Effects of the ?loverboy? dynamic on care structures for victims: analysis of practitioners? experiences in Flanders and the Netherlands

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EFFECTS OF THE ‘LOVERBOY’

DYNAMIC ON CARE STRUCTURES

FOR VICTIMS

ANALYSIS OF PRACTITIONERS’ EXPERIENCES IN FLANDERS

AND THE NETHERLANDS

Word count: 24 758

Vanoppen Janne

Student number: 01502670

Promotor and Supervisor: Dr. Verelst An & Adeyinka Sarah

A dissertation submitted to Ghent University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Social Work

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PREAMBULE CONCERNING COVID-19

Due to the limitations posed by the coronavirus with regards to social distancing, more interviews were conducted via telephone or video conference than intended. However, this way of conducting interviews had already been used a few times before the measures were implemented since sometimes a great distance between the researcher and the participant had to be bridged. Other than that, there were no implications for the elaboration of the master's thesis in question.

This preamble was drawn up in consultation between the student and the promotor/supervisor and was agreed upon by both parties.

Student: Vanoppen Janne Promotor: Dr. Verelst An Supervisor: Adeyinka Sarah

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PREFACE

After three years of a Bachelor in Educational Sciences and one year of a Master's in Social Work study, with a preparatory year in between, this master's thesis is the final chapter of my five years of study at the faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences at Ghent University - an intense but equally instructive trajectory wherein I was privileged to have been acquainted with different ways of thinking, subjects, people and perhaps even a different side of myself. The writing of this master's thesis was no different - an intense process, both intellectually and emotionally, with a lot of interesting insights as a final result.

Throughout this process, I have been supported by a lot of people around me, whom I hereby would like to thank. First of all, I would like to thank my promotor Dr. An Verelst and my supervisor Sarah Adeyinka, for the opportunity to turn my master's thesis into a relevant piece of work. It is only through their professional input, support, linguistic help, and useful and thorough feedback that I was able to get to where I am today. The way they worked together productively to guide me, especially taking into account the current unusual times, was of great added value. The corona measures have had therefore, a very minor influence on the outcome of my master's thesis, and I owe this in part to the professionalism and flexibility of my promotor and supervisor as they continued to assist me in alternative ways.

Also, I would like to warmly thank the sixteen participants for sharing their time, interest and enriching experiences. The frankness and honesty throughout the interviews allowed me to work with very intriguing findings. The smooth communication with these participants meant a lot to the progress of my research. Their flexibility in helping me in the most effective way possible with my data collection given the intense period of corona measures is also very much appreciated. After all, this allowed me to shape my master's thesis efficiently. In addition, I would like to thank Bram Antheunis of the Department of Welfare, Public Health and Family in Flanders and Janine van Rooden of the Ministry of Public Health, Welfare and Sport in the Netherlands. The communication I had with them provided some clarifying and additional insights about the current policy around the loverboy approach in Flanders as well as in the Netherlands.

I would also like to include my loved ones in this word of thanks. First of all, I would like to thank my family members for supporting me in writing my thesis, while sitting at home altogether. I would like to thank my mother, Annick, my father, Danny and my sister, Gitte for the space and peace they gave me so that I could productively go through the process. I would

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6 also like to thank them for their support and the ear they lent me, especially for those times when I did not make my gratitude apparent. I would like to specifically thank my sister for taking the effort to make the times we would simultaneously work on our school assignments and take breaks together so pleasant.

Last but not least, I would like to thank my friends and classmates, with whom I've shared joys and sorrows over the years. Some of them I have known since the beginning of the course, and others since the choice of the master’s degree. Nevertheless, all six of them have a very special place in my heart. I can't imagine my student years without them and also during the thesis process, although from a farther distance than I would have wished for, their friendship and support were indispensable. Thank you, Jasmijn, Valérie, Marie-Lou, Sien, Annelien and Emilie, for making the past five years unforgettable.

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ABSTRACT

Title: Effects of the ‘loverboy’ dynamic on care structures for victims: analysis of

practitioners’ experiences in Flanders and the Netherlands

Promotor: Dr. An Verelst Supervisor: Sarah Adeyinka

Degree: Master of Science in Social Work Academic year: 2019-2020

Name student: Vanoppen Janne

In recent years, the (youth) care sectors in Flanders and the Netherlands have increasingly come into contact with - confirmed, suspected or potential - victims of loverboys. This poses different challenges to the practitioners involved, given the complexity and dynamics of the phenomenon. Therefore, different practices are looking for an appropriate way to establish the reception and support of the victims. Based on literature analysis, several insightful developments concerning this search are discussed, as well as existing forms of support for victims. However, this research points out that the experiences and opinions of practitioners are not given much attention in the existing literature. Based on this observation, this research aims to gain more insight into the perspectives of care workers and other practitioners who regularly came into contact with loverboy victims. Using qualitative research, the experiences of sixteen participants from thirteen different organizations are examined. The use of semi-structured interviews makes it possible to examine the experiences and significance to the participants of the subject in depth. The interviews are analyzed inductively by means of a thematic analysis, which ensures that the insights are presented in a number of themes. The main insights relate to three elaborated topics. First, the importance of customization, given the individual needs of the victims, is emphasized. This is because a focus on the specific, common needs of the target group can be an interesting framework but should always be complemented by tailor-made support. The second theme discusses the need for a good balance in organizing the safety and freedom of the victims. The last theme emphasizes the importance of integral cooperation. Despite an increasing commitment and expertise concerning the reception and support of victims, the research points out that a permanent search in which cooperation on different levels, such as care structures, police, justice and

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8 policy, is crucial. The aforementioned findings are further refined in the discussion. Apart from the discussion of the use of specialized methods concerning the target group, the debate about autonomy and protection is critically examined. The importance of the individual needs of the victims is then complemented by the importance of their meaning-making, which must be taken into account throughout the support process. The fact that the shaping of support can be seen as a process of trial and error is then linked to a process logic used by the practitioners interviewed. The section then clarifies the importance of integral cooperation, which offers the possibility of relating practical experiences to policy. The last part sets out the limitations of this specific research and recommendations for future research.

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SUMMARY IN DUTCH

Corona Verklaring Vooraf

Hoewel er vanwege de te overbruggen afstand tussen de onderzoeker en enkele respondenten al voor een klein deel gebruik werd gemaakt van telefonische interviews of interviews via videochat, zorgden de coronamaatregelen ervoor dat het merendeel van de interviews op deze manier werd uitgevoerd. Daarnaast waren er geen implicaties voor de uitwerking van de betreffende masterscriptie.

Deze preambule is in overleg tussen de student en de promotor/begeleider opgesteld en door beide partijen goedgekeurd.

