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ROLE MODELS AND

STUDENT ASPIRATIONS

A case study on the impact of role models on the

individual aspirations of female students.

Yasmin Jama

Student Number: s2004925

June 11

th

, 2019

MSc Public Administration

Track: International and European Governance

Thesis Supervisor: Prof. dr. Sandra Groeneveld

Second Reader: Dr. Natascha van der Zwan.

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1

Contents

List of tables and figures ... 2

1. Introduction ... 3

2. Theoretical Framework ... 6

2.1. Diversity ... 6

2.2. Intersectionality... 8

2.3. Aspirations and the role of role models ... 9

2.3.1. Exposure to female role models ... 11

2.3.2. Identity compatibility ... 12

2.3.3. Sense of Belonging... 12

2.4. Summary and expectations ... 13

3. Methodology ... 14

3.1. Research Design... 14

3.2. Data Collection ... 16

3.3. Coding and measurement ... 21

3.4. Summary ... 23 4. Results ... 24 4.1. Overall trends ... 24 4.1.1. Diversity ... 24 4.1.2. Role models ... 27 4.1.3. Aspirations ... 29

4.2. Comparison between minority and white students ... 31

4.2.1. Description of the pairs ... 31

4.2.2. Summary ... 43

5. Discussion ... 44

6. Conclusion ... 50

6.1. Summary ... 50

6.2. Contributions to research ... 51

6.3. Limitations and avenues for future research ... 52

References ... 53

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2

List of tables and figures

1. Respondent demographics………... 19

2. Matched Pairs……….. 20

3. Coding Tree 1……….. 22

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3

1. Introduction

An individual’s aspirations can be shaped by both internal and external factors. Personally, as a student of public administration, my own aspirations have largely been shaped by internal factors like my own goals and ambitions. This is particularly due to the fact that I have not encountered, or been exposed, to individuals whom I see as similar to me in roles or positions that I may aspire to. Through this, my own personal experiences provide a starting point for the direction and focus of this thesis (Silverman & Marvasti, 2008, p.31) by focusing on the setting of international organisations. Though currently, it is abundantly clear that organisations both national and international now emphasise diversity, ensuring that people from all backgrounds are able to access jobs and roles that they may have not been able to previously. There is still a perception of a lack of diversity in international organisations, this is evident in the emphasis on diversity in the workplace in public administration literature. It is because of this that this thesis seeks to explore the experiences of female students in relation to role models and the variety of ways this impacts their aspirations. As well as exploring how the personal experiences of female students may fit into larger, more general patterns in their aspirations.

A growing emphasis on diversity in the workplace in public administration literature has led to an empirical trend in academia to explore theories of diversity in international organisations (Groeneveld & Van de Walle 2010; Kim & Park, 2015), and role models (Quimby & DeSantis, 2006; Hoyt & Simon, 2011). This introduces a gap in academia that this paper seeks to address; as there is little academic research regarding the impact and potential impact of role models on students aspiring to work in international organisations. In addition public administration theory explores diversity in the workplace but provides little insight into the ways in which organisations can attract young people to apply (e.g. through the presence of role models). By exploring perceptions of diversity in international organisations, this thesis attempts to present the setting of international organisations through public administration theory and combine it with psychological theories particularly regarding role modelling.

Through the mechanisms involved in role modelling this thesis aims to explore the experiences of females at an individual level. The main focus of this paper explores the mechanisms involved in fostering aspirations in female students at an individual level. With a specific focus on role models and the ways in which they- at individual levels- may impact the aspirations of female students, who largely aspire to work in international organisations in the future. This particular focus holds a practical relevance, as examining individual level processes would

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4 allow us to gain a better insight into the factors involved in fostering aspirations for the future employees of international organisations and explore if an increased diverse workforce could contribute to attracting female students. This research also holds a societal relevance in that it would shed light on and allow us to understand further what contributes to the aspirations of female students and the significance of the presence of female role models. Finally, this research holds an important academic relevance, through the combination of public administration theories of diversity and representative bureaucracy with role modelling and the various mechanisms involved. This paper ultimately aims to research the individual experiences of female students and the mechanisms involved that may contribute to their career aspirations in relation to the specific setting of international organisations.

The first important concept this paper seeks to explore is diversity. This paper seeks to uncover the direct effects of diversity in international organisations on female students. Diversity has largely been emphasised as an important aspect of working at international organisations, with many organisations implementing equal opportunities and diversity management, but the effect these have on those aspiring to work at these international organisations is largely unknown. This research aims to assess how a diverse workforce in international organisations can act as role models for female students aspiring to work in such organisations. This paper will be drawing on the research conducted by Rosenthal et al (2013), on role models among undergraduate women studying medicine, and apply the mechanisms identified to female students-both graduate and undergraduate- aspiring to work in international organisations. In addition, this paper will focus on intersectionality in female role modelling, drawing on the research of Rosenthal et al (2013), with the aim of highlighting the importance of intersectionality in female role models and how it contributes to the influence ethnic minority role models have on female students. This paper also seeks to highlight the importance of intersectionality in exploring the varied and individual experiences of female students. Secondly this paper will uncover the significance of aspirations. The goal of this research is to explore the possible effects diverse female role models have on the aspirations of female students. And in turn explore how these students interpret role models, if they do at all. Through this research, we can assess how aspirations in female students are fostered and in turn how and if attempts to diversify the workplace have contributed to fostering a new generation of female leaders. This thesis will draw on research surrounding diverse female role models (Bartol et al, 2003; Ayman & Korabik, 2010; Jean-Marie et al, 2009) and will focus on female students. This thesis is also retrospective, as it is focused on the effects that diverse female role

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5 models have as role models on aspiring female students and if this contributes to female students applying to international organisations.

A final important factor is the extent of the influence of role models. Research drawing on the concept of role models has noted the many ways in which they can influence the careers and aspirations of individuals. This thesis aims to focus on how female role models influence female students with a specific focus on international organisation. Diversity in role models has largely focused on the presence of gender-focused leaders, with an emphasis on the importance same-gender role models have. The concept of role models has largely been discussed in terms of leaders, specifically the importance of female leaders. Female leadership has been researched over the past decade (Bass & Avolio, 1994; Vial et al, 2016; Vongalis-Macrow, 2016; Ni & Huo, 2018). Quite similarly, the significance of role models has also been explored in research (Quimby & DeSantis, 2006; Hoyt & Simon, 2011; Latu et al, 2013). Additionally, it is largely the consensus in the literature that role models can influence individuals in a variety of ways (Jung, 1986; Gibson, 2003; Brown & Treviño, 2014). However, very little research has been conducted on intersectionality in role models and the effect it has on how female students interpret role models.

