai area. This way the marsh has ‘more room in times of flooding to expand’. This awareness creation should start at a younger age, teaching children the

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24 values of a wetland for the ecosystem of the city of Chennai, but also its function as a ‘flood-buffer’. People should know what the marsh can ‘provide’ them with, even though this can’t be seen directly with the eye, such as being a buffer zone during flooding.

Motivational Framing

Motivational framing provides a rationale for engaging in collective action (Benford & Snow, 2000). In this sub chapter the focus is on actions that have caused collective action surrounding Pallikaranai.

Actions that were taken regarding the Pallikaranai marsh was restoration work done by the Forest Department, which started in 2011 (Personal communication: Mr. Ramadoss, Forest Department, April 19, 2016). The Forest Department is doing restoration work in the marsh, such as planting trees and giving back more land to the marsh itself. The Hindu newspaper published, on July 23, 2012, that eco-restoration work was being done, and should be finished within 5 years, according to the earlier mentioned Management Plan. The restoration work will focus on increasing the roosting area for birds, but will also focus on improving the groundwater table in the residential locations surrounding Pallikaranai Wetland (The Hindu, 2012). Still a lot needs to be done to restore Pallikaranai (Personal Communication: Dr. L. Venkatachalam, April 20, 2016).

The floods made clear that something should be done to protect the Pallikaranai area, because the southern part of Chennai was severely hit by the floods. Still there are no changes in policies surrounding the Pallikaranai area to prevent future flooding. This is partly because people in and around Pallikaranai look at the floods as a ‘yearly event’ which is inevitable, this year’s rain was just more severe than usual (Personal communication: Dr. J. Vencatesan, Care Earth Trust, April 23, 2016). Dr. J. Vencatesan from the Care Earth Trust is in a dialogue to the government to see if changes can be made surrounding Pallikaranai. She mentioned that it takes a long time before improvements and changes can be made, especially during the election time which lasted until May 16, 2016. The political situation made it difficult to actually ‘get things done’.

The overall reaction to the question: Did the floods cause changes, for example in policies or collective action in and around Pallikaranai? is that there haven’t been many changes after the floods. During an interview it was mentioned that nothing changed in the aftermath of the floods of December 2015, only that it created awareness among people and politicians and that is showed that something should be done to prevent future flooding (Personal communication: Dr. L. Venkatachalam, April 20, 2016). It is mentioned that there is still a lot of room for improvement, but that it takes a long time before these improvements and changes can actually be made (Personal Communication: Dr. J. Vencatesan, Care Earth Trust, April 23, 2016). In the figure below, the conclusions of the three core framing tasks are presented.

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Conclusions

In the introduction it was mentioned that India is subject to very rapid urbanization. One of the major challenges for cities includes increased density, which influences land and services. Rapid urbanization in and around cities blocks and destroys natural drainage systems and leads to poor recharge of groundwater aquifers, which makes cities increasingly vulnerable to flooding. With the December 2015 flood fresh in the minds of the people in Chennai, it became clear that the city of Chennai is vulnerable to flooding. In this research the main research question was posed;

What are differences in the view of researchers, activists and media regarding Pallikaranai Wetland in the aftermath of the 2015 December Floods in Chennai, India?

The December floods of 2015 submerged the city with water, different causes and contributory factors for the flooding were mentioned next to the presence of high precipitation rates. A combination of upstream activity at the Chembarambakkam lake, unregulated urban planning and the choking of water exits caused the floods. Also the southern part of the city, where the Pallikaranai Marsh is located, has been severely hit by the December floods. Wetlands retain water during dry periods, maintain the water table of a certain area, remove silt and most importantly, control floods, which in this case didn’t happen properly.

During the research different actors were asked to give their opinion on the recent floods and the role that Pallikaranai played in this. At first they were asked where they saw problems regarding the Pallikaranai marsh. These problems were analyzed using core framing tasks as a guideline (Benford & Snow, 2000). Different actors mentioned different problems, but they all mentioned the rapid and uncontrolled urbanization in and around Pallikaranai as a major problem. Next to this garbage dumping at the Perungudi Dumpyard and bad maintenance of water ways and water bodies was mentioned. To solve these problems different solutions were mentioned such as creating awareness through education, prevention of future encroachment of the marsh, a change in water management and maintenance and the development of a Management Plan. Some of these solutions have been put into action, with the most important example being the development of a comprehensive Management Plan for conservation of the Pallikaranai Marshland, which focuses on the protection, restoration and conservation of the Pallikaranai Marsh. Also some restoration work is done in the Pallikaranai marsh, but in the aftermath of the floods, not much has changed and further action has been absent.