Student:

Vanoppen Janne

Nederlandse samenvatting

De laatste jaren komen de (jeugd)zorgsectoren in Vlaanderen en Nederland steeds vaker in aanraking met - bevestigde, vermoedelijke of potentiële - slachtoffers van loverboys. Dit stelt de betrokken hulpverleners voor verschillende uitdagingen, gezien de complexiteit en dynamiek van het fenomeen. Daarom zoeken verschillende praktijken naar een geschikte manier om de opvang en ondersteuning van de slachtoffers te organiseren. Op basis van literatuuranalyse worden verschillende verhelderende ontwikkelingen met betrekking tot deze zoektocht besproken, evenals bestaande vormen van ondersteuning aan slachtoffers. Dit onderzoek wijst er echter op dat ervaringen en meningen van praktijkmedewerkers weinig aandacht krijgen in de bestaande literatuur. Op basis van deze constatering beoogt dit onderzoek meer inzicht te krijgen in de perspectieven van hulpverleners en andere praktijkmedewerkers die regelmatig in contact komen met loverboyslachtoffers. Aan de hand van kwalitatief onderzoek worden de ervaringen van zestien deelnemers uit dertien verschillende organisaties onderzocht. Het gebruik van semi-gestructureerde interviews maakt het mogelijk om de ervaringen en de betekenis van de deelnemers in verband met het onderwerp diepgaand te onderzoeken. De interviews worden inductief geanalyseerd door middel van een thematische analyse, die ervoor zorgt dat de inzichten in een aantal thema's

Promotor:

Dr. Verelst An

Begeleider:

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10 worden gepresenteerd. De belangrijkste inzichten hebben betrekking op drie uitgewerkte onderwerpen. Ten eerste wordt het belang van maatwerk, gezien de individuele behoeften van de slachtoffers, benadrukt. Een focus op de specifieke, gemeenschappelijke behoeften van de doelgroep kan namelijk een interessant kader zijn, maar moet altijd worden aangevuld met ondersteuning op maat. Het tweede thema gaat over de noodzaak van een goede balans in het organiseren van de veiligheid en vrijheid van de slachtoffers. Het laatste thema benadrukt het belang van integrale samenwerking. Ondanks een toenemende betrokkenheid en expertise met betrekking tot de opvang en ondersteuning van slachtoffers, wijst het onderzoek erop dat een permanente zoektocht waarbij samenwerking op verschillende niveaus, zoals zorgstructuren, politie, justitie en beleid, cruciaal is. Bovenstaande bevindingen worden in de discussie verder verfijnd. Naast de discussie over het gebruik van gespecialiseerde methoden met betrekking tot de doelgroep, wordt het debat over autonomie en bescherming kritisch bekeken. Het belang van de individuele behoeften van de slachtoffers wordt vervolgens aangevuld met het belang van hun betekenis- en zingeving, waarmee tijdens het hele hulpverleningsproces rekening moet gehouden worden. Het feit dat de vormgeving van de hulpverlening kan worden gezien als een proces van vallen en opstaan wordt vervolgens gekoppeld aan een proceslogica die door de geïnterviewde hulpverleners wordt gehanteerd. De discussie verduidelijkt vervolgens het belang van integrale samenwerking, die de mogelijkheid biedt om praktijkervaringen te relateren aan beleid. In het laatste deel worden de beperkingen van dit specifieke onderzoek en aanbevelingen voor toekomstig onderzoek uiteengezet.

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2.4.1 The Netherlands ... 29 2.4.2 Flanders ... 31 2.5 Conclusion literature ... 33 3. Problem Definition ...35 4. Methodology ...37 4.1 Research design ... 37 4.1.1 Research context ... 37 4.1.2 Methodological frame ... 39 4.1.3 Ethical considerations... 40 4.2 Data collection ... 42 4.2.1 Participants ... 42

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4.3 Data analysis: thematic analysis ... 44

5. Results and findings ...46

5.1 Common and individual needs of the target group ... 46

5.1.1 Specialized care vs customization ... 46

5.1.2 Targeted vs general approach ... 51

5.2 Safety vs freedom ... 54

5.2.1 A safe environment ... 54

5.2.2 Freedom of choice ... 57

5.2.3 Trial and error ... 58

5.3 An integrated and interdisciplinary cooperation ... 61

5.3.1 Cooperation with policy ... 61

5.3.2 Relationship with the police ... 64

5.3.3 "Time to get off your island": cooperation with other care organizations ... 64

6. Discussion and conclusion ...67

6.1 Introduction discussion ... 67

6.2 Fields of tension and contribution to existing research insights ... 67

6.2.1 The usefulness of an effective, proven method for loverboy victims ... 67

6.2.2 Debate on autonomy and protection ... 68

6.2.3 Going beyond needs? ... 70

6.2.4 Process of trial and error ... 72

6.2.5 The relation between practice and policy ... 73

6.3 Practice recommendations ... 74

6.4 Limitations of this research and recommendations for further research ... 74

Bibliography ...76

Annex ...84

Annex 1: Artikel 273f Wetboek van Strafrecht ... 84

Annex 2: Artikel 433quinquies Strafwetboek ... 86

Annex 3: Information Sheet Flyer ... 87

Annex 4: Informed Consent... 88

Annex 5: Description of participating organizations ... 89

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1. INTRODUCTION

Several media articles indicate that in Flanders and the Netherlands, two neighboring contexts that are similar and speak the same language, the care sector has increasingly encountered the dynamic of loverboys. Less than a year after the media drew attention to the Antwerp rapper who defended a convicted human trafficker in one of his songs (De Leu, 2019), Payoke pointed out in the Flemish newspaper De Standaard that the phenomenon goes broader than just Antwerp (Mariën, 2019). The Dutch news platform NOS also indicated that victims are becoming younger and perpetrators are becoming more aggressive (Dijkstra & Tuinman, 2019). Therefore, even though the issue in the Netherlands has been on the surface longer than in Flanders, they too are constantly confronted with new trends.

Loverboys has become an omnipresent concept used both in the Netherlands and Flanders.

But what does it mean? What is it that loverboys do? Do people really know what they are talking about when they mention (the victims of) loverboys? In this manner, the concept can also be seen as a buzzword, which, without further explanation has no clear, uniform meaning. A clear, all-embracing definition is therefore indispensable. Although loverboys are popularly known for recruiting young, vulnerable girls by using seduction, manipulation, coercion and violence to eventually exploit them into prostitution or other illegal sectors (Zanetti & Kanters, 2009; Ministerie van Justitie en Veiligheid, 2011; Child Focus, 2015), these are not the only victims that get entangled in their nets. Besides the fact that boys and adults can be victims too (Nederlands Jeugdinstituut, z.d.) it is important to note that the dynamics concerning loverboys affect an entire country. It puts pressure on its national security, legal system and care field (Child Focus, 2015; Verwijs, Mein, Goderie, Harreveld & Jansma, 2011). This study zooms in on the latter and poses the question of how the care structures in Flanders and the Netherlands are affected by this new method of human trafficking. The experiences of practitioners are central to this.

The effects of the loverboy dynamics on the care systems indicate a recently emerging social problem. Victims of loverboys have complex needs that make care workers constantly looking for better ways to support them. While there are several frameworks and a great deal has been achieved in terms of policy and research, the testimonies of fieldworkers about how they experience dealing with these victims are mostly missing from the literature.