Through an application of the concept of role models, the purpose of this research is to uncover the effects of diverse role models in fostering aspirations for female students. By exploring the perceptions of role models and the roles they play in influencing students, this paper seeks to explore and shed light on the significance of representation through a public administration perspective. Though there has been research surrounding the topics of diversity, role models and aspirations individually, this research seeks to combine all three factors through the research setting of international organisations and through the lens of female students and their experiences. As a result, the research question this paper will explore is “How does the presence of diverse female role models in international organisations contribute to the aspirations of female students?”. To answer this research question, a qualitative case study was conducted with semi-structured interviews as the main method of data collection. Through which female students were interviewed and following that, placed into matched pairs of white and minority female students, in order to draw comparisons.

The structure of this thesis is as followed; after this introduction, Chapter 2 of this paper is the theoretical framework. This chapter explores in more detail the main concepts this research seeks to address and how they relate to the particular phenomenon this paper seeks to explore.

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6 Chapter 3 is the methodology, there the research design is outlined, how the concepts will be explored and what methods this research chooses to employ. It will also present the method of data collection in this research as well as the levels of measurement applied. Chapter 4 is the results, here the results of the chosen research design and data collection methods are presented. The results will be presented in relation to the objectives of this research paper. Chapter 5 is the discussion, in this chapter the results previously presented will be discussed and analysed in correspondence with the measurements outlined in Chapter 3. Finally, Chapter 6 will conclude this research paper by providing a summary as well as a reflection on the objectives of this research.

2. Theoretical Framework

The following chapter is the theoretical framework which provides the foundation for the main concepts and themes this research aims to explore. This chapter will first define each of the main concepts as well as explore the most relevant pieces of literature to provide a basis for analysis in subsequent chapters. In addition through the literature addressed, this chapter will conclude with a summary outlining the main expectations of the research derived from the literature and concepts addressed.

2.1. Diversity

One of the main central concepts this paper seeks to explore is that of the significance of diversity and in turn representation. Diversity in the context of this paper, with regards to international organisations, can be defined as the presence of a multitude of identities and demographics (for example, age, race, gender etc) (Selden & Selden, 2001; p.303). This paper is particularly focused on the individual experiences of female students that may emerge from their stories and diversity as an important concept through the chosen setting of international organisations. When discussing diversity in international organisations, and the workplace in general, representation is at the forefront of this discussion. Specifically the theory of representative bureaucracy. Diversity and representation have largely been at the forefront of recruitment policies of international organisations and are popular focus topics within public administration. The concept of ‘representative bureaucracy’, coined by Kingsley (1944), at the time of its conception highlighted the nature of the civil service that was dominated by elites and largely served the needs of elites. However, representative bureaucracy theory has developed and now largely reflects a need for workforces to be representative of the people they serve, in terms of class, ethnicity, and sex (Bradbury & Kellough, 2011, p.157).

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7 Groeneveld & Van de Walle (2010) highlight this shift in representative bureaucracy theory, noting a move from an emphasis on elite power to an emphasis on equal opportunities (p.244). Representative bureaucracy theory currently explores the ways in which bureaucracies seek to tackle underrepresentation of minority groups (Groeneveld & Van de Walle, 2010, p.244). Furthermore, Bradbury & Kellough (2011) note representative bureaucracy suggests that when a workforce is representative of the various social groups it seeks to serve, the interests of those social groups will be “considered in the bureaucratic decision-making process.” (p.157). Bradbury & Kellough (2011) also noted two ways in which representative bureaucracy can occur, passive and active (p.158). Passive bureaucracies are those that simply seek to be proportionate to the population they serve, while active bureaucracies are when bureaucrats have shared “core attitudes, values and beliefs” from their social groups (Bradbury & Kellough, p.158). The type of bureaucracy, passive or active, and the extent of representativeness is largely dependent on the diversity within that bureaucracy. Having a diverse workforce that is representative of the societies that international organisations seek to serve is paramount in supporting the legitimacy of these organisations (Groeneveld & Van de Walle 2010, p.). This has, in turn, led to a promotion of diversity management, whereby organisations seek to establish diversity “as part of their values and missions” (Kim & Park, 2015 p.179) and ultimately recognizing such differences in the workforce’s organisations employ (Jonsen et al, 2013 p.420). It is through this that organisations, both public and private implement and promote clear policies that promote diversity. These policies seek to encourage and promote diverse workforces that are made up of individuals from all social groups.

However, in practice maintaining a diverse workforce proves to be difficult. More specifically, maintaining diversity equally throughout every level of organisational staff has largely yielded less successful results than the overall staff in organisations. There is much research that explores the promotion of diversity in public and international organisations (Groeneveld & Van de Walle 2010; Kim & Park, 2015; Jonsen et al, 2013; Ng & Sears, 2015) but this research aims to assess how a diverse workforce may impact the aspirations of female students at an individual level to possibly aspire to work in international organisations. This study is focused on the impact of diversity in role models on diverse female students, at an individual level, by uncovering how diverse role models may affect the aspirations of female students. And in doing so may result in the maintenance of diversity in the workforce. This research finally, aims to uncover if and how female role models in international organisations can contribute and lead female students to aspire to, and subsequently apply to, such organisations. Through

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8 this, the importance of diversity in this is apparent in two ways. Firstly, through the setting of international organisations. The presence of a diverse workforce and in turn diverse female role models, and the ways in which these role models may impact the aspirations of female students. Secondly, in the ways a diverse group of female students interpret diversity in their role models or potential role models, and within international organisations.

