Environmental Policies in the Principality of Monaco

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Institute of Security and Global Affairs

Leiden University – Faculty of Governance and Global Affairs

Master Thesis

Crisis and Security Management

Word Count: Thesis: 18 172 Words, Excel Output: 1 428 Words, Atlas.Ti Output: 15 990 Words CSM SEPTEMBER 2017; Master Thesis; ROBIN FONTAINE; S2033887; 10/06/2018

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Preface

This research based on Monaco has been motivated by the principality’s unrelenting efforts to educate young people towards the protection of the sea and the environment. The numerous expositions and educational programs of the Oceanographic Museum and the process set up for a clean and environmental friendly principality have driven to study the impact of their efforts on a national scale.

This research has been able thanks to Monaco’s Department of the Environment and Directorate for Urban Planning, which gathered a wide collection of environmental data. Their guidance for the selection of the relevant documents and decrees for the analysis has provided valuable guidance.

Abstract

Despite the extensive literature on environmental security, empirical analysis of environmental policies in a European country are erratic. The central research area of empirical studies are assessments of regional environmental security. This research is aiming at evaluating the effectiveness of some environmental policies of the Principality of Monaco. It is attempting to adapt traditional environmental security assessment of six relevant indicators, by including the societal aspect of the policies. The relevant indicators‘ evolution is analyzed to determine if the related policy has had a positive or negative impact on the indicator over the studies period. The related policies decrees and ministerial orders are then being analyzed with four relevant indicators, to determine the policy’s societal effectiveness. This framework is designed to determine which aspect of the policy could be further enhanced and determine if a policy has had the desired effect on the Principality. The research revealed that most policies are lacking educational and communication elements to be properly effective.

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Changes in the environment or biota due to climate change and that exert significant adverse effects on the composition, resistance or productivity of natural and managed ecosystems, on the functioning of socio-economic systems or on human health and well-being. Climate System A set encompassing the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the biosphere

and the geosphere, as well as their interactions.

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GHG The gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural than anthropogenic, which absorb and re-emit infrared radiation.

Heavy Metal Metals or metalloids that are stable and have a density greater than 4.5 g / cm3 and their compounds.

µg/m3 The concentration of an air pollutant (eg. ozone) is given in micrograms (one-millionth of a gram) per cubic meter air.

VOCs

Artificial organic compounds, other than methane, that can produce oxidants photochemical reactions with nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight.

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Timeline of Referenced Events

1892 Decree on the regime of sources of drinking water.

1959 Decree-Law n. 674 concerning town planning, the construction and roads. 1972 Stockholm Conference

1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (Geneva) 1990 Kyoto Protocol Reference Year

1992 Rio Earth Summit (Brazil)

1994 Decree n. 11.260 making the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change legally enforceable.

1995 COP1 Berlin (Allemagne) 2000 COP6 La Hague (Pays-Bas)

Decree n. 14.377 Implementing the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution and its Protocol on the Long-Term Financing of the Cooperative Program for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe.

2001 Decree n. 15.037 making the Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution on the Control of Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds or Their

Transboundary Fluxes, adopted at Geneva on 18 November 1991.

2002 Decree n. 15.388 making the Protocol to the 1979 Convention on long-range transboundary air pollution a new reduction in sulfur emissions, done at Oslo on 14 June 1994.

2004 Decree n. 16.177 making the Protocol applicable to the 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution on Heavy Metals, done at Aarhus on 24 June 1998.

2005 Kyoto Protocol

COP11 Montréal (Canada)

2006 Decree n. 518 enforcing the Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention. 2008 Creation of the Department of the Environment, Monaco.

Decree n. 1.464 on the creation of the Department of the Environment. 2009 COP15 Copenhague (Danemark)

1st_{Publication of Environmental Data, Monaco.}

2011 Decree n. 3.197 laying down protective measures trees and certain plants.

2012 Ministerial Order n. 2012-38 of 25/01/2012 on the classification of trees and plants heritage. Ministerial Order n. 2012-37 laying down the detailed rules for the application of Article 4 of Sovereign Ordinance No 3.197 of 25 March 2011 laying down the protection measures for trees and some plant.

2013 Doha amendment. 2014 UN Climate Summit 2015 COP21 Paris (France) 2017 Decree 6.251 on Waste.

Decree n. 6.696 relating to the quality and monitoring of drinking water for distributed human consumption.

2030 Kyoto Protocol 1st_Phase

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Introduction

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“I am, as you know, a strong conservationist. This forms part of a tradition marked by my ancestors who illustrated this tradition by their numerous actions: the creation of the Oceanographic Museum, the Museum of prehistoric anthropology and the "Jardin Exotique", the promotion of maritime law through the signature of the RAMOGE Agreement for the protection of the Mediterranean Sea. Monaco must be a model country that respects nature.”2

During his investiture speech, His Serene Highness Prince Albert IInd of Monaco emphasised the Principality’s legacy as a leader in environmental protection and its involvement in international Agreement for sea protection. Monaco’s appeal to ocean protection and environmental awareness has been a retentive tradition within the Grimaldi family since Prince Albert 1st’s involvement in marine sciences and biodiversity conservation. Prince Albert’s actions since his investiture have shown a strong determination to bring

1_{Fontaine, R. (2018). Monaco Port Hercules.}

2_{SAS Prince Albert II}nd_{. (2005). Investiture speech H.S.H. Prince Albert II}nd_{of Monaco.} Figure 1- Monaco Port

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awareness on international problems including the melting of the poles, global warming and rising sea levels. In April 2006, H.S.H. Prince Albert IInd launched an expedition in the North Pole to demonstrate the effects of global warming on the local populations and the biodiversity.3