Although the dynamic of loverboys in the Netherlands has been on the agenda for a while, it remains a fairly new concept in both Flanders and the Netherlands, as it goes back no more

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14 than a few decades (Dedoncker & Verschueren, 2015). Therefore, this research deliberately talks about a dynamic because it is an issue that constantly poses new challenges, even in this relatively short period of time. It is not a new phenomenon but a specific form of an existing phenomenon, that is, human trafficking (Verwijs et al., 2011). It is a new dynamic factor within the concept of human trafficking that raises a lot of questions in the field of care for young people.

The knowledge gap regarding the existence of the dynamic is gradually closing. The problem is getting more recognition and although it remains an issue difficult to address, victims are more and more identified (Payoke vzw, z.d.). However, the search is not yet over and for various parties, such as youth care and other care workers, it is only the beginning. The knowledge gap, therefore, has shifted to a gap in finding a way to support the victims, which poses a lot of challenges for these practitioners. Research that maps out the experiences of these practitioners can provide added value in the search for how and what shapes support for the victims of loverboys. After all, concrete experiences of practitioners who work with the same target group whether or not in a different context, can inspire other practitioners by taking into account the success stories and pitfalls of their colleagues.

This research tries to give shape to this added value. After a literature review describing some important developments concerning the approach to the new dynamic, interviews were held with practitioners from Flanders and the Netherlands who regularly came into contact with loverboy victims. The most common themes throughout these interviews are discussed in the results and critically analyzed in the discussion section. In this manner, this research contributes to an exchange of experiences on a practical level between different care workers in different countries.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 ‘The loverboy’ in Flanders and The Netherlands

Documented information about the concept used, the provided definitions and the prevalence of loverboy victims is rather ambiguous. There is disagreement about the term and definition utilized and interpreting statistics and figures is difficult given the hidden nature of the issue.

2.1.1 Lexicon

First of all, the term loverboy originated in the Netherlands in 1995, when police in Utrecht arrested four men who recruited young girls to work in prostitution after making the girls “fall in love” with them. When it was discovered during the legal process that one of these girls was still in love with her pimp, the term was coined. It was after this that Dutch and Flemish caregivers also began to use the term (Dedoncker & Verschueren, 2015). Verwijs et al. (2011) however, do not see loverboys as a new phenomenon. It is rather a new modus operandi used by human traffickers to trick their victims into sexual exploitation or other criminal activities by using emotional deception to create an affectionate bond (Verwijs et al., 2011). While this term originated in the Netherlands and is most commonly used there and in Belgium, these countries are not the only places where such modus operandi is practiced. It is also used in other forms in the human trafficking trade across the globe (Child Focus, 2015).

It is important to note that the term loverboy is already being contested in Flanders and the Netherlands as it is associated with love, presents and attention, which makes it too soft for what the reality is (Child Focus, 2015). As it suggests that it is innocent to an extent and that it is situated in a romantic setting, the violence and exploitation used remain hidden in the term (Dedoncker & Verschueren, 2015). Child Focus (2015) therefore proposes to use the term

tienerpooier, translated as teen pimp – referring to the pimp of a teenager and not a pimp who

is a teenager – which is increasingly being used in Flanders. Despite all these different terms used, loverboys exploit their victims, and this falls under the definition of human trafficking in criminal law (Child Focus, 2015). It is imperative, therefore, that they are considered human traffickers, and their victims as victims of human trafficking (Child Focus, 2015). Corinne Dettmeijer, the former Dutch Rapporteur on Human trafficking and Sexual Violence against Children also called for an end to the talk about loverboys and argued that the phenomenon be called what it is – human trafficking (Child Focus, 2015).

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16 Several terms are used to refer to a loverboy in literature and different practices, sometimes even within one organization. Victims are called victims of loverboys, teen pimps, human

trafficking, (sexual) exploitation or sometimes they’re just vulnerable girls. It often depends on

the context and the group that is being talked to. All these terms have their benefits but also their defects. As the term loverboy has a romantic connotation, leaving out the manipulation and violence (Dedoncker & Verschueren, 2015), victims of teen pimps are only considered to be teenagers who are exploited in prostitution (Child Focus, 2015). These terms have too narrow a meaning. In contrast, the terms human trafficking and sexual exploitation cover a broader scope than intended, and it should be made clear that it concerns a specific method within this phenomenon. While a single term does not cover its full meaning and the naming often depends on the context in which it is used, for the sake of consistency and to avoid confusion in this study, the term loverboy is used as the term is widely known in Flanders, the Netherlands and overseas. It is important to stress that while loverboys are mainly human traffickers, the specific method or tactic used within the phenomenon of human trafficking cannot be overlooked.

2.1.2 Definition

Different definitions of loverboys are proposed from different angles, both in Flanders and in the Netherlands. In 2015, Child Focus proposes the following definition in Flanders: “Teen pimps are human traffickers who deliberately make teenagers de facto dependent and emotionally affectionate in order to exploit them - via deception, coercion, physical, psychological violence and/or abuse of vulnerability - in prostitution” (Child Focus, 2015, p. 10). The Netherlands Youth Institute (Nederlands Jeugdinsitituut), or NJI for short, quotes the Ministry of Justice and Security’s definition from 2011: “Loverboys are human traffickers who use seduction techniques, manipulations, blackmail and violence to capture girls with the intention of later employing them in prostitution or other (illegal) sectors" (Nederlands Jeugdinstituut, z.d.).

Both of the above definitions have their limitations. Child Focus (2015) only talks about teenagers, as their organization is mandated for minors, while the Ministry of Justice (2011) in the Netherlands only talks about girl victims. However, NJI (z.d.), points out that this definition suggests that offenders are only boys and the victims girls, which is not always the case. They also stress that it is not always about sexual exploitation but that it may involve other forms of exploitation such as extortion, fraud, abuse, and even drug smuggling (Nederlands Jeugdinstituut, z.d.). Although the definition does not clearly indicate this, it is also implied in

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17 the report by Child Focus (2015). The NJI (z.d.) states that many experts including the Azough Committee (Commissie Azough) advocate that the definition of human trafficking should be used, which is more concretely explained in the section on legislation.