2.2. Intersectionality

Intersectionality, a term coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989 when discussing the discrimination Black women face in both “feminist and antiracist theory” (Carbado et al, 2013 p. 303). Furthermore, intersectionality can be defined as “the study of the meaning and implication of simultaneous membership in multiple social groups” (Rosette et al, 2016, p.433), through this definition it is clear that intersectionality seeks to address the multiple, interceding ways discrimination is manifested in many areas of society. In addition, intersectionality is ultimately concerned with highlighting the differences or “lived experiences” individuals face in their daily lives (Guittar & Guittar, 2015, p.657). The differences intersectionality refers to can be conceived as memberships of particular or various social groups. By noting the differences regarding the lived experiences of individuals, intersectionality allows us to further understand that as experiences can differ, so too can the study of these experiences and in turn the analyses of these experiences within academia. Intersectionality is particularly important in the study of individuals as it in some parts shapes their experiences, perhaps internally, and in others contributes through external factors, regardless of choice.

Intersectionality is particularly relevant within this research, as the experiences of female students as well as the presence of female role models in international organisations vary, and in some respects may be dependent on certain aspects of their identities. More specifically, by placing intersectionality within the lens of international organisations and the aspirations of female students and potential future employees, this paper seeks to address how various facets of an individual’s identity contribute to their experiences and in turn who they may look to as role models. Furthermore, while public administration theory emphasises diversity, it arguably does not consider the role intersectionality has in shaping experiences of individuals in the workplace. While there is some research on intersectionality in the workplace (Rodriguez et al, 2016; Hoogte & Kingma, 2004; Castro & Holvino, 2016; Rosette et al, 2016), much of this emphasis has been placed on diversity and equal opportunities in the workplace. The application of intersectionality as a concept to organisations has largely not been applied. This

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9 could be because the concept in Crenshaw’s definition highlights that institutions legitimize forms of structural power over minorities from multiple social groups (Carbado et al, 2013). The ways in which this power manifests itself could range from recruitment in general to the number of people from marginalized groups in leadership positions. This can also be seen externally, through the effects of such diversity policies, on these groups. This research particularly aims to draw on these intersections between race and gender, with a focus on the area of leadership in international organisations. In addition, this research aims to identify how this contributes and links to female students. Through that, the aim is to uncover if there are any intersections in race and gender with regards to the role models’ female students look to and if these are similar to the intersections in the identities of students. The intersections that this research seeks to highlight are those experienced by ethnic minority female students and female leaders; who are both members of a particular ethnic minority group and are women.

2.3. Aspirations and the role of role models

An important factor that this paper aims to uncover, is understanding what contributes to students’ aspirations. Aspirations can be defined as goals that are “future-orientated, driven by conscious and unconscious motivations” (Hart, 2016, p.325). Through this definition, aspirations can be conceptualised in both a personal and professional context, this paper will aim to focus on aspirations refers to career aspirations. As a result of that, it is appropriate to uncover the aspirations of individuals that are at an age where they are actively considering their career prospects. Because of that this paper will focus on the career goals that female students have and how role models contribute to these goals. Aspirations among students have been researched in terms of the differences of aspirations of students generally but also a focus on gender and race differences (Sheppard, 2018). Hoyt & Simon (2011) note that role models as leaders can have both a positive and negative effect on the aspirations of women (p.143). However it cannot be denied that female leaders can be “transformational”, and they play a significant role as role models for women (p. 144). Similarly, these female role models can both create aspirations and add to aspirations, as women can use them to make “upward social comparisons” (Hoyt & Simon, 2011 p. 145) that they can aspire towards. When discussing role models, many researchers have discussed that they are important in contributing to the aspirations of individuals (Hoyt et al, 2012; Brown & Treviño, 2014; Gilard, 2015). This paper seeks to draw on this research and examine how and in what ways these aspirations are created. Using three mechanisms identified by Rosenthal et al (2013), this paper will show how these

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10 three mechanisms manifest in whom female students see as role models, and if these have contributed to their aspirations.

Role models can be defined as “people whose lives and activities influence another person in some way” (Quimby & DeSantis, 2006, p.297). The concept of role models can be broken down by the idea of “role”, which outlines certain “behaviours appropriate to a specific position” (Jung, 1986; p.525) and “modelling”, which the means through which an individual can learn roles “through observation” (Jung, 1986, p.525). When combined role models ultimately are perceived to outline certain behaviour pertaining to a specific role, that an individual aim to occupy. Through this, it can be argued that much of the literature surrounding role models, suggests that role models have an effect on individuals, whether positive or negative (Jung, 1986; Gibson, 2003, 2004; Hacket et al, 1989). Through a focus on role models, this thesis will explore the significance of them in providing both a visibly and practically diverse workforce, as much of public administration theory emphasises the importance of practical diversity

Furthermore, Gibson (2003) highlights that much of the academia surrounding role models draw on social learning theory and identification theory (p.592). Social learning theory, similar to the idea of modelling, draws on the idea that individuals identify with models that can provide them with specific “skills, attitudes and norms” (Gibson, 2003, p. 592). This means that individuals ultimately seek to identify with role models in relation to what they provide for them. While identification theory highlights how the assignment of role models is largely dependent on the connection they have with individuals. That is either “emotional or cognitive” (Gibson. 2003, p. 592), and suggests that individuals choose role models on how similar they are to themselves. Through this, an individual can see someone as a role model depending on aspects such as age, gender or race (Jung, 1986, p. 528). Individuals are more likely to choose people as role models through their personal and professional similarities. This, in turn, means that the concept of role models is largely one-sided (Gibson, 2004, p.142), whereby individuals choose someone that represents their aims. The nature of these aims varies but this study will be focusing on professional aims and aspirations that role models may contribute to. It is also important to highlight the role leaders can play as role models, leaders can be defined as individuals that “have far-reaching influence” (Hoyt & Simon, 2011 p. 143), it is through this that leaders can also simultaneously act as role models for individuals, as they hold positions that individuals may aspire to.

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11 Research on role models has also attributed much importance on the importance of gender and ethnicity in role models (Quimby & DeSantis, 2006; Hoyt & Simon, 2011; Hoyt et al, 2012). Quimby & DeSantis (2006) note that role models are important for women, due to the lack of role models in “non-traditional careers”, which in turn contributes to “barriers” that women face when entering certain professions (p.297). This, in turn, can also be applied to role models of different ethnicities. Ultimately, there are multiple factors involved in selecting a role model, and it cannot be denied that race and gender are a large, visible factor that contributes to whom individuals choose to identify with as their role models. It is through this, that this research will combine both gender and race as characteristics that individuals may take into account when choosing role models.