Monaco’s involvement in conventions and its ratification of treaties enhanced the Principality’s responsibilities towards and within the international community. The Kyoto Protocol, ratified in 2006, commits states to reduce their greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions. Monaco has been the first state to finish the first stage by reducing the GHG emission by 13,2% and aims at reducing it further by 30% by 2020. The 2015 Paris agreement aiming at keeping the global warming average below 2°c, Monaco’s initiative has created an impact within the international community, as its intention is to decrease its GHG emissions by 50% in 2030 and hope to achieve a 0-emission target by 2050. Monaco’s national policy seems to follow this line by demonstrating an ambition in managing energy production and climate change. The Principality has identified its own flows in terms of GHG production, most notably; transport, heating and waste management.4

This paper aims at evaluating the efficiency of selected national policies aiming at tackling environmental security challenges. Doing so would either provide an instance of best practice for environmental policies or reveal flows on which the Principality’s environment direction needs to focus its efforts. The distinction between correlation and causality between the environmental state, meaning the level of an indicator at a certain point in time, and the environmental policies effectiveness is a central part of this paper. Monaco being a small state, a variety of indicator can be influenced by other means than by national policies. Thus, the evaluation of the effectiveness of these policies will be firstly assessed with environmental indicators; CO level (Air Quality); Lead Level (Air Quality); CO2 level; Green Area/Forest Coverage; Water Resource Management; Waste Management. It will then be assessed based on societal indicators; Inclusiveness; Accountability, Transparency and Participatory Level

The goal of this research is accordingly to analyse the policies’ effectiveness by looking at both concrete evolution of indicators and the social aspect of the policy. The valuation of the policies effectiveness based on tangible environmental indicator is done over a long period extending from 1992 to 2015 in order to see the evolution from the time the policy was put in place. The evolution needs to be calculated and compared to neighbouring countries, France

3_{Palace of Monaco. (2008). The Environment in the Principality of Monaco.}

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and Italy, to exclude possible bias of regional effect. The analysis of the societal indicators will consist of policy analysis and will provide a dummy variable outcome. Based on all gathered data from both analysis of environmental and societal indicators, this dissertation will provide a grade to define each policy effectiveness.

Subject of the Research Proposal and Situation of the Problem

This research proposal aims at assessing the state of environmental security policies by taking the case of the Principality of Monaco. Extended literature exists on the assessment of environmental security at an urban level, most of which reveal a complicated relationship between cities and the environment.5 Although, national policies aimed at drastically reducing our ecological impact in the next decades. Monaco being a small state, this paradox is less strong as national policies are closer to urban policies and their application need to be more effective. Hence, this dissertation is looking at the national policies put in place and their evolution to understand their level of efficiency. It will explore the notion of environmental security studies in a small state and the relation governments have with the concept. Certainly, small states have a particular relation to environmental security as exogenous indicators can heavily influence the environmental outcome. The analysis of Monaco’s environmental policy’s assessment cannot be used as a general assessment for small states. The simple analysis of environmental indicators cannot be sufficient to determine if a policy has an impact. The effectiveness of the national policies in the quality of the air howbeit still needs to be accounted for.

Monaco is a unique case to study environmental security, the Principality is a city-state of 203 Ha, it is an enclave of France, located 10 kilometres from the Italian border and thus susceptible to both countries environmental policies. The whole territory is urbanised and form the region’s main economic centre, including neighbouring French and Italian cities. The World Banks numbers reveal a total population of around 38 500 people, although, being the economic heart of the region, an additional 40 000 people are also working in the Principality making its local population double every morning and halved again every evening, creating massive amounts of pollution relatively to the population.Its economic sectors are clearly fragmented

5_{Rees W., Wackernagel M. (2008) Urban Ecological Footprints: Why Cities Cannot be Sustainable—and Why}

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and heavily dependent on third industry, its energy production is entirely dependent on France and its challenges are unlike most countries’. The Paris agreement goal, aiming at the reduction of GHG, will thus require different policies in the Principality than in larger countries. Environmental policies for the principality cannot be based on previous studies of environmental security. For instance, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has assessed the Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data by sector.6 The industry and agricultural sectors combined represent 46% of global GHG emission, thus, policies aiming at reducing the GHG need to consider these sectors primarily to result in a decrease in the GHG emissions. Although these two sectors combined hardly represent 14% of Monaco’s total GDP, 86% is derived from the service sector. Its economy rellies around high-class tourism and its casino. Most of its service is based on small or hight benefit non-polluting industries.7 The largest producing sector of GHG is the production of electricity and heating, yet, Monaco as a small state, is dependent on France.8

Besides, the building sector, representing 19% of global GHG emission, has a more important stature in the Principality. Monaco’s project to extend its onshore territory over the Mediterranean Sea represents an extensive part of this sector, which is considerably less present in other countries. This project embodies a problem specific to small states like Monaco, due to the lack of space, expansion over the sea seems to be the chosen solution by the Monegasque state. “Then, in 2020, a new neighbourhood will emerge from an artificial piece of land at a titanic price.”9_{The massive investment of one billion euros, close to 1/7 of Monaco’s total GDP} for 2014, seems to discount previous policies for the protection of the environment as this project involves massive consideration for the environment and the biodiversity present around Monaco’s coasts. 10

6_{United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2017). Global Green house Gas Emissions Data.} 7_{Central Intelligence Agency. (2018). The World Factbook, Monaco.}

8_{Porter, L. (2009). Electricity supply at risk. Monaco IQ Business Intelligence.}

9_{Hello Monaco. (2017). Neighbourhood on the Water: A Titanic Construction Project.} 10_{Hello Monaco. (2017). Neighbourhood on the Water: A Titanic Construction Project.}

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As shown previously, Monaco is engaged in the reduction of global warming and its policies show an awareness of the problem. Its results regarding international conventions are stronger than most states, although, as described, Monaco is a small state and benefits from a unique setting. Looking at the evolution of a number of indicators over time and comparing it to OECD’s statistics as a basis would allow seeing which policies were effective in tackling Monaco’s unique challenges and which policies need to be revised to achieve better results. This comparison needs to be assessed to avoid strong bias. The policy effectiveness framework has been designed to take into account all the characteristics of the small state configuration and will try to avoid bias in its analysis. The analysis of both France and Italy ‘evolution of similar environmental indicator will thus provide a comparison tool to seek and reveal strong correlation in the data. Such correlation could reveal a regional effect and lessen the impact of Monaco’s national policy. Furthermore, the analysis of the social aspect of the policy will provide a strong tool to further evaluate the effectiveness of the policy by including national elements.