The definition of the Centrum voor Criminaliteitspreventie en Veiligheid (CCV), translated as the Center for Crime Prevention and Security (2012) in the Netherlands tries to include all the above elements by using the following definition originating from Zanetti and Kanters (2009): “Loverboys are human traffickers who deliberately make women and/or men emotionally dependent on (the promise of) entering into a love relationship and then - through coercion, (threat of) violence or other factual circumstances, extortion, fraud, deception, abuse arising from actual circumstances, abuse of a vulnerable position of these women or men - exploit them, often in prostitution.” (Zanetti & Kanters, in Centrum voor Criminaliteitspreventie en Veiligheid, 2012, p. 15)

With this definition, it should be mentioned that loverboys increasingly skip the "love" part and switch more quickly to manipulation, coercion and violence (Dijkstra & Tuinman, 2019). Van Deth, Repetur and Storms (2013) from Movisie used this definition, together with the following definitions of youth prostitution and human trafficking, to clarify the distinctions and overlap. Youth prostitution is described as follows: “the performance of one or more sexual acts, with or for another, by boys and girls under the age of 18 for money, goods or consideration” (Platform Jeugdprostitutie, in Van Deth et al., 2013, p. 6). The broad phenomenon of human trafficking is defined as “the recruitment, transportation, transfer, reception or housing of a person, with use of coercion (in a broad sense) and with the aim of exploiting that person, for example in the prostitution, agriculture and catering” (Verwey-Jonker Instituut, in Van Deth et al., 2013, p. 6).

By referring to a scheme from the Verwey-Jonker Institute adjusted by Movisie (z.d.), Van Deth et al. (2013) try to clearly show the overlap and distinction between these phenomena in Figure 1.

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The loverboy distinguishes himself from other human traffickers by his specific working methods, the national character of the exploitation and the predominant focus on underaged girls (Zanetti & Kanters, in Verwijs et al., 2011). The target group on which the focus of this research is situated, is also demarcated this way and the focus is on underaged Flemish and Dutch girls who become victims of human traffickers through the loverboy method. It is important to consider that there are always exceptions and overlaps with the other phenomena in Figure 1, which makes it necessary to look at each case individually.

In this research, minors are at the center because in their case, there is no discussion about whether they are victims or not but the concept of free will and coercion can be discussed when talking about adults in prostitution. However, with minors, the choice seems to be easily made. According to Sue Frantz Micetic (2018), all young people who become entangled in the net of a trafficker are victims of exploitation and should therefore be treated as such. "This motivated a differentiation between youth in the sex trade and adult prostitutes. This differentiation brought about the transition of these minors from the socially negative deviant group into the socially positive dependent group” (Micetic, 2018, p. 5). Also, according to Payoke, a non-profit organization in Flanders that works on human trafficking and victim assistance, all young people who are exposed to exploitation by loverboy techniques are

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19 victims and not perpetrators (Payoke vzw, 2014). In the Netherlands, too, minors that come into contact with human traffickers are by definition seen as victims, even without the need to prove coercion - in contrast to adults (Centrum voor Criminaliteitspreventie en Veiligheid, z.d.). This is also further explained in the section on legislation. All of the above immediately motivates the use of the term victim throughout this report. It concerns both actual and potential as well as suspected victims (Child Focus, 2015). In addition to victims recognized or known to be in a network of human traffickers, there are also victims who are suspected of being in the hands of a loverboy and youngsters who are potentially at risk of becoming a victim. There is a focus on girls because most of the victims who are presently known to receive shelter and treatment are girls and not boys. The research tries to address the experiences of care workers offering possible shelter and care, which makes it important that some experiences with victims already preceded this research. Within the Flemish and Dutch contexts, Flemish and Dutch girls that fall into the hands of a human trafficker are central in the research and not immigrant girls as the focus is on the national character of exploitation. Although international human trafficking is a relevant topic, it is important to describe the target group as clearly as possible to give shape to a high-quality research project.

2.1.3 Statistics

In this section, only figures of effectively registered victims are shown. The figures are therefore an underestimate, as there are still many victims who are not registered. In 2017, 139 victims of loverboys were registered in the Netherlands while 144 were registered in 2016. Most victims of the loverboy modus operandi are female and seventeen or eighteen years old at registration. Also, most of them have a Dutch nationality (Nederlands Jeugdinstituut, 2019). Child Focus indicates that in 2015, victims of teen pimps in Flanders were nowhere explicitly registered as such. Human trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation was classified in a general manner by both the courts and the police, with no distinction being made according to the method used (Child Focus, 2015). In 2019, Payoke was designated as the reference center for all victims of loverboy techniques in Flanders. Prior to this, forty to sixty victims were identified yearly without any specific attention being paid to them (Payoke vzw, z.d.). Since Payoke's powers were expanded to the official registration of the victims in 2019, they have had more than one hundred reports of potential victims. However, the anti-trafficking organizations in Belgium and the Netherlands estimate the number in the thousands, because the feature remains hidden and takes place in illegal circuits (Payoke vzw, z.d.).

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2.2 Legislation

2.2.1 The Netherlands

Loverboys are classified as human traffickers in criminal law both in the Netherlands and in Flanders. In the Netherlands, human trafficking is described in article 273f in the penal code under the section on crimes against personal liberty. Annex one shows this article. Three important elements are to be mentioned: undermining the legitimacy of the victim, the offender making money exploiting the victim and coercion (Wetboek van Strafrecht, 1881, Tweede boek: misdrijven, titel XVIII, artikel 273f). It is important to highlight that the element of coercion must be demonstrated to prove a case of human trafficking of adults (see Annex 1: 1.1). In the case of minors, it is not necessary to prove coercion because they are considered as victims of human trafficking without this element (see Annex 1: 1.2, 1.5 and 1.8) (Wetboek van Strafrecht, 1881, Tweede boek: misdrijven, titel XVIII, artikel 273f).

Since 2010, specific guidelines have been issued for the criminal prosecution of human trafficking for sexual exploitation. In Staatscourant (2010) a guideline is set out. This directive meets the need for an unambiguous line in penalty measures when it comes to human trafficking offenses (Staatscourant, 2010). The directive applies specifically to cases of human trafficking involving sexual exploitation and does not include the other conducts punishable under article 273f (Staatscourant, 2010). The penalty requirement is based on a three-step procedure: the starting point, the period of offense and any aggravating circumstances that must be considered, for example where persons under the age of eighteen are concerned (Staatscourant, 2010).

Former national rapporteur Corinne Dettmeijer-Vermeulen wrote an article in 2017 in which she describes the possibility of non-punishment in the Netherlands (Nationaal Rapporteur, 2017). "This means that countries should have the possibility not to punish victims of human trafficking who have had to commit crimes in their human trafficking situation" (Nationaal Rapporteur, 2017). However, there are no uniform guidelines for the application of this principle. There are still too many different interpretations in the criminal justice chain, so there is a need for more attention to consistency in the application of the principle of non-punishment (Nationaal rapporteur, 2017).

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2.2.2 Flanders

In Belgium, thus also in Flanders, the article that tackles human trafficking in law is article 433quinquies in the penal code, under the section on human trafficking (see Annex 2) (Het Strafwetboek,1867, hoofdstuk IIIter., artikel 433 quinquies). The subsequent articles define different types of aggravating circumstances (Jeugdrecht.be, 2014). Based on this, the Belgian federal migration-center gives a brief and concise definition on its website as follows:

"Article 433quinquies of the Penal Code defines human trafficking as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, accommodation, reception of a person, the exchange or transfer of control over him or her for the purpose of exploitation. The so-called sectors of exploitation are listed exhaustively: exploitation in prostitution or child pornography; begging; working conditions contrary to human dignity; organ removal and committing a crime or misconduct (in some cases of theft or drug trafficking, for example).” (Myria, z.d.)