Overall conclusion

It is very important to protect wetlands and their vital roles, but they are often used for a number of destructive and consumptive reasons. It should be clear, certainly after the floods of December 2015, that wetlands have an important role when looking at holding excessive amounts of water in times of flooding. Further shrinking of the Pallikaranai wetland needs to be prevented in order to ensure the existence of the marsh. With the establishment of a Comprehensive Management Plan for the Conservation of the Pallikaranai Marsh, the city of Chennai is on its way to cause changes in and around Pallikaranai, but plans need to be implemented and more needs to be done to protect the Pallikaranai marsh. Even after the December floods, not much has changed because the floods are seen as a ‘one-time’ event. That public perception needs to be changed in order to cause major changes in policies and the protection of the important Pallikaranai Marsh.

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Discussion and recommendations for further research

That problems can be framed a certain way, does not mean that it is easy to get people into action. Decision making poses difficulties with the implementation of solutions for certain problems and political power and actions are important in the decision making process. Certain frames and opinions exist about what should be implemented to prevent future flooding, and although people agree with these frames, it still can be a problem to solve these problems.

When looking at the chapter about different insights and opinions it becomes clear that different actors, in this case researchers, activists and media, all mention kind of the same problems. The problems they mention focus on (unregulated) urbanization, the existence of the dump yard and bad maintenance of water bodies. These actors also mention solutions for these problems such as a comprehensive management plan for the marsh and the creation of awareness through education. But still, they also mention that only minor changes have been done to to improve the situation of the marsh. It seems logical to reason that the real problem lies with the implementation of changes in the Pallikaranai area, in this research also mentioned as the motivational framing part. One can think of several factors that affect the implementation process.

In the theoretical framework it is mentioned that urbanization involves the process of the emergence and growth of cities and factors such as population mobility, segregation and industrialization accompany this process. Urbanization can cause problems such as segregation and pressure on the environment which should be dealt with. The reduction of existing water bodies due to this urbanization reduces the water holding capacity of the city’s surface and this in combination with an improper and inadequate drainage system causes problems to the city. The problems that have been mentioned here can be linked to social problems, but also with political decision making.

One can argue that social problems, such as growth of the city of Chennai, conflicts with political decisions that the government has made. It is possible that there have not been many changes around Pallikaranai because residents of Chennai and the government set different goals. This makes that there are solutions to solve problems in the field, but that the implementation of these solutions are subordinated. It is possible that political goals focus on improving drainage systems and maintenance of existing and remaining water bodies, but also problems regarding the dump yard and collection garbage all through the city. In contrast to this, there is the focus of inhabitants of Chennai. Their specific focus has not been investigated in this research, but one can reason that inhabitants of a growing city focus on, for example, finding a decent job, obtaining sufficient income to sustain their livelihood and finding a place to live in an already crowded city. They possibly do not focus on the implications of their actions on the environment because of the other problems they face. This contradiction in objectives from inhabitants and the government can cause problems with implementation of solutions and it is very important to keep this ‘clash’ between social problems in the city of Chennai and political goals in mind when looking at implementation of solutions and regulations.

As mentioned in the theoretical framework, a problem with urbanization is that of illegal construction and a lot of inhabitants of Chennai end up in slums surrounding and in the city. This illegal construction can cause problems in the area such as the blockage of water ways, indirectly influencing the water flow in times of flooding. As mentioned earlier, major laws regarding real

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28 estate regulation still have to be implemented, causing Chennai to lag behind when it comes to overcoming problems with illegal building and housing. The politics in Chennai have a lot of problems to solve at the same time, causing some problems to possibly get priority. Other events can be of bigger importance and can overshadow other, maybe earlier problems. When looking at the Chennai December 2015 floods and the situation of the Pallikaranai Marsh, it is important to take into account that in the start of the following year, elections took place until the 16th_{of May} 2016. This had implications for the importance of changes surrounding the floods and Pallikaranai Marsh, because now attention shifted from the floods and problems with water bodies, to the events surrounding the elections and the voting process.

What becomes clear in this discussion is that the problems surrounding the implementation of solutions in the Pallikaranai area depend on different factors, such as the political situation and the social situation. An integrated approach is needed and the problems should be looked at from multiple disciplines.

Further research

This research gives a broad overview of the situation in the Pallikaranai Marsh in aftermath of the 2015 floods. Because it is a broad overview, it may be less useful to policy makers in the area of Pallikaranai because of a lack of in-depth information. On the other hand, it can be useful for people who are interested in the Pallikaranai Wetland and its role in future flooding. People for whom this research can be interesting are local residents of the Pallikaranai Wetland area. It is very important to think of residents of Chennai as the main drivers for change. Change starts with the actions of people living in the Pallikaranai Marsh area through collective action. This collective action is what’s missing at the moment. In the future, problem solving should focus on mobilizing larger groups of residents to make real changes in the area.

Further investigation could focus more on the problem solving side, and not just the description of the problems Pallikaranai is facing. This research gives an overview of problems surrounding Pallikaranai and future research should focus on how to solve these problems in order to create a more stable environment for future generations. Urban planning can be of great importance to solve problems regarding illegal construction and the protection of the Pallikaranai Marsh and is a subject on which more research should be done.

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The growing role of the Pallikaranai Marshland in Flood Events