Scientific and Societal Relevance

The debate among scholars for the relevance and the definition (Table 1) of environmental security is arising from the lack of interdisciplinary studies available. “Despite the initial momentum and the broad scope of environmental security discourses, the debate was captured

Figure 2- Monaco's new Neighbourhood Project.

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by discussions about environmentally induced conﬂicts.”11_{Relating the environment to} traditional threat has framed environmental issues as the cause for security matters. Recent studies have started to look at the index of environmental security in a scientific way. Such studies are popular in the eastern Asian region and in the African region.12 Although this process is quite recent in European countries. 13 In “Urban ecological security assessment for cities in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei metropolitan region based on fuzzy and entropy methods”, the authors have been assessing for the urban ecological security assessment by using different indicators over time and see which ones evolved in the way the policies aimed for them to evolve. For instance, the industrial SO2 emissions intensity has been measured from 2003 to 2014. The analysis revealed a higher emission in 2014 thus the impact on the security is negative. Although, most studies in the field of environmental security are focussed on the assessment of environmental security index. Liu and Chang revealed that on the 9976 research done on environmental security available on CNKI, 52,33% were centred on the assessment and analysis of environmental indicator.14 The field lacks a clear emphasis on the analysis of environmental policies.

Most environmental policies that aim at tackling climate change and urban environmental security are also recent and might lack relevance. The field of environmental security lacks empirical studies based on local data. Monaco being both a city and a state, gathering data on the urban environmental security and assessing for the efficiency of the national policy would provide an empirical study of the field. The case of Monaco being heavily influenced by France and Italy’s industries, its data and findings cannot be generalised. Yet, this dissertation provides a mixed framework for the evaluation of small countries environmental policies efficiency based on multiple designs for national environmental security policies, urban security assessment designs and personal reflection of small states situation.

Monaco being a European state located on the Mediterranean coast, the effectiveness of the environmental policy is thus pertinent. As shown later in the literature review, climate change and environmental security have mostly been studies in third world countries. The belief

11_{Trombetta, M,J. (2008). Environmental security and climate change: analysing the discourse. Cambridge}

Review of International Affairs, 21, 4, 592.

12_{Baolong, H. Hongxiao, Liu. Rusong, W. (2015). Urban ecological security assessment for cities in the Beijing–}

Tianjin–Hebei metropolitan region based on fuzzy and entropy methods. Ecological Modelling. 318, 217 – 225. Partnership for African Environmental Sustainability, Foundation for Environmental Security and Sustainability. (2004). Assessing Environmental Security in Eastern Africa: Achieving Sustainable Development and Peace. Reports of the International Workshop. Kampala.

13_{McDonald, M. (2013). Discourse of Climate Security. Political Geography, 33, 42 -51. 44}

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that European countries and cities were spared from such threats, despite the recognition of the international nature of the problem, has only recently been challenged. Although, the policies put in place in the countries need to be evaluated to make sure they are adequate tools in line with the nature of the threat. Assessing for the weak spots of urban environmental security in a first world state and reveal weaknesses in the existing policies can be a starting point for undertaking better resource management and reduce excessive pollution in the state. If the analysis of the policy reveals a low amount of weaknesses or no weaknesses, the analysis can provide an example of best practice in an urban setting. All aspects of a policy, both environmental and societal, must be studied and analysed to understand what is the challenge that creates a problem in the urban environmental policy of the principality. The framework of Kamugasha and Glass-Royal for environmental policy assessment define several crucial characteristics that environmental policy must account for to be effective. Thus, the analysis of these defiant policies will provide a best practice pattern based on the previously evaluated urban environmental security. Environmental policies must be accountable, transparent, inclusive, and participatory, respected and enforce the law. “Good governance implies accountability to all local stakeholders, and it implies consideration of and responsiveness to their livelihood interests.”15

Objectives of the Research

The objective of the research is, accordingly, to measure the effectiveness of environmental policies in the Principality of Monaco. It aims at analysing every aspect of the policies, both tangible environmental repercussions and societal impact. By doing so the analysis will both reveal the weaknesses of the policies and comprehensively rate their effectiveness to provide a more precise focus from the government in ensuring environmental security. Environmental guidelines given by international conferences have pushed European states to take actions to reduce the problems caused by environmental issues, although, the nature of the threat is radically different in every country and every city within the country. A coastal city, for instance, will have to regulate issues of water pollution while an inland city would face greater problem in the waste disposal area. Looking at the evolution of certain

15_{Partnership for African Environmental Sustainability, Foundation for Environmental Security and}

Sustainability. (2004). Assessing Environmental Security in Eastern Africa: Achieving Sustainable Development and Peace. Reports of the International Workshop. Kampala. 27.

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indicators will reveal if the principality of Monaco has a good understanding of its own problems and will reveal defiant policies.

Furthermore, this research underlines certain sub question relative to the field of environmental security. The lack of focus on environmental policies within the scholarly community and the crucial lack of empirical analytical studies will be answered. The analysis of both environmental and societal aspect will combine multiple framework and design to provide a mixed design tailored for the valuation of environmental policies effectiveness. This thesis is taking these two different aspects to provide a more in-depth analysis of the policy evaluation. To avoid bias it should be stressed that the design includes a comparison with neighbouring countries environmental indicators. Indeed, the environmental security evaluation is important, yet this essay is mostly focussing on the effectiveness of the policy and will use the environmental security assessment as a guideline for the evaluation of the policies and to provide empirical evidence for the findings.