Contrary to the Netherlands, this description does not explicitly mention that coercion must be demonstrated. It does however, like the Netherlands, differentiate between trafficking of adults and minors. Therefore, a separate addendum has been added for trafficking in minors (B. Antheunis, personal communication, March 11, 2020). Since the focus of this paper is on the underage victims of human traffickers, it is important to take into account the differences in legislation between human trafficking of minor and adult victims because the way in which the perpetrator is dealt with legally has a clear impact on the victim. Officially, a teen pimp or loverboy can be legally grouped under several articles of the criminal code: human trafficking, corruption of youth, prostitution, etc. (Van Limbergen, 2016). However, since 2015, Child Focus proposed to systematically qualify the files under the section of human trafficking in the penal code, for which the main reason is consistency (Van Limbergen, 2016).

Payoke vzw (2018) mentioned that victims of loverboy techniques have only officially been recognized as victims of human trafficking since 2018. As a result of this, they are subject to federal regulations since the Belgian Department of Justice is federally regulated. This means that they are also covered by the approach mentioned in the circular on the introduction of multidisciplinary cooperation concerning victims of human trafficking and/or other forms of trafficking (Payoke vzw, 2018). Since the 1990s, victims of human trafficking in Belgium who cooperate with the judicial authorities may obtain a specific (residence) status (Myria, z.d.). For this to happen, however, three basic conditions must be met. “The victims must:

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22 1. sever all ties with the networks in which they were exploited;

2. be accompanied by an accredited and specialized reception center for the reception and guidance of victims of human trafficking;

3. make a formal complaint or statement against the persons or networks of human traffickers who exploited them.” (Myria, z.d.)

Since it is not feasible for many victims of loverboys to meet these conditions, they often miss out on this status. However, for underage victims, this status is not required to get support because they can receive shelter and care through youth care. Payoke is committed as an official reference center for the (legal) support to victims of loverboy techniques, even if they do not have this official status. For adult victims this status is necessary in order to be able to receive shelter. Cooperation and voluntariness are therefore important conditions, which often prove to be a challenge (B. Antheunis, personal communication, March 11, 2020).

Since 1 July 2019, the law of non-punishment has entered into force. This guarantees that victims of human trafficking cannot be punished for crimes that they commit when those crimes are the direct result of their exploitation (Vogelaere, 2019). These legal developments among others, provide a framework in shaping support for victims of human trafficking. However, how this is effectively shaped in practice remains to be seen.

2.3 Tackling the loverboy issue: recent developments

To map out recent developments concerning the loverboy issue in Flanders and The Netherlands, an analysis was carried out on some important research and policy documents from the past years. Since the focus of this particular research is on the reception and treatment or care of the victims, this was also aimed at in the analysis to make a clear distinction.

2.3.1 The Netherlands

Action plan 2011: A government-wide approach

Since the incident in Utrecht in 1995, after which the term loverboys was coined, various initiatives have been taken by the government in the area of the loverboy problem. The action plan of the Ministry of Justice and Security of the central government set out the measures that were to be implemented from 2011 on for a government-wide approach (Ministerie van Justitie en Veiligheid, 2011). These measures focused on the three P’s used by the United Nations to tackle human trafficking generally. According to the Ministry of Justice and Security, an

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23 effective approach to human trafficking, and thus also loverboys, needs to focus on three aspects: prevention, prosecution and protection (Ministerie van Justitie en Veiligheid, 2011). Within this study, we will focus on the third P – protection. In order to make this concrete, the action plan pointed out three tangible measures (Ministerie van Justitie en Veiligheid, 2011). First, a study was carried out by the Verwey-Jonker Institute in 2011, enrolled by the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport. This report from Verwijs et al. (2011) is called Loverboys en hun

slachtoffers and provides an overview of the approach to this specific human trafficking issue

in youth care. The concrete actions resulting from the study have been incorporated into the action plan (Ministerie van Justitie en Veiligheid, 2011). A second measure focused on the advancement of expertise and building capacity of youth care institutions on how to deal with victims of this matter (Ministerie van Justitie en Veiligheid, 2011). The third and last measure was about pointing out the victims’ rights and duties. It is important that the victims themselves know their rights (and duties) and where they can get support (Ministerie van Justitie en Veiligheid, 2011).

Effectiveness 2014: Preliminary study

In addition to the above-mentioned research report from the Verwey-Jonker Institute in 2011, the same institute described the final report of a preliminary study into the effectiveness of treatment methods for victims of loverboys in 2014. Before the official research could be done, a preliminary study about active components of common interventions in the reception and treatment of loverboy victims was carried out, as a quick scan of what is there (Mein, Los, Jansma, Distelbrink, Verwijs, van Dongen & Zwikker, 2014). This preliminary study (Mein et al., 2014) focused on existing methods of reception and treatment that were already being used in Dutch institutions for youth care and women’s shelter. Mein et al. (2014) tried to find out which of these methods or facilities are eligible for an impact study or further development, which is the initial goal of this report.

Action plan 2014: Azough Committee

Around the same time as this preliminary study, the previous action plan on the government-wide approach (Ministerie van Justitie en Veiligheid, 2011) was supplemented by a new action plan, this time compiled by the Azough Committee, which focusses on the approach to girl victims of loverboys or human trafficking in youth care (Nederlands Jeugdinstituut, 2014). This committee started in May 2014 to contribute to a better care range of (presumably and potential) minor girl victims, on the initiative of organizations affiliated with youth care in the Netherlands and with the support of the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport (Nederlands

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24 Jeugdinstituut, 2014). The study pointed out that in practice there is no unambiguous picture about the active ingredients for the reception and treatment victims of loverboys and because of that, the Azough Committee pointed out fifteen key elements in dealing with these victims, eleven of which focus on reception and support (Nederlands Jeugdinstituut, 2014).

Based on these key elements, some action points were developed around signaling, registration, and reception and support. Three concrete action points were written down on the last topic. First, it is important that youth care organizations put the eleven key elements in practice (Nederlands Jeugdinstituut, 2014). Second, there has to be made available an overview with effective methods in the treatment of loverboy victims (Nederlands Jeugdinstitituut, 2014). Finally, the participating youth care institutions are intended to join the ZonMw trajectory about working effectively in the youth sector, for which the aforementioned preliminary study was set up (Nederlands Jeugdinstituut, 2014).

In 2015, ZonMw and the Netherlands Youth Institute carried out further research into the further development, theoretical underpinning and description of treatment methods of six youth care providers, which resulted in a policy advice report by Addink and Foolen (2017). The six participating treatment programs were Spirit, Kompaan en De Bocht, De Koppeling, Parlan, Intermetzo en De Hoenderloo Groep (Nederlands Jeugdinstituut, z.d.).