2.3.1. Exposure to female role models

Choosing to identify with individuals, that students see as role models, is the direct consequence of exposure to such leaders. Quimby & DeSantis (2006) note that role models are those who have an influence on an individual (p.297). For this influence to occur, individuals need to encounter those they see as role models in some form. In addition, Hoyt & Simon (2011) note that the position of leaders in the public sphere, means they have a significant influence on individuals that may see them as role models (p. 143). This is due to the nature of leadership largely being attributed to gender stereotypes. Literature has noted that the presence of female leadership is often transformational (Bass & Avolio, 1994 p. 552), it is due to this that female leaders in particular often allow women that see them as role models to “develop to higher levels of potential” (p.552).

In addition, Ayman & Korabik (2010) note that women and individuals that are minorities face challenges advancing to leadership positions, and also challenges related to their positions as leaders (p.157). It is largely due to this, that leaders of these backgrounds are simultaneously role models for individuals that want to emulate their positions. While the importance of female leaders is clear, and their influence as role models, how female students are exposed to them is largely unknown. It is not clear whether students themselves seek out leaders that they can then identify with as role models, or if these leaders become their role models because of their perhaps accidental exposure to them. This paper will be focusing on how female students use female role models and how their presence contributes to their aspirations. To address that, it is important to see how these students are exposed to female leaders. Quite often it is argued that same gender or race role models are significantly important, but it is also important to look

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12 at how individuals are exposed to these role models. This brings into question whether female students, in particular, are exposed to female leaders and if not the way in which this could contribute to their aspirations is relevant.

2.3.2. Identity compatibility

As noted, research suggests that individuals choose role models based on their perceived similarities with their own identities. This draws on Gibson’s (2004) description of role model theory, that draws largely on identification theory, whereby individuals choose role models that “they perceive some similarity to” (p.136). These similarities can be both in terms of gender and race, but also in terms of factors such as “attitudes, behaviours, goals or the desirability of their status position” (Gibson, 2004 p.136). Ultimately, identity compatibility with these role models can be attributed to how well individuals can see themselves in the positions that their role models take up. Hoyt et al (2012) note the effectiveness of successful role models as a result of “social comparisons” (p.258), that is individuals choose role models that align with certain characteristics of their identities and as a result, they allow them to “enhance…self-conceptions” (p.258). As a result of this, role models can allow individuals to aspire and through a sense of identity, compatibility creates an “ideal self” (Gibson, 2004 p.140).

Hoyt et al (2012) note that role models that individuals have no or little identity compatibility with, “can fail to have any impact” or may even have a negative impact on aspirations (p.258). It is clear that role models can have an impact on the aspirations of individuals, but the extent and nature of that impact is unclear. As a result, while this research will be focusing on both gender and race, it will attempt to uncover whether these factors are even taken into account when female students outline their aspirations. This research will seek to uncover how many facets of one’s identity are taken into account when assigning oneself a role model, particularly when addressing that not all female students can come across female leaders that they have complete identity compatibility with.

2.3.3. Sense of Belonging

The final mechanism under which role models will be assessed is the sense of belonging female students have in the careers they aspire to have in international organisations. A sense of belonging can be understood as an individual’s feeling of “membership and acceptance” within a particular group (Good et al, 2012, p.700). In addition, a sense of belonging can be interpreted as one of the main social characteristics involved in working in an international organisation (De Moor et al, 2018, p.207). While there are many facets involved in fostering a sense of

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13 belonging for individuals, this thesis will focus on whether female students perceive a sense of belonging to international organisations that they may want to apply to in relation to the presence of individuals they may see as role models. Furthermore, Good et al (2012) note that a sense of belonging in a particular field can directly relate to the desire of that individual to pursue a career in that field in the future (p.700).

A sense of belonging can be identified in many ways. This paper interprets this as an individual feeling they are potentially part of an international organisation, perhaps through the presence of female role models. In addition, a sense of belonging can be conceptualized in this paper as the “personal belief that one is an accepted member” (Good et al, 2012, p.701) of, in this case, an international organisation. This paper seeks to address how the presence of role models contributes to that sense of belonging and feeling of acceptance into an international organisation. It is through both the presence of female leaders and their perceived identity compatibility; a sense of belonging is arguably the final factor that contributes to the aspirations of female students.

Ultimately if students can see themselves working at the same organisations as their role models, this would allow for a high sense of belonging and as a result high aspiration. Contrastingly, low identity compatibility could lead to a low sense of belonging to future careers in international organisations. However, the extent to which students feel a sense of belonging is unknown, and while it cannot be argued that this can contribute to whom female students look to as role models, how significantly it contributes if at all is unclear. This research aims to uncover how important this final mechanism is in promoting role models that in turn foster aspirations in female students. In addition, Rosenthal et al (2013) in their research looked at a sense of belonging in female students studying medicine, similarly, this research aims to look at female students more broadly studying with the intention of working at international organisations.

2.4. Summary and expectations

To conclude, the theories presented independently shed light on various facets of society. Through combining these theories, this thesis will aim to uncover how they interact in relation to female students. Following the theoretical framework, this thesis can draw on a number of expectations. The first expectation is that the presence of role models or potential role models, individuals may identify with could directly relate to the level of diversity they interpret to be present in international organisations. This could be further related to the individual

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14 interpretations of diversity management within international organisations. That is, individuals with high levels of exposure to role models would in turn have high levels of a sense of belonging in such organisations.

Another expectation that can be drawn from the exploration of theories is the extent of influence role models may hold on the aspirations of individuals. This thesis expects that the influence of role models will relate to the three mechanisms presented. Students who have role models are expected to have been exposed to these role models and more specifically have a high identity compatibility with them. This thesis also expects that the aspirations of individuals who have access to role models that they may have a high level of identity competitivity with, are more likely to be wider and more far ranging. More specifically, individuals who identify with employees at international organisations through the presence of role models, are more likely to feel a sense of belonging in such international organisations. In addition, this thesis expects that female students are more likely to aspire to apply to international organisations that employ female leaders they see as role models. Furthermore, when referencing intersectionality, this thesis expects that ethnic minority students are more likely to aspire to apply to international organisations that employ ethnic minority females that they may identify with, and in turn see as role models. Ultimately this thesis expects that the intersections in identities of female students contribute to their aspirations as well as the presence of female role models that they may identify with.

3. Methodology

The following chapter is the methodology which outlines the research design chosen to address and answer this thesis’ research question. The research design outlines the main research objectives as well as the research approach and strategies applied. This chapter also discusses the chosen sampling strategies and the data collection methods. As well as the measurement and coding methods applied to measure and analyse the results. Finally this chapter will close with a short summary.