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A History of Environmental Policy

Environmental Goals and Vision

International Commitment from the Rio Earth Summit 1992 to the 2015 Paris Agreements

Figure 3 - Price Rainer III of Monaco signs the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change on behalf of Monaco. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), 3-14 June 1992. Available at: https://www.unmultimedia.org/photo/detail.j

An efficient way to determine the international vision, hopes and dreams of achievement of the international community would be to look at the results of international conferences. While every country has a different opinion and diverse policies and policy enforcement scheme, international conferences can still reveal what the trend of thought of the international community has been at and what the evolution of these philosophies has been over time. Indeed, the need for a global conference on the environment and the general point of view exposed during these conferences is an indicator of the genuine acknowledgement of environmental security as a proper security issue. In The effectiveness of international environmental agreements, Vollenweider explains that joining an international conference on the protection of the environment does not correlate with an instant change within the participating countries’ environmental security policies. Although it “may consist in trying to signal a general

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willingness to engage in cooperative behaviour that does not necessarily include improvements in environmental performance.”16

As mentioned in the theoretical framework, this recognition can be traced back to 1972 during the Stockholm conference.17 This conference placed environmental issues on the international agenda. The participants adopted a declaration of twenty-six principles and a vast plan of action to fight against pollution.18 Article 25 declares that ‘’States shall ensure that international organizations play a coordinated, efficient and dynamic role for the protection and improvement of the environment.” This summit was the origin of, not only, the UNEP but of a vast array of international legal instruments. The following years have also seen a multiplication of conventions and agreements and, with it, a multiplication of environmental threats acknowledgement. “In the three decades following the 1970s, the number of international environmental institutions has grown by more than 170 % to 464 agreements. Countries have created environmental agreements with a wide range of targets, from reducing oil or air pollution to protecting polar bears”19

Although arguably the most influential global engagement within the international community 1992 and the Rio Earth Summit.20 The previous convention on environment protection found their origins in an ecological disaster, prevention and protection of Oil resources and nature protection but rarely in global concerns or climate change.21_{The massive} devotion and promotion dedicated to this conference is the pinnacle of all events following the Stockholm Conference, confirming the crucial role that global environmental security problems, including concerns over climate change, loss of biodiversity or water quality, have on the global political agenda.22 With 172 Governments participating and around 2,400 representatives of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 17,000 people attended the parallel NGO Forum the Rio de Janeiro started an international commitment and created an international agenda, representative of the global community’s goals and vision; the Agenda 21 Section II on Conservation and Management of Resources for Development. Yet to remember

16_{Vollenweider, J. (2013). The effectiveness of international environmental agreements. International}

Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics. 13, 3, 261.

17_{Timeline of Referenced Events, 1972, p.}

18_{Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. (1972).}

19_{Vollenweider, J. (2013). The effectiveness of international environmental agreements. International}

Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics. 13, 3, 344.

20_{Timeline of Referenced Events, 1992, p.} 21_{Timeline of Referenced Events, p}

22_{Freestone, D. (2011). International Environmental Conventions. International Labor Organization,}

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the context of the conference, the in 1992 the world barely knows a new balance of forces. The dislocation of the USSR between 1990 and 1991 only left this newly together world a year to draft the goals and admissions for the 21st_{century. The Agenda 21 thus acts as a} recommendation platform rather than a mandatory conference binding countries to adopt new policies. Its chapters are outlining the biggest contemporary concerns at a time where the USA is the leading nations and the golf war barely started.

Nonetheless, the Agenda 21 lists central features for a better management of the environment ranging from Chapter 9: Protection of the atmosphere to Chapter 22: Safe and environmentally sound management of radioactive wastes. While all chapters are tackling specific themes, most objectives are common and outline a single way of thought. The Agenda vastly emphasizes the importance of an enhance scientific collaboration including funding, sharing of scientific discoveries and an improved international scholarly tie to further accelerate knowledge on the global, regional, national and local scale. The main objectives at the national level are aiming to “reduce adverse effects […] from the energy sector by promoting policies” and encourage to develop ecologically and cost friendly energy sources.23 The constant control and monitoring of polluting substances (on both sea, land and air) is likewise a key objective; Chapter 12 on Managing Fragile Ecosystems, for instance, aims at establishing a permanent scheme for “monitoring desertification and land degradation”.24_{Industrial research and} development is similarly an important idea throughout the agenda, outlining the relevance to unfold new eco-friendly technologies for enhanced environmental security. Following, this logic of enhanced environmental security, the agenda is calling for the creation of “contingency plans for degradation and pollution of anthropogenic origin”.25_{Finally, the reaffirmation of} previous environmental conferences such as the 1988 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer or the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is further revealing the importance of the Rio Earth Summit. These other conferences are not being referenced in preambles but within the main arguments of the agenda to reiterate the message and the importance of these congresses.26

23_{Agenda 21. (1992). United Nations Conference on Environment & Development Rio de Janerio. Section II on}

Conservation and Management of Resources for Development. 9.11.

Conservation and Management of Resources for Development. 12.6

Conservation and Management of Resources for Development. 17.6

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Figure 4 - H.S.H. Prince Albert II of Monaco addresses the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference. Available at: http://archives.nicematin.com/derniere-minute/le-prince-albert-ii-rappelle-les-objectifs-de-monaco-a-la-tribune-de-la-cop-21.2412156.html

These guidelines provided by the Rio Earth Summit, while non-binding, did engage the global community for a more consequent and legally binding set of rules. Following these step, the yearly UNFCCC, or COP27, has set upon a series of common objectives for all the parties. Whereas the Rio Earth Summit has been an influential conference for the future of the planet, the conferences of the parties, have taken a different step in their procedure. The goal of these conferences is to set a series of concrete objectives with monitoring instruments for each country, or regional cooperation for enhanced capacity building28, and have a follow-up a scheme to display the progress or reveal the weaknesses of the newly created policies. The COP2129 has recently set up a series of objectives for all parties to follow.