Effectiveness 2019: Ongoing effect research

The ultimate goal of these (preliminary) researches (Mein et al., 2014; Addink and Foolen, 2017) supported by ZonMw, is to set out a study on the effectiveness and reach of care programs for victims of human trafficking. Addink and Foolen (2017) indicated that by describing and substantiating the treatment offer, an important step had been taken to gain more insight into the treatment of victims of loverboys and human trafficking and their theoretical effectiveness. This effect research started in 2019 and is still ongoing. Within this project, the NJI cooperates with the following organizations: De Rading, Fier, Horizon, Parlan, Pluryn/Hoenderloo Groep, Spirit, Sterk Huis, VUmc, UvA en NHL Stenden Hogeschool (ZonMw, z.d.).

Implementation of the Azough action plan

After the action plan of the Azough Committee, implementation of the key-elements and action points is expected. To this end, the committee shall stay in contact with its partners to monitor the implementation of the action points (Nederlands Jeugdinstituut, 2014). In an interim statement, the minister of Justice and Security and the state secretary of Ministry of Health,

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25 Welfare and Sport (2017) pointed out that, following the report on the action plan in 2014, the committee had developed instruments for youth care institutions from 2015 onwards (Blok & Van Rijn, 2017). For example, the NJI (2014) mentioned that the committee developed a quality framework, based on the key elements, for youth care organizations that provide specialized shelter and assistance to girl victims of loverboys (Nederlands Jeugdinstituut, 2014).

Later on, the Health and Youth Inspectorate (2018) of the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport researched thirteen youth aid providers offering specialized residential assistance to map the quality of the assistance given to loverboy victims. The inspectorate (2018) concluded that most of the thirteen youth facilities surveyed provide high-quality specialized assistance to victims of human traffickers. A concern that remained, however, is that victims are still insufficiently recognized and are therefore not always referred to these specialized youth centers (Inspectie Gezondheidszorg en Jeugd, 2018). The Dutch municipalities have a great responsibility in this respect.

Role of municipalities: an integrated chain approach

Municipalities play an important role in the integrated approach to human trafficking, including the loverboy part of it (Ministerie van Veiligheid en Justitie, RIEC/LIEC & Centrum voor Criminaliteitspreventie en Veiligheid, 2015). An effective approach to human trafficking depends on good cooperation between partners. Municipalities have a guiding role in this (Ministerie van Veiligheid en Justitie, RIEC/LIEC & Centrum voor Criminaliteitspreventie en Veiligheid, 2015). In concrete terms, cooperation is monitored by the chain director of human trafficking. This is a (municipal) link between the chain partners within the care and service provision sector and, on the other hand, chain partners working for the government, the police and the judiciary (Veilig Thuis & Moviera, 2018). The chain cooperation of partners for shaping an integrated approach differs from one municipality to another (Nederlands Jeugdinstituut, z.d.). This enables municipalities to connect to the specific problems around human trafficking that arise in a specific region (Anonymous, personal communication, May 12, 2020).

Each municipality must comply with the basic level of governance of human trafficking (Nederlands Jeugdinstituut, z.d.). This means that each municipality (1) works on an active identification of human trafficking, (2) has an aandachtsfunctionaris or an attention functionary who is the contact person for the municipality and is familiar with the administrative possibilities and the care services around human trafficking, and (3) has a municipal policy and local

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26 regulations that support the approach to human trafficking (Ministerie van Veiligheid en Justitie, RIEC/LIEC & Centrum voor Criminaliteitspreventie en Veiligheid, 2015). In addition to the attention functionary – who acts as a contact point around human trafficking in a specific municipality (Ministerie van Veiligheid en Justitie, RIEC/LIEC & Centrum voor Criminaliteitspreventie en Veiligheid, 2015) – and the chain director mentioned above – who coordinates the chain approach between the various partners (Veilig Thuis & Moviera, 2018) – several municipalities or regions also have a care coordinator who focuses on the content of care and the individual process of the victim. This coordinator acts as an umbrella case manager in the reception and care process (CoMensha, 2018). The complex needs of the victims of loverboys pose the question of specialized care. Since this type of care is not yet very common in the Netherlands, municipalities have to make regional agreements. This works better when there is a care coordinator present who knows the field and organizes the care around a victim (Anonymous, personal communication, May 12, 2020).

In addition to the fact that the responsibility lies with the municipalities for tackling human trafficking, with the advent of the Youth Constitution in 2015, the support, assistance and care of children and young people, in general, was decentralized and the responsibility for this was transferred to the municipalities (Ministerie van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en Sport, 2016). Municipalities have an obligation under the Youth Constitution to provide timely and appropriate youth care to young people who need it. How this aid takes shape in practice, can be filled in by the municipalities themselves and can therefore be determined on a tailor-made basis (Ministerie van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en Sport, 2016). In the case of the victims of loverboys, municipalities will therefore have to look for appropriate help. It is thus important that the existing range of aid for these specific victims becomes better known to the municipalities (Nederlands Jeugdinstituut, z.d.).

The question can be asked whether it is not difficult to maintain an overview in this way, given that each municipality has its preferences and priorities. Even though there is a chain director, a functionary and a care coordinator in (almost) each municipality, it is important to know what is available in the whole country and thus also in other municipalities. While it certainly has advantages to be able to work communally and thus provide tailor-made help, the mere fact that there are so many different actors who have to coordinate different parts can cause the loss of overview and can raise the demand for a more general framework.

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2.3.2 Flanders

Report Child Focus 2015

As in the Netherlands, a highly mediatized case was at the root of increasing attention for the loverboy issue in Flanders (Child Focus, 2015). The only difference is that this awareness was created some years later, in 2015. After the incident, Child Focus (2015) decided to draw up a report by order of Het Agentschap Jongerenwelzijn (now merged into Het Agentschap

Opgroeien) from the Flemish government and the minister of Welfare, Public Health and Family

at that time, Jo Vandeurzen. The report not only charted the issue but offered recommendations based on four aspects or four P’s. Three of the four aspects are similar to the ones from the action plan in the Netherlands in 2011. In addition to protection, prosecution and prevention, Child Focus (2015) added partnership as an important factor. The report therefore stressed interdisciplinary cooperation and shared responsibility of youth care, the judiciary, the police and, in fact, society as a whole to better and faster detect, identify and refer to the appropriate protection and care for underage victims of teen pimps (Child Focus, 2015). Here, again, the focus was largely on the aspect of protection. Child Focus (2015) concluded the following related to this theme.

The report indicated that intensive efforts should be made to adopt a layered and involved approach tailored to the very specific situation of each victim (Child Focus, 2015). In this respect, the safety and protection of victims from the environment in which they were located is crucial, as well as protection from themselves when deemed necessary. According to Child Focus (2015), a (temporary) shelter in a closed or secluded facility is appropriate here. However, this should not take longer than necessary and should be in line with appropriate specialized treatment (Child Focus, 2015). Security will then have to be provided in a protective and domestic setting where the necessary expertise is available so that a counseling process can be started immediately (Child Focus, 2015). However, at the time of the report, there was no such specialized provision. Because there were only two types of facilities in Flanders that offer a closed setting like mentioned above (the community institutions and the child psychiatry), most of the victims known at the time were referred to the community institutions mainly for these safety reasons (Child Focus, 2015). From that moment on, the search began for a way to combine this sense of security with appropriate, specialized care.