3.1. Research Design

The study for this thesis and the primary objective in this research is to explore the experiences of individuals and the patterns that may emerge from their stories. The goal for this research is to ultimately provide insights into the mechanisms mentioned above in how individuals select role models and uncover how they relate to both diversity and aspirations. Therefore, the

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15 research for this study is qualitative, meaning it follows an approach that seeks to study “natural social life” (Saldaña, 2011, p.3), which can be understood as the role models and aspirations of female students. A qualitative perspective is necessary in this research topic because this research is ultimately interested in the experiences and perceptions of people of individuals. Moreover, Silverman & Marvasti (2008) note that qualitative research allows you to explore how questions, topics that are particularly subjective and rely on the “authenticity of the human experience” (p.34). The primary objective of this research relates to the experiences of individual female students and the various patterns that may emerge from their stories. Furthermore, the subjective experiences of individual female students are the main topic of research.

In addition, as this research is qualitative, the foundation of it is a specific case or phenomenon through which patterns in the experiences of female students seek to be uncovered and explored, it is largely informed by theory and as a result, deductive in its nature. As this research is theory-informed and draws from previous “established facts and evidence” (Saldaña, 2011, p.93), it allows this research to draw on particular areas and direct the study while also allowing for mechanisms that may not be uncovered. In addition, as this research is deductive, it uses theory and through a particular focus, it builds on existing knowledge (Silverman & Marvasti, 2008, p.52). This research begins with theory as a point of departure to direct the research and explore a topic within a specific context and a particular group of individuals. Ultimately, a deductive, qualitative approach allows this research to look at specific phenomena (Maxwell, 2013, p.88) to explore the mechanisms that contribute to aspirations. The purpose of this research can be described as explanatory, as it aims to uncover the results and explain the effects of certain concepts and phenomena as opposed to simply describing (Given, 2008, p.324). This research is also explanatory as it links a specific phenomenon, in this case, aspirations of female students to the theories of representative bureaucracy and role modelling. By narrowing the focus on one specific phenomenon, this research will provide a detailed explanation that provides insights into the mechanisms that contribute to and lead to this phenomenon.

Additionally, this thesis adopts a case study as a research approach. Case studies allow a researcher to study phenomena at an in-depth level (Given, 2008, p.69). Through conducting a deductive qualitative research study, female students of studies focused on international relations are the population this thesis will focus on, and female students, undergraduate or postgraduate at Leiden University, The Hague campus are the sample frame from which a

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16 sample will be drawn. As many of the studies in The Hague campus focus at an international level, this research will focus on programs that exclusively focus at an international level. More specifically on factors involving international governance, it is more feasible to look at female students from this campus, that may aspire to work in international organisations. This suggests that the sample chosen is particularly selective, as a large part of this research is reliant on the assumption that most, if not all students interviewed aspire to work at international organisations. By conducting qualitative research, this thesis will explore in detail the individual experiences of female students and the ways in which role models may impact their aspirations.

Through the use of a case study, this research aims to address the effects of a phenomena, through a “detailed examination of a single example” (Abercrombie et al, 1984, p.34), by attempting to uncover the mechanisms involved and how the aspirations of female students may be impacted by the presence of diverse female role models in international organisations. As a result, this case study will provide an insight into, and address the direct effects of a phenomenon on a specific case. Case studies are a good form of qualitative research that allows you to understand in depth a specific case, through a detailed qualitative method of data collection. Case studies also direct research by connecting the cases chosen to the most appropriate theory to which they have a relation (Haverland & Yanow, 2012, p.406). By using a case study, this research can address the direct effects of phenomena on a specific case. This research will do this by using theories such as representative bureaucracy and addressing real-life situations in which we are able to see the consequences of these theories (Meyer, p.331). Case studies and in this research, focusing on female students, allows this research to strive for variety in responses and ultimately to present a study that is diverse in perspectives. In addition, case studies are particularly effective because they provide an in-depth insight into a specific phenomenon and help guide future research by providing nuance (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p.223).

3.2. Data Collection

This research seeks to explore the individual experiences of female students in and the various mechanisms that may impact their aspirations. This means the selection of individuals sampled will be women who are students that may seek to work in international organisations in the future. Moreover, there is no age range for the students sampled, as they are simply students that are enrolled at Leiden University. This research will adopt a purposive sampling strategy, to ensure individuals that are selected have a perspective and insight that is relevant to the

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17 objective of this research (Robinson, 2014, p.32). Furthermore, it is important that the sample of students reflects both ethnic minority female students and white female students, as comparisons can be drawn and analysed. The sample of students will also be matched in pairs, on sets of characteristics they share. A comparison of ethnic minority and white female students will allow for a wide range of experiences and perspectives to be addressed and provide for a variety of narratives (Silverman & Marvasti, 2008, p.69). For the purpose of this thesis, white students are students of European descent through their family backgrounds and migration history and minority students are students simply not of European descent through migration or otherwise. This will allow the research to directly address and analyse the application of concepts of diversity and representative bureaucracy, through interviewing students that fall into these categories. White female students will be matched with ethnic minority female students in regard to similar background characteristics including for example, age and social class. The respondents are placed into matched pairs in order to draw comparisons between minority and white students. In addition, the sample size of students that will be interviewed for this research is a minimum of 16 and a maximum of 20 students. This size will allow for a wide range of accounts, while also providing sufficient emphasis on individual cases (Robinson, 2014, p.29).

The realized sample was a total 16 students, of both undergraduate and postgraduate studies. Through selective sampling, endeavours were made to ensure students of both white and minority backgrounds were presented, to provide various perspectives and insights into their experiences. Table 1 outlines the demographics of the participants as well as their study programme and ethnic background, as these are factors that would allow for matching the participants to compare responses. In total, 16 female students were sampled, of which 10 were postgraduate students; 9 studying MSc Public Administration and 1 studying MSc Crisis and Security Management. The remaining 6 students were all undergraduate students, with 5 studying BA International Studies and 1 studying BA Public Policy and Management. In addition, out of the 16 students, 9 were of an ethnic minority background and the remaining 7 were of a white background.