The core ambition displayed by the conference has been the holding of the global average temperature below the 2°C above pre-industrial levels. It also aims towards limiting

27_{Timeline of Referenced Events, p.}

28_{United Nations Climate Change Conference. (2015). Adoption of the Paris Agreement Proposal by the}

President Draft decision -/CP.21. Article 4.16.

29_{Many more conferences on climate change and the protection of the environment have set up goals and}

legal instrument, please refer to the Timeline of Referenced Events p. , although the COP21 has been the most recent major event which will help the monitoring of objectives evolution.

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the temperature rise to solely 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.30_{These objectives shall be} reached by maintaining a constant effort from all parties involved. The key difference between the Agenda 21 and the COP 21 is the encouragement toward parties to “maintain successive nationally determined contributions that it intends to achieve.”31 The addition of a regular set of objective and the obligation for all parties to replace their goals with more ambitious ones every five years is a supplementary incentive to achieve greater results. Furthermore, independent monitoring and legal instrument have been put in place following the conference to ensure each party does respect these nationally determined contributions. It further encourages “parties [to] provide the information necessary for clarity [and] transparency.”32_In the context of an international commitment, these two characteristics are fundamental for an enhanced cooperation of the parties as outlined in Article 2 and above. Withal, in an effort to further enhance the capacity building and to follow both the Rio Earth Summit guideline and the COP’s ambitions, the parties shall create inventories reports of all sources of anthropogenic emission and removals of greenhouse gases sinks.33

While this last article might not seem distinct, it does embed the fundamental evolution made between the 1992 Rio Earth Summit and the 2015 Paris Agreements. Indeed, the creation of emission sources’ root directories and the classification by source does reveal a change of mind in the global community. The time to give guidelines is passed and concrete actions and measures shall be taken to ensure global environmental security. While the consequences of the 2°C scenario have not been measures precisely, the repercussion could be immense and this agreement reveals a conscious state of mind about this fact at a global level. The evolution made is thus not only, from a legal point of view, from recommendation and guidelines towards legally binding arguments and legal instruments, but also from an acknowledgement of issues to a security alert.

President Draft decision -/CP.21. Article 2.1(a).

President Draft decision -/CP.21. Article 4.2

32_{United Nations Climate Change Conference. (2015). Adoption of the Paris Agreement Proposal by the President}

Draft decision -/CP.21. Article 4.8

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A Princely Ambition to Pave the Road

While the global level reveals an acknowledgement of environmental issues during the 1990’s and a concrete conscious state during the 2015 Paris Agreement, the ambitions of the Principality of Monaco towards the environment have traditionally been greater than most other states. Since 2005 and H.S.H. Prince Albert II, environmental policies have been a priority for the Principality. Monaco has been on many occasions, party and signatory of international conferences and has been setting up a multitude of environmental goals to achieve in the short and long term on both national and international levels. Late Prince Rainier III ratified the 1992 UNFCCC, thus agreeing to all aforementioned guidelines towards sustainable development. Following his father’s steps, Prince Albert II ratified the 2006 Kyoto Protocol on climate change and emission of greenhouses gases. Monaco’s has successfully respected its commitment to reduce its emissions by 8% compared to its 1990’s emissions, thus being the only signatory country to have successfully engaged with the first period of the Kyoto Protocol. Since the signature of the Doha amendment of the 27th of December 2013, the principality entered the Kyoto Protocol’s second phase and aims to reduce its emissions by 22% over the period 2013 – 2020.

Prince Albert II has although announced goals that are even more ambitious during the Climate Summit 2014, further engaging Monaco in the reduction of greenhouse gases emissions. Compared to the 1990 levels, Monaco’s emission is to drop by 30% until 2030 and by 80% by 2050. The city-state is attempting to achieve carbon neutrality at the level of a state by that same date. Granting its small size and its relation to neighbouring states, the principality

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needs to be the pedestal of regional collaborative efforts to achieve such standards. The principality is ready to provide support to develop low emissions means to neighbouring cities to achieve its 2050 goals. The principality’s hope for the future is to respect the Paris agreements’ and keep the global warming under the 2°C pre-industrial time ratio. In order to do so, the principality has released a series of commitment to announce clear quantified goals. The Principality has considered two different approaches to their ambitious planning. For both plans, the reference year is 1990 for CO2, CH4 and N2O and 1995 for fluorinated gases (e.g.: NF3). The first one is a decade-long forecasting to reduce the emissions by 40%, compared to the reference years, over the period 2021-2030. The second option is to divide the period into two separate goals to determine after a first period where should the investments dedicated to this reduction be allocated. The goals are thus to reduce all emissions by 35%, compared to the reference years, over the period 2021-2025 and to reach a reduction of 45% over the period 2026-2030.34 These two commitments are planning to tackle on all the greenhouse gases mentioned by the protocol of Kyoto: CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, SF6, PFCs.35 While these quantified commitments are great compared to other states, there is a gap between the declaratory levels. As of the previously stated, Paris Agreements nationally determined contributions, the prince declared Monaco’s ambitions to be a 50% drop of emissions by 2030. Neither of these two plans would be enough to achieve this target. Although the principle of these nationally determined contributions is to be revised every 5 years, which will correspond to the beginning of either plan.