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Action plan 2016

The action plan drawn up by minister Vandeurzen, based on the recommendations of Child Focus, took this into account, among other things. The action plan was based on the same four P’s as important factors and tried to translate the recommendations into concrete action points (Vlaamse Regering, 2016). A similar action plan was drawn up in the Netherlands five years earlier. In a press announcement from the Flemish government (2016) Vandeurzen proposed three concrete aspects. First, he wanted to focus on the possibilities of the so-called

onthemingstrajecten, in which young people are closely supervised in a remote place, whether

or not abroad, to guarantee protection against the network in which the victim has ended up. Secondly, he wanted to provide an additional and appropriate offer for the victims in community institutions as well as private facilities. Finally, the focus was on the cooperation of the youth care services with the provisions for adult victims (Vlaamse Regering, 2016).

Steering committee

The 2016 action plan also resulted in an increased focus on cooperation between the Federal and Flemish levels; between police and justice on the one hand and assistance on the other. This translated, among other things, into the creation of a steering committee in which these different actors are represented (Agentschap Jongerenwelzijn, 2018). This steering committee exists of partners like Child Focus and Payoke but also specific facilities that have a specialized offer at that moment are included, as well as the community institutions. Besides the partners that focus on care, the police, the public prosecutor's office and the judiciary are also involved. A partner of Het Agentschap Opgroeien of the Department of Welfare of the Flemish Government also has his role in this steering committee (B. Antheunis, personal communication, March 11, 2020).

The actualization of the action plan in 2018

While the 2016 action plan focused on additional secure shelter tailored to the victims, reality showed that the complexity of this problem and the diversity of needs cannot be grasped in this security offer alone and that there is a need for shelter in a domestic context where a feeling of safety is central (Agentschap Jongerenwelzijn, 2018). After an evaluation of the action plan by the steering committee, it was actualized in 2018 (Agentschap Jongerenwelzijn, 2018). This updated action plan is still the basis on which the various partners are working in concrete terms (B. Antheunis, personal communication, March 11, 2020). The search for the combination of safety and appropriate care is still central. From this signal, a project agreement

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29 was concluded with vzw Ne(s)t at the beginning of 2019 (Agentschap Jongerenwelzijn, 2019). They offer an alternative to these highly structured security settings and they too have become an important partner within the steering committee (B. Antheunis, personal communication, March 11, 2020). To provide an aid to all facilities that come into contact with victims of loverboys or want to prepare for it, the core elements of the offer within the aid program were put together in a quality framework, based on the Dutch Azough model (Agentschap Jongerenwelzijn, 2018).

The year 2019

In addition, on 20 March 2019, the department launched a call for professional small-scale innovative forms of housing for victims of sexual exploitation by human traffickers (Agentschap Jongerenwelzijn, 2019). Also, the reference centers for human trafficking play an even bigger role in the detection and assessment of loverboy victimization (Agentschap Jongerenwelzijn, 2018), as Payoke was designated as the official reference center for the victims of loverboys in Flanders in 2019. The current minister of Welfare, Public Health and Family aims to continue the measures set up by the previous minister as well as give shape to existing implementations and adopt a more structured approach. To this end, he is investing twenty million euros for 132 new places in secure shelters for young people in alarming situations, such as the victims of human trafficking (CD&V, z.d.).

2.4 Existing support possibilities

2.4.1 The Netherlands

Victims of Human Trafficking in General

The national coordination center against human trafficking, CoMensha, works with various partners to map out the nature and scale of trafficking in all its facets. They are committed to the rights and interests of (potential) victims (CoMensha, z.d.). CoMensha (z.d.) does not provide care and shelter itself but coordinates the first placement of victims in a shelter or calls in the assistance of social services. Victims can be placed directly in a categorical shelter or in a more general one that covers multiple problems (CoMensha, z.d.). In addition, CoMensha can refer to other reception and assistance agencies, to which the care is then transferred under the supervision of the care coordinator for human trafficking, if the latter is present in that region. They therefore cooperate with care coordinators in a specific region in order to start up the right support (CoMensha, z.d.).

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Victims of loverboys

Depending on which approach, reference may be made to specific assistance facilities. “For Dutch underage victims and underage victims from EU countries, the regular (child protection) measures apply, such as the regular facilities of the Dutch youth care. For the specific target group of loverboy victims, specialized reception is available at some reception centers.” (CoMensha, z.d.)

Wegwijzer Mensenhandel (z.d.) lists several specific centers which, whether or not in

conjunction with other forms of reception, provide specialized reception facilities for minor national victims: Fier, Sterk Huis, De Rading, Spirit and Horizon. Three specific care programs, one from the facility Fier (Asja) and two from the facility Spirit (PINQ-crisis and PINQ-closed) have been included in the database of effective youth interventions for this specific target group (Nederlands Jeugdinstituut, z.d.). Mein et al. (2014) show us that institutions can offer ambulatory or residential shelter. Within these residential settings, a distinction is made between open (regular youth care) and closed (Youth Care Plus) groups. Facilities can adopt a generalist or specific approach (Mein et al., 2014). Some facilities in youth care offer support to girls and young women with what they call (girl-)specific problems. These include problems resulting from sexual abuse, honor-related violence, forced (youth) prostitution or cross-border sexual behavior and exploitation by a human trafficker (Mein et al., 2014).

NJI (z.d) indicates that thirteen organizations in the Netherlands offer specialized (mostly residential) help to victims – in an open or closed setting. These are the thirteen youth aid providers that were mapped out by the Health Care and Youth Inspectorate's preliminary investigation and subsequently assessed for their quality in 2018 (Inspectie Gezondheidszorg en Jeugd, 2018). The facilities mentioned correspond partly to the provisions cited by CoMensha (z.d.): Fier, Horizon, Pluryn – Intermetzo, Jeugdformaat, Kompaan en De Bocht (currently merged into Sterk Huis), De Koppeling (Spirit), OG Heldringstichting, Pluryn – De Hoenderloo Groep, SJSJ Almata, Timon, De Rading – Fides, Transferium and Bijzonder Jeugdwerk (Inspectie Gezondheidszorg en Jeugd, 2018).

“What is the most effective method of reception and treatment, cannot be said unequivocally. Research is being done into this” (Nederlands Jeugdinstituut, z.d.). The Health Care and Youth Inspectorate checks whether institutions are authorized to assist loverboy victims (Nederlands Jeugdinstituut, z.d.). While the Netherlands is well engaged in the effectiveness of methods and interventions, the question of whether these thirteen facilities that were examined for

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31 quality are the only ones that offer useful help to these victims may be asked. Perhaps other useful provisions were simply not reported. Quality is formally examined and guaranteed based on several elements (Inspectie Gezondheidszorg en Jeugd, 2018), but the experiences of the care providers themselves are lacking.