Characteristics of participants are significant to make a systematic comparison between ethnic minority female students and white female students. A variety of students were sampled with differing backgrounds, and respondents were then placed into matched pairs to be able to make a systematic comparison between ethnic minority female students and white female students. In addition, these pairs were matched on similarities such as age, class, and professional

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18 background. However, it is important to note that due to time constraints, the number of ethnic minority participants to white participants are unequal, as 7 white female students and 9 ethnic minority students were interviewed. As the purpose of matched students was to match students that were similar in many characteristics except for one, in this case race. This would allow comparisons to be drawn, and as a result 7 pairs were matched. While the final pair, which was two minority students created a most different pair, as they shared one characteristic; race but differed on many others. Table 2 outlines the pairs created as well as the background characteristics the pairs were matched on, while the last pair were not referenced in the table but would still provide an insight into significance and impact of intersectionality.

The primary data collection method this research will adopt are semi-structured interviews. Interviews in general provide access to individual accounts and the various “meanings people attribute to their experiences and social worlds” (Silverman, 2004, p.126). Moreover, interviews allow the research to explore multiple points of views and perspectives (Silverman, 2004, p.137). Semi-structured interviews are useful in this research, as they provide a detailed guide that can be used to gather knowledge about a specific experience of a phenomenon (McIntosh & Morse, 2015, p.1). In addition, interviews allow the researcher to focus on and gain a snapshot into the “personal histories” and the experiences of individuals (Saldaña, 2011, p.31). A semi-structured interview allows the researcher to guide the participant with prepared questions, while also leaving room for flexibility and depth in answers from the respondent. Through the use of open-ended questions, interviewees are able to answer freely and with as much detail as possible. The semi-structured interview also provides the researcher with flexibility in their questions, with the option of clarification and prompting for further responses (McIntosh & Morse, 2015, p.1). Semi-structured interviews in this study will allow us to analyse a case study in detail, and in turn providing an in-depth understanding and analysis of the personal experiences of various members of a particular social group (Galletta & Cross, 2013, p.37). Informed consent was addressed prior to interviews, and participants signed consent forms immediately before interviews began. Participants remained anonymous, though relevant factors of their identities e.g. race, gender, age etc. will be referenced and available within the research.

When discussing the interview process, all respondents signed a consent form consenting to the recording of the interviews, and all respondents were anonymous. Interviews also took place at various locations, at the convenience of the interviewees. In addition, an interview guide was used in all interviews and this comprised of a total of 23 questions. The questions

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19 were then separated into 4 categories; introductory questions, role models, diversity and aspirations. Moreover, follow-up questions were also asked in relation to the direct responses of the interviewees and as a result varied in nature. Finally, all interviews were audio-recorded, and then subsequently transcribed.

Table 1- Respondent demographics

Participant 1 MSc Public Administration White background Participant 2 BA Public Policy and

Management

Minority background

Participant 3 MSc Public Administration Minority background Participant 4 MSc Public Administration Minority background Participant 5 MSc Public Administration Minority background Participant 6 MSc Public Administration Minority background Participant 7 MSc Public Administration Minority background Participant 8 MSc Public Administration White background Participant 9 MSc Crisis and Security

Management

White background

Participant 10 MSc Public Administration Minority background Participant 11 MSc Public Administration White background Participant 12 BA International Studies Minority background Participant 13 BA International Studies Minority background Participant 14 BA International Studies White background Participant 15 BA International Studies White background Participant 16 BA International Studies White background

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20

Table 2- Matched Pairs

Respondents matched Matched characteristics Pair 1 Respondent 1 & Respondent 10 Class, professional background

Pair 2 Respondent 2 & Respondent 16 Age

Pair 3 Respondent 4 & Respondent 9 Age

Pair 4 Respondent 5 & Respondent 14 Class

Pair 5 Respondent 6 & Respondent 15 Age. class

Pair 6 Respondent 7 & Respondent 8 Age, professional background

Pair 7 Respondent 11 & Respondent 13

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21

3.3. Coding and measurement

The interview guide provided a starting point for this coding process, as it provided direct links to the relevant concepts in this thesis. Questions in the interview guide were general but related directly to the concepts that would in turn become relevant categories in the coding process. Furthermore, the categories within the interview guides provided a basis for analysis. In addition, as this research is qualitative and the primary data collection method is semi-structured interviews, the method of qualitative analysis that this research will employ is coding. Coding can be defined as “the process of categorizing and sorting data” (Charmaz, 1983, as cited Bryman & Burgees, 2002, p.5). Furthermore a code can involve either a word or phrase that allocates a characteristic to the data coded (Saldaña, 2016, p.3). In addition, as this research is also deductive, the theories explored and discussed in the theoretical framework will provide a basis for the coding categories created at later stages of the coding process. Considering the main data for this research is semi-structured interviews, coding allows the researcher to assess and analyse transcripts as a form of data.

The coding process for this research can be broken down into 2 stages or cycles. The first stage of coding can be described as “open coding”, for this research this involves reading through interview transcripts and simple assigning general words or phrases to sections and essentially “breaking down” the data (Bryman & Burgess, 2002, p.5). This first stage involves general coding or initial coding, and as the purpose of this research is to uncover individual experiences, the initial method of coding this research will adopt is what Saldaña (2016) notes as “descriptive coding” (p.100). This involves assigning general words or phrases to break down and understand the content of the transcripts. In coding, the first stage is an ongoing process, which involves assigning and reassigning codes to various transcripts. The second stage of coding is the categorisation stage, here the codes assigned in the previous stage are placed in categories according to themes and concepts. As this research is deductive, the categories will be under the concepts addressed within the theoretical framework, and the variety of responses highlighted will be placed within these categories. As Saldaña (2016) notes it is important at this stage to maintain the nuances within the data (p.100) and descriptive coding allows the researcher to address and thematically link various ideas and statements to different concepts and categories.

As the interviews for this research are semi-structured, and the same interview guide is used throughout, the nature of the codes will largely be in line with similar categories. And as a consequence, the measurement of the results will be in relation to the concepts addressed in the

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22 theoretical framework. Ultimately, the codes established will be measured in relation to the categories established, by assessing the various levels in which certain responses related to the concepts and mechanisms established.