34_{UNFCCC. (2015). Principality of Monaco national contribution.}

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36

Most notably, the principality’s engagement is mostly domestic. Indeed, the principality recognizes the importance of a multinational plan to reduce the emissions and it recognizes the influence that Italy and France have on the level of pollution measured in the principality. Yet, 100% of the measurement taken and planned to reach these targets will be achieved by domestic policies. These statistics can evolve in the future as the principality declared being open to multi-national accords. The Principality’s contribution does not account for but does not exclude potential “use of mechanisms for the international transfer of reduction units”, yet, this solution is only deemed as necessary in case Monaco alone “prove[s] insufficient at the end of the commitment period”.37

36_{Department of Environment. (2017). The Environment in the Principality of Monaco.}

37_{UNFCCC. (2015). Principality of Monaco national contribution. p.7.}

2010 2020 2025 2030 Objectives 92 82,75 73,5 55 Option Decade 92 85,5 79 66 Option 5 Years 92 76,25 71,5 60,5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Mo n aco ’s e m is sion s in CO2 -e q u iv alent GHG

Monaco's Planned Emissions

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38

Monaco has declared that their ambition for emission reduction will be difficult to meet in the next 25 years. Indeed the principality needs to set up a proper agenda to determine which area needs to be prioritized and define the best cost-emission reduction ratio to put in place in the Principality. The goal of 50% reduction until 2030 will not be met by engaging in better performances in Monaco’s industries. An overall change of policy to reshape some industries, most notably the building industry, and a better development and use of carbon-free technologies are essential for Monaco to achieve their targets. The principality does recognize its smaller stature and understands that its emissions are relatively low compared to bigger countries. Although Monaco wishes to become a harbinger in the field of carbon reduction and eco-technologies.39 Monaco is aiming to pave the way for bigger nations to follow even at great costs in both time and investment. Thus the ambitions of the principality, more than just carbon reduction, are reputationally related. While the principality is recognized as a European tax heaven, its desire for the next years is to outgrow this image and be recognized as a leader in eco-responsible technologies, policies and urban design.

38_{Department of Environment. (2017).The Environment in the Principality of Monaco.} 39_{UNFCCC. (2015). Principality of Monaco national contribution. p.9.}

1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 Calculated Emission 110 121 92 Objectives 92 73,5 55 38,5 22 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Mo n aco ’s e m is sion s in CO2 -e q u iv alent GHG

Monaco's Commitment

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From Creation to Development; Monegasques Policies and Environmental Securitization

As seen in the previous paragraphs, Monaco’s ambition to be part of the of the fight against climate change has been a long-running endeavour of not only current Prince Albert the IInd_{but also his}

father Prince Rainier the IIIrd_{. Although even by recognizing the importance the importance of the}

environment and the security threat it can represent, the question of securitization of environmental matters in the principality is rather unorthodox. Deudney explains the link between the war system and the environment as being dependent.40_{War and war preparation are environmental threats in the sense}

that they consume massive amounts of resources that could be used to counter environmental problems. In the case of the Principality of Monaco, this statement does change drastically and cannot be applied. Indeed, Deudney uses the example of the United States where the annual military budget in 2017 was 610.0 billion USD for around 1,281,900 active personnel and 811,000 reserve personnel41_{, yet, in the}

case of Monaco, the military expenditures are close to zero for 124 soldiers42_.

The theory of securitization cannot be applied to this example with this Deudney’s understanding. “Securitization both requires legitimacy (of the actor, the framing of the referent object

40_{Deudney, D. (1990). The Case against Linking Environmental Degradation and National Security. SAGE}

Publications. 19, 3, 463.

41_{SIPRI. (2018). Fact Sheet. Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2017.}

42_{Compagnie des Carabiniers de Monaco. 2018. Gouvernement Princier: Principauté de Monaco.} Figuur 1 - Prince Albert IInd Receiving the Zayed price

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and the proposed actions to thwart the threat) to succeed, and produces further legitimacy to act.”43

While the Principality does not have the legitimacy for conduction military actions, its actions towards environmental security can provide further legitimacy over its policies. The principality and the global community are aware of the threats that climate, change poses to future generations. Thus, to help limit its impact, the Principality of Monaco has tried to implement a policy plan to positively influence the environmental state of Monaco. The Climate Energy Plan aims at limiting the carbon footprint of the Principality and to enable it to respect the international commitments it has adopted in the framework of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and its Protocols.44_{Doing so can}

bring legitimacy to the Principality, more so than engaging in military actions where it would stay a minor actor.

The governmental structure does reflect this logic since the administration includes a Department of the Environment, dependent from the “Département de l'Équipement, de l'Environnement et de l'Urbanisme”, yet it does not include a military department other than police and cybercrimes units. Since its creation in 2008, the Department of the Environment has communicated on topics related to its actions and protection and enhancement measures for natural areas and their biodiversity. “Legitimacy in securitization processes is established through a social exchange between political elites and audiences about ideas, norms and beliefs.”45_{There is regular communication on}

environmental security issues within the principality between the political elites and the targeted audience of the departmental policies “When that exchange produces a gap between the actions of the securitizing actor and the beliefs, norms and values of the audience, delegitimization, which ultimately can result in disempowerment, ensues.”46_{While in the case of Monaco, disempowerment might be an}

extreme and dubious consequence, the communication strategy based on environmental security can give more legitimacy to the Principality’s government.

In 2009, the Department of the Environment’s publication of the Principality's first environmental data collection was made available to the large public. It gathered scientific information on the principality of Monaco on various indicators. This had three main purposes; it firstly is used to monitor and assess the principality’s environmental state; these data are also used to evaluate the impact of the departmental policies; finally, these data used and revealed to the public are used to back up the department of the environment and thus enhance their legitimacy towards the public. Indeed producing

43_{Olesker, R. (2018). The securitization dilemma: legitimacy in securitization studies. Critical Studies on}

Security. p.2

44_{Department of Environment. (2017). The Environment in the Principality of Monaco.}

Security. p.12

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hard proof of success from the government can avoid the alienation of the environmental department and thus of the government by scientifically pressuring the public to support the policies.