There is a publication available that brings together the experiences of professionals whose stories can offer new perspectives for victims, social workers and policymakers; which is called

Uitgebuit (exploited) (Ministerie van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en Sport, 2019). In this

documentation, the focus is mainly on experiences of persons with a more formal, theoretical function such as administrators, directors and coordinators. Although the experiences and insights of these persons over the larger picture can certainly be of added value, they look from a different perspective than field workers or practitioners who are in close contact with the victims themselves, such as caregivers in group homes, psychologists, contextual counselors and so on.

2.4.2 Flanders

Victims of Human Trafficking in General

In Belgium, there are three recognized specialized centers for the reception and assistance of victims of human trafficking: Payoke, located in Antwerp (Flanders), Sürya, located in Liège (Wallonia) and Pag-Asa, located in Brussels (Child Focus, 2015). These are financed by the federal government, the communities and the regions. The federal migration-center, Myria, coordinates the cooperation between the three centers (Myria, z.d.). The three centers provide ambulant or residential support to adult victims of trafficking (and their children) at administrative, legal, psychosocial and medical levels (Child Focus, 2015). The centers have a shelter at a secret address where adult victims can stay for a limited period of time, if necessary (Myria, z.d.). However, the centers are not structurally adapted to accommodate minors without their families. These victims are referred to specialized facilities such as Minor Ndako & Juna vzw, Fonto Nova and Esperanto (Child Focus, 2015; Myria, z.d.).

Victims of loverboys

The centers for minors referred to above do not specialize in loverboy matters. Payoke does have a great deal of expertise in this area and was therefore designated as the official reference center and hotline for all victims of loverboys in Flanders in 2019, but as indicated, they cannot offer shelter to these victims (Payoke vzw, z.d.). Payoke assesses the loverboy victimization, centralizes the registrations and provides additional guidance for the victims

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32 (CD&V, z.d.). The team that works with the victims of teen pimps does this in an ambulatory, mobile manner and travels to the victim's location, which often is a youth care facility. Since they cannot provide shelter themselves, they advocate the establishment of a specialized reception center for victims of loverboys (Payoke vzw, z.d.).

This has been the focus of attention in recent years. For example, two private facilities have created a specialized offer within a secure framework (Vlaams Parlement, 2019). The guidance center Van Celst, which is part of Jeugdzorg Emmaüs Antwerpen, focuses on intensive cooperation with the Child and Youth Psychiatry UKJA (Jeugdzorg Emmaüs – Regio Antwerpen, z.d.). De Wingerdbloei also has certain expertise regarding the subject (Vlaams Parlement, 2019). Although community center De Zande in Beernem cannot offer specialized reception or treatment, here too attention to the theme is growing. For example, a learning group has been created with attention to themes such as healthy relationships and sexuality, safe internet use and other issues directly related to the loverboy issue (Jeugdrecht.be, 2017). In addition to this recognized offer, a project agreement has been concluded with vzw Ne(s)t since 1 February 2019. The focus is on another form of reception in which support is offered in a safe but accessible and domestic context (Flemish Parliament, 2019).

Onthemingstrajecten are also seen as a good alternative because in this way the victim literally

distances itself from the situation by traveling or staying abroad for several weeks. For this purpose, the non-profit organization Alba is looked into (Bogaert, z.d.). Since January 2020, investments have been made in the establishment of a project related to small-scale housing. Youth care Emmaüs Mechelen, De Wingerdbloei and Huize Sint-Vincentius focus on combining the warmth of a small-scale family environment with the expertise of a professional environment (Bogaert, z.d.). Here, too, a few victims of loverboys can be accommodated. Although a great deal has been invested in recent years to support the victims, it's an ongoing quest. Bram Antheunis (personal communication, March 11, 2020) indicated that Het

Agentschap Opgroeien was working on a roadmap in which the approach as it is currently

taking shape is structured. The current range of assistance is also clearly stated under the protection section. However, it has not yet been made public, so for the moment, there is no such overview. In this ongoing search towards good support for the victims of loverboys, it is extremely important to consider the experiences of practitioners of existing facilities (specialized or non-specialized). Given the evolutions in the reception and treatment possibilities in recent years, it seems that these have been taken into account until now.

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33 However, their specific findings and experiences have not yet been mapped out in the literature.

2.5 Conclusion literature

Although it is difficult to give a recent overview of information as it is not in one place and thus hard to find as well in the Netherlands as in Flanders, looking at the documents analyzed, it is striking that the action plans and quality frameworks set similar objectives (Vlaamse Regering, 2016; Ministerie van Justitie en Veiligheid, 2011). Given that awareness in the Netherlands was raised earlier, Flanders has based some policy plans on those of the Netherlands. One major difference, however, lies in the way in which the approach to human trafficking takes shape. In the Netherlands, the municipalities are allocated a large responsibility and cooperation is also shaped at the municipal level (Ministerie van Veiligheid en Justitie, RIEC/LIEC & Centrum voor Criminaliteitspreventie en Veiligheid, 2015). In Flanders, this approach, and more specifically the approach to loverboys, is taking shape on a larger scale. For this purpose, the Flemish level even cooperates with the federal level in some areas (Agentschap Jongerenwelzijn, 2018). Although both countries have some kind of national framework, the concrete approach differs.

Upon closer inspection at the treatment and guidance of victims, there is a great focus on the effectiveness of certain methods and interventions in the Netherlands. For example, there is the Netherlands Youth Institute's (z.d.) database on effective youth interventions which includes interventions that are assessed by an independent accreditation committee. In addition, various quality and effectiveness studies have also been reviewed (Mein et al., 2014; Addink and Foolen, 2017). In Flanders, the trend of documenting effective methods and interventions seems somewhat less embedded. However, this does not mean that Flanders is not engaged in shaping the assistance to the victims. In addition to the fact that efforts have been made to provide safe shelter, more open and free forms of counseling, namely small-scale innovative housing have recently also been focused on (Agentschap Jongerenwelzijn, 2019). Since the Netherlands has a wide range of different types of effective interventions on offer, the question can be asked whether experiments of this kind are being conducted there as well.

Even though there are differences between the approach in Flanders and the Netherlands, several useful and necessary interventions are set up across both contexts. However, the experiences of practitioners working in these organizations or facilities often remain in the

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34 background. Especially the experiences of practitioners working in facilities other than those mentioned, but that do come into contact with this target group, are lacking. It is important to consider experiences from as many practices as possible, to form a complete picture. Not only findings from the facilities or organizations that already have a devised offer are important but also from the ones that are still searching for an appropriate method or way to deal with these victims. In this way, a kind of exchange can be established between different practices that shape their offerings each in their way.

Effects of the ?loverboy? dynamic on care structures for victims: analysis of practitioners? experiences in Flanders and the Netherlands