Coding Trees

The following trees present the coding process and the ways in which phrases were connected to overall themes and concepts. The main concepts; role models, diversity and aspirations were referenced in the questions on the interview guide. These concepts were then connected through responses coded and linked to the relevant mechanisms. Sense of belonging and exposure were referenced through responses on diversity and the link to aspirations. An example of this would be for example, respondent 13 stated that when looking at the background of her role model the following factors were important: “Race, ethnicity... social upbringing in terms of class, economic... household income, gender, gender identity as well...also religious background” (respondent 13; minority background). The characteristics described in background were directly linked to the mechanisms of identity compatibility, as these were factors of the respondent’s identity that she believed were important. And in turn, identity compatibility was previously identified as a factor in selecting role models.

Coding Tree 1 Ethnicity Role Models Leader Inspirational Identity compatibility Race Class Gender Education Age Values Work Ethic

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23

Coding Tree 2

3.4. Summary

It is also important to discuss the ways in which validity and reliability are maintained in this research. Morse et al (2002) also note a number of steps to ensure reliability and validity in qualitative research. Firstly, the presence of “methodological coherence,” this means confirming there is link between the research question and the various stages of the research process (p.18). As noted, this research is deductive and theory-driven, thus, strengthening the methodological coherence. Morse et al (2002) also note the importance of “collecting and analysing data concurrently” (p.18), as interviews were conducted and transcribed simultaneously, analysis was conducted in the form of notes, the coding process began after the interviews were completed. Though it is important to note, achieving high levels of reliability in qualitative research is difficult, as the aim in this thesis is to focus on individuals and their experiences, but reliability can be increased through an emphasis on transparency in both collecting and analysing data (Morse et al, 2002, p.18). Transparency is paramount in increasing reliability in qualitative research, this was increased in this thesis through the use of firstly recording and transcribing interviews, and secondly through adopting a structured way of coding, as this ensured both transparency and replicability.

Diversity Legitimacy Bureaucracy Representation Sense of belonging Aspirations Pay Motivation Goals Acceptance Exposure to female role models

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24 In addition, “verification” (Morse et al, 2002, p.18) was ensured through the transparency in the method of data collection. Furthermore, Morse et al (2008) reference the importance of an “appropriate sample,” (p.18) this increases validity as it connects the data to both the research question and the theory. The sample for this research is both appropriate to the topic and to answering the research question. Though, it is important to note the sample could be larger and more diverse. Finally, a significant factor in contributing to the reliability and validity of this research is the link to “theory development” (Morse et al, 2008, p.18), a deductive and theory-driven approach in this research, can lead and contribute to a development of the theories referenced. In the case of this thesis, this leads to a relevant development of public administration theory on the topic of diversity and representative bureaucracy.

4. Results

The following chapter presents the results gathered through 16 semi-structured interviews taken with undergraduate and postgraduate, female students at the University of Leiden campus The Hague. This chapter will then present the results in two main sections; firstly the overall general themes and patterns that emerged from the interviews as a whole. And secondly, through the matching of interviewees through pairing, the next section will compare results in the responses between ethnic minority female students and white female students. In the first section, the results will be presented in accordance with the main themes of this research and research question; role models, diversity and aspirations. Through these themes, the results will present the various ways in which the mechanisms were present and the various levels of this. The second section will then present results by comparing the individuals in each matched pair and will allow us to address the intersections involved in the responses, as well as any patterns present.

4.1. Overall trends

4.1.1. Diversity

As noted, another important area this thesis touches on is that of diversity. Within the interviews, diversity was explored in the ways it was important to respondents, if at all, as well as diversity in the workplace. More specifically, in this thesis through the setting of international organisations. When asked how important diversity is in international organisations, all respondents stated that it was of a high importance, referencing reasons surrounding the legitimacy of organisations and the representation of individuals from a variety

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25 of backgrounds and turn a variety of perspectives. Respondent 4 highlighted representation by stating:

“so basically if there is more diversity you represent more people, which as an international organisation you probably want to do that so, also to increase your legitimacy and also to convey that message that you are there for everyone and not just for a group of people or a part of the population”(respondent 4; minority background).

In addition, in response to particular areas in which they believed international organisations would need to focus on in regard to diversity, some respondents highlighted the importance of diversity in the recruitment process, by employing a more diverse, and an overall representative workforce. While some students highlighted that while diversity is important in international organisations, recruitment should not solely be made on delivering a diverse workforce. Other students focused on the internal structures of international organisations highlighting that they wanted to see more women in higher, leadership positions, as well as an equal distribution across all levels. Respondent 10 highlighted this:

“…I realise that actually international organisations do hire a lot of women, they just don't find themselves in leadership, management positions. So I think it's mainly on internal things…” (respondent 10; minority background).

When discussing respondents’ perceptions of employees in international organisations, a number of respondents referenced physical characteristics like gender and race. A small number of respondents referenced age, when asked about what they perceived a typical employee to be in an international organisation. Moreover, some respondents referenced educational background when discussing employees of international organisations, noting they perceived them to be of a certain educational level. In addition, some respondents stated that they perceived employees in international organisations to be diverse in terms of nationality or gender. Finally, the remaining respondents noted that they perceived employees in international organisations to have a set of internal characteristics like for example, being adaptive, professional, idealistic and other characteristics that respondents perceived to be largely in line with the aims and goals of international organisations. For example, respondent 9 stated: “An idealist... openminded... and I expect them of men and women... yeah, supporting like international standards for... for human rights and international…” (respondent 9; white background).

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26 Furthermore, respondents were then asked to describe what they imagine a typical employee to be in international organisations. Half the respondents referenced character traits, such as being idealistic, value-driven, adaptive and altruistic. While some respondents explicitly referenced education, noting that they imagined employees at international organisations to have advanced educational backgrounds. Furthermore, a number of respondents highlighted physical attributes that they imagined employees in international organisations to possess, of those, 2 respondents referenced age, 1 stating they perceived employees to be younger and 1 stating they perceived them to be older. Moreover, some respondents stated that they imagined a typical employee in an international organisation to be a white man. Respondents were also asked whether they identify with employees in international organisations and were prompted to address any similarities or differences. Many respondents noted they did not identify with a large number of employees in organisations, citing factors like race, gender, goals and work ethic.