The legitimacy of the government relying partly on the resolution of environmental challenges, due to securitization, is essential to balance and sustain with concrete scientific evidence. The theory of security dilemma presents a situation where the actor creating the securitization is becoming a threat or undermining a tertiary actor, thus creating insecurity. When this theory when applied to social security dimension, uses distinctiveness of a community as display of a nonmilitary threat.47_{In the case of}

environmental security, this paradox is enhanced, as “it is the contemporary way of life that is causing environmental problems.”48_{Thus, securitization focus of the government on environmental issue in the}

principality infers that the Monegasque way of life is its own main threat. For instance, during the aforementioned 1992 Rio Earth Summit, US president George Bush explained that the American lifestyle was not up for debate, thus revealing aggressive environmental policies as a bigger threat than environmental harms.49

Article 2 of decree n. 1.464 on the creation of the Department of the Environment, amended by Decree n. 4.666, is shaped to avoid creating such security dilemma that could reveal fatal for the government. This Directorate is responsible for assisting with the definition and implementation of Government policy in the areas of sustainable development and the environment. Is must “ensure the monitoring of biodiversity, the quality of environments, sources of pollution and risks of natural or technological origin; inform and educate the public on environmental issues”50_{The monitoring and the}

communication of these results are useful tool to present concrete scientific evidence of the departmental policies effectiveness. The communication on the principality actions taken to maximize the population’s security and wellbeing have two main goals. Firstly, these results are used to maximize or enhance governmental legitimacy over its own population. Secondly, these results can add weight to Monaco’s arguments during international convention. Since Article 2 also states the department of the environment shall “participate, on behalf of the Principality, with the Department of External Relations and Cooperation in the work of international organizations falling within its field of competence”51_{. The}

enhancement of Monaco’s legitimacy over such theme is essential, as Monaco and other small state tend to have less weight within international conventions.

Security. p.5

48_{Trombetta, M, J. (2008). Environmental security and climate change: analysing the discourse. Cambridge}

Review of International Affairs, 21, 4, 595.

49_{Referenced in Trombetta, M, J. (2008). Environmental security and climate change: analysing the discourse.}

Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 21, 4, 596.

50_{Palace of Monaco. (2008). Decree n. 1.464 on the creation of the Department of the Environment.} 51_{Palace of Monaco. (2008). Decree n. 1.464 on the creation of the Department of the Environment.}

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Theoretical Framework

Environmental Threats’ Securitisation

In 1977, Lester Brown released an article called “Rethinking National Security”52_in which he outlines the importance to integrate environmental causes to national security. He explains that, when drafting long-term perspective policies, nation-states should take into consideration environmental problem. Yet, this visionary text is quite limited in its content on environmental security. As described above, the 1992 Rio Earth Summit53_{has brought the first} talks of environmental security on a big scale. Due to the end of the cold war, the new world’s equilibrium being settled or different wars over natural resources, environmental issues were beginning to be considered, yet, no concrete plan had been drafted. The guidelines provided by the summit would thus influence future scholars and conferences. A few years later, in 1997, Jessica Mathews wrote an article “Power Shift”54_{in Foreign Affairs in which she explains the} relevance to link national security and environmental concerns. Further literature is still quite limited as environmental security were not the primary emphasis of these articles. The subject of ecological problems and national security were not yet into mainstream security debate. Yet, as seen above, during the 2015 Paris Agreements, Environmental security was the main topic of the conference and concrete goals and legal instruments have been created to achieve these goals. Thus, from 1992 to 2015 there has been a shift in the world leader’s trends of through towards environmental security.

Environmental security became has become more of a mainstream topic. The consequences allocated to environmental security, massive migration flows, national struggle to achieve self-sufficiency or primary resources induced wars, have pushed questions over the environment within national security agendas.55 The Copenhagen School’s securitization scheme has been used56_{and criticized}57_{to describe the new interest for environmental security} as a security matter. After the cold war, the Copenhagen school has been looking at the shift of non-traditional security matters to regular security threats. The securitization of a matter is

52_{Brown, L. (1977). Redefining National Security. World Watch Institute #14.} 53_{Timeline of Referenced Events, 1992. p.}

54_{Mathews, J. (1997). Power Shift. Foreign Affairs, 76, 1, 50 -66.}

55_{Raquel Freire, M. (2008). The Securitization of Environmental Policies: Grasping the Nexus? The Darfur Case.}

The SAIS Europe Journal.

Review of International Affairs, 21, 4, 585-602.

57_{Deudney, Daniel (1990) ‘The case against linking environmental degradation and nationalsecurity’,}

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implying a number of characteristical changes in the way the issue is being dealt with. Indeed, the dynamic of the government is changed as former regular policy become security policies.58 The two main rivalling point of view over that securitization scheme are traditionalists who wish to keep security matters to the military and non-traditionalists who would rather redefine or broaden the current security agenda to include more topics.

Traditionalists believe that securitization of non-traditional threats is irrelevant as security matters should be handled by the military. More than a conflict of IR, this trend of thought reveals a practical side to the matters of security. If traditionally the military had to assure the security of a nation against rivalling militaries, they might not be prepared, equipped or shaped with nontraditional threats. “Since the environment is a highly complex ecosystem, “guarding” the environment by controlling access and use may make sense from a theoretical and even administrative point of view, but from an eco-systemic point of view it is illogical.”59 The environmental question would, therefore, be shortly beneficent but would not be solved or tackled and most of its effects would not be mitigated. According to the framework of Glass-Royal,60 environmental issues need to be included in the society and thus the military alone would not be able to solve such issues. Furthermore, securitization would rank nontraditional threats at the same level as other threats. Daniel Deudley strongly made the case against linking nontraditional security issues, and particularly the environment, at the same level as other security matters. “Environmental degradation and violence are different types of threat.”61

Other such as Lester Brown or Jessica Mathew have been linking environmental threats and security matters without the inclusion of the traditional military. Securitisation happens when an issue is taken out of the realm of normal problems.62 In her studies on Environmental security in Darfur, Maria Raquel Freire is linking traditional violence and conflict in this region of the world and environmental issues such as scarcity or resources. She points out the fact that ethnic violence and traditional political alliances and games are also part of the violence and

Review of International Affairs, 21, 4, 585-602.

60_{Glass-Royal, D. (2004) The Environmental Security Assessment Framework (ESAF) – Rationale, Process and}

Substance. Environmental Security in Eastern Africa Achieving Sustainable Development and Peace. Nile Conference.

61_{Deudney, D. (1990). The Case against Linking Environmental Degradation and National Security. SAGE}

Publications. 19, 3, 463.

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instability in the region, although, she points out that environmental matters are often part or the cause of these political games. “The analysis of political rhetoric and discourse, along with political interactions and the international context where these take place are relevant elements in the securitization process.”63_{Her analysis of securitization is based on the defiance of}

traditional laws as authorized by making the case for a security issue. If the laws can be rightfully bent to accommodate for a security issue then the state is facing a case of securitization. The main difference between Deudney and Raquel-Freire is the acceptance of that securitization process. While Deudney seems to describe a situation where the state decides or not to securitize a matter, Raquel-Freire is explaining that securitization imposes itself on the state.

Claire Wilkinson who condemns the Copenhagen School Westphalia point of view on the subject of security brings another point of view on securitization. She believes that securitization, as explained by the Copenhagen school, fails to embody the complex societal definition of non-western democracies. Indeed, the concept of having an institutional change within a pre-established organization and a redefinition of security issues implies a long-standing tradition and stability that not all country can refer to. “The constitution of a societal

referent object involves a logic that is founded on a certain normative understanding of society and its identity that suggests the continued presence of the Westphalian straitjacket.”64_While the Monegasque state does not have such issue and does recognize as legitimate a long-standing traditional government, its issues are far from the traditional western countries. Daniel Deudney’s military-centric vision of the securitization could not apply to such a small state. In the section, Monegasques Policies for Environmental Security, this paper refers to the creation of the Department of the Environment as a securitization of environmental issues by the principality. The creation of a sub-office to the minister of public affairs is an important deed, as part of the budget allocated to this ministry will be allocated specifically to environmental issues. Securitization thus implies greater workforce, more finances dedicated to the matter and additional support.

64_{Wilkinson, C. (2007). The Copenhagen School on Tour in Kyrgyzstan: Is Securitization Theory Useable Outside}

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Chosen Definition of Environmental Security

As seen prior, the subject of securitisation of environmental issues can drastically change depending on the chosen definition. The “wicked problem” characteristic of environmental security is revealed by this collection of definition and goals of environmental security. Indeed due to its transnational character, environmental security gathers a vast number of actors with very dissimilar goals and positions on the ‘problem’. Rittel and Weber are defining wicked problems as uncommon problems that cannot be solved. They list a list of characteristics to understand how to comprehend and thus take more informed actions towards ‘wicked problems’.65

Firstly, wicked problems are not possible to define with precision. Indeed, the vast arrays of environmental security definition prove that it is not possible to find a common definition. Furthermore, this definition is subject to drastic changes due to the evolution and the environmental state of the world.66 Environmental security is value-laden, meaning that not all actors are giving it the same amount of legitimacy and importance as not all actors are confronted with environmental security in the same manner.

Secondly, environmental security does not have a stopping rule. “The process of solving the problem is identical with the process of understanding its nature”, thus according to the prior argument, no definitive solution can be found to stop the problematic. With more scientific discoveries and difference of opinion towards the proper definition of environmental security, there cannot be a situation where every actor finds its stakes resolved.

Besides, every actor involved can define the problem with its unique perspective. For instance, Raquel Freire uses the case of Darfur to explain the environmental nexus of security, the author details that “[global warming] will lead to more conflicts, as groups who have coexisted until now begin to feel a sense of urgency over the diminishing resources of water and land.”67 Other actors have expressed very different understanding of environmental security with different stakes. Han, Liu, and Wang have assessed the urban ecological state of the city of Beijing, their conclusion reveals some characteristics that need enhancing to provide more

65_{Webber, M, M. Rittel, H, W, J. (1973). Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning. Policy Sciences. 4, 155-169} 66_{Lanicci, J, N. Ramsay, J, D. Hope Murray, E. Re-conceptualizing Environmental Security as Resilience:}

Strategic Planning for Human and National Security. Journal of Human Security and Human Resilience. 1, 1, 1-32.

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environmental security. Yet, their assessment is based on health-related security dilemma and not resource depletion.68 The field of environmental security has known an important rise in China from which erupted a vast array of ecological security definition bringing a wide basis area for a policymaker to choose from.

68_{Han, B. Liu, H. Wang, R. (2015). Urban ecological security assessment for cities in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei}

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Author Definition Predominance

Pirages (1996)

Ecological security refers to the balances between human needs and environment affordability for sustainable development, the harmonies between human beings, wild species and microorganisms.

Balance

Ezeonu and

Ezeonu (2000)

Ecological security refers to the states that the health and integrity of the Earth’s ecosystem are well conserved, protected and restored.

Nature

Guo (2001)

Ecological security can be regarded as the status that the structure of the landscape is integrated and the function is stable to provide enough eco-services to support the development of the socio-economic system and further to maintain the human sustainable development.

Social

Xiao et al. (2002)

Ecological security, including the natural, economic and social security, means the well protection of basic livelihood, the health of human life, and the ability of acclimatizing to the environment are free from threat.

Social

Xiao et al. (2002)

Ecological security refers to the security of nature and semi-nature ecosystem, that is, the reflection of the ecosystem integrity and health, including ecological system and environment security

Nature

Chen (2002)

Ecological security means that the regional, national and global ecologies and environments of human habitats are free from stressing, damaging and even destroying. It is a state that ecosystem is healthy for sustainable development.

Nature

Zhou and Shen (2003)

Ecological security means that, in certain space-time scope, the natural, artificial and compound ecosystems maintain their basic ecological structure and the functions for supporting the sustainable social and economic activities of human beings

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Table 1: Evolution of the definition of Ecological Security.69

The predominance stated in Table 1 when looking at the definition of environmental security can drastically change the impact of a policy. Thus, environmental security assessments have been studied in several different ways. Romero Lankao and Qin have conceptualised how the research on environmental security in an urban area responds to the challenge of assessment.70 Their main findings were that most of the studies on environmental security only address part of the problem and does not provide a general answer. The exposure-response method being most significant for the assessment of a