Respondents were then questioned on the presence of women that work in international organisations. When asked on the importance of women of diverse backgrounds in international organisations being represented at all levels, 1 respondent noted that while it may be an issue, they did not previously consider it. The remaining 15 respondents stated that they believed it was of significant importance, citing reasons like representation, gender balance and also the presence of women in leadership positions. Respondent 5, for example, stated: “Yeah... I'll lie if I say it's unimportant because if I see a picture with only white men in the board or at the top, like same old, same old. So yeah, I think it's very important to me... to- like if I would apply to such an organisation, to have a feeling that the values of the organisation are at the same level as mine, so diverse and trying to have more women at the top, at all levels…” (respondent 5;minority background).

Finally, respondents were asked on the importance of women that work in international organisations that they may want to apply to, 3 respondents noted that it was not particularly important, of those 3, 1 noting that the gender balance was not something they looked at first when applying to an organisation, as well as noting that they would apply regardless of these factors. In addition, 1 respondent stated that it was not of a large importance as they believed they would struggle to apply regardless but the presence of women would still be helpful. The remaining respondents stated that the presence of women in international organisations they may want to apply to was of a substantial importance, the most prevalent reasons for this being

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27 representation, the presence of women showing respondents that organisations are representative. Another reason being progression, respondents stated the presence of women would provide them with more confidence that their applications to such organisations would be more likely to be successful. And finally, a substantial number of respondents noted that the presence of women working in organisations that they may want to apply to, would be important as it would provide them with a sense of comfort within the organisation. Respondent 13 highlighted some of these factors:

“If I were planning to apply for an organisation, I would do my research about the organization, find out who is working there, if it's white or male dominated I probably wouldn't apply. If I were lucky enough to get a position, I wouldn't necessarily feel comfortable working there every day” (respondent 13; minority background).

4.1.2. Role models

In order to establish the influence and impact role models had on students, it was first important to establish how respondents defined role models, and what characteristics respondents attributed to role models. When asked what the term role model means, all respondents attributed the term role model to individuals that were “inspirational” or “admirable”. Role models to respondents were defined as individuals that had inspired them or many and were also possessed admirable qualities that respondents sought the replicate or possess themselves. In addition, role models were largely described as inspiring individuals through both their personal and professional lives. Respondent 7 stated:

“A role model... for me is someone with kind of status who I can look up to and I will- someone I aspire to at least follow or look like and draw some lessons from that person” (respondent 7; minority background).

A small number of respondents also defined a role model as a “leader” or having “leadership qualities”. Through a description of role models as leaders, respondents described role models as having the ability to inspire many individuals at once and as a result, are leaders in their particular fields. In addition, respondents that identified role models as leaders noted that leaders were able to either appeal to large audiences or command a significant amount of control. For example, respondent 1 stated:

“…you know the leaders that sort of inspire are the ones that sort of you feel like if you were to talk to them they could talk to someone at every education level, every cultural background,

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28 everything, they make them feel very comfortable. and then to translate that into that message in front of a large audience…” (respondent 1; white background).

Furthermore, a number of respondents stated they did have role models, of which some had role models of a familial or personal nature and others identified role models in a professional capacity through for example the workplace. And finally a big majority of respondents identified very public individuals from largely political fields as role models. The most frequently referenced public figures as role models were Michelle Obama and New Zealand Prime Minister, Jacinda Arden. In addition, of the respondents that identified role models, 3 stated male figures as role models, 1 being a family member and 2 being public figures; Nelson Mandela and the UN Secretary. A large number of role models identified were working in fields that respondents were either interested in or wanted to work in. When referencing all of these role models, the qualities mentioned were synonymous with the definitions provided for role models, highlighting qualities like being inspirational, admirable and being leaders in their particular fields.

In addition, 3 respondents stated they did not have role models, of those 3, 1 respondent stated that this simple was due to having a singular path and personal goals and aspirations, that did not require a role model. While 2 of those respondents stated that they had no role models because they had not come across individuals that had inspired them or that they aspired to be like in their field. With respondent 2 in particular noting that their lack of role model was directly due to a lack or female representation in their field:

“I don’t think there’s enough representation of women, especially women of colour to have any role models in my profession” (respondent 2; minority background).

When asked the qualities that individuals would look for in a role model, a large number of respondents noted that it was particularly important that their role models or potential role models have a similar background to them. The respondents referenced particular factors such as gender, race, religion, and class. In addition, for some of the respondents, educational background was of some importance as it provided them with some guidance if their role model worked in a similar field. Respondents noted that these qualities were significant in generating a bond. Respondent 11 highlighted this by stating:

“I think it's important because it’s a way of us, like you know I connect to her, through this. And it's also maybe shows that if she can make it, I can also make it” (respondent 11; white background).

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29 While less than half of the respondents noted that it was not necessary that their role model have a similar background to them, but they were more likely to look to women as role models. Some respondents highlighted the importance of internal character traits as opposed to physical traits, like for example, work ethic, leadership skills, or the ability to appeal to a large and wide-ranging audience. Respondent 16 for example, stating:

“I think... when I look for a role model... I think a role model does not have to be someone I identify with, but someone more people can identify with” (respondent 16; white background).

4.1.3. Aspirations

A final topic that respondents were questioned on was their aspirations, as much of this research seeks to understand what factors contribute to the aspirations of female students, the questions in the interview guide sought to explore those factors. When asked whether their aspirations are driven by internal or external factors, 3 respondents stated that their aspirations were solely driven by internal factors such as their own personal goals and ambitions, while 1 respondent noted that their aspirations were mostly externally driven through the influence of individuals she encountered. The remaining respondents stated that their aspirations were both internally and externally driven. Of those respondents, when probed on the nature of the external factors, 4 respondents explicitly referenced individuals that they saw as role models contributing to their aspirations. While the remaining respondents referenced factors such as their personal backgrounds and upbringings or events in their lives that largely contributed to their career aspirations. Respondent 15 highlighted the importance of her upbringing, stating:

“So me being... from Kosovo with the Kosovan war being not long ago, makes me want to work in an organisation that helps or prevents people from migrating, in a way that they can stay within their country and be safe…” (respondent 15; white background).

Interviewees were then asked on their aspirations regarding applications to international organisations. When asked what factors respondents take into account when looking at international organisations they may apply to, responses varied from practical factors such as geographical location and salary, to altruistic factors such as the values, goals and aims of the organisations. In addition, some respondents highlighted that the culture within the organisation was important and was in line with what respondents were comfortable with. Respondents also referenced the importance of the possibility of progression in organisations they would like to apply to. Many respondents stated the importance of diversity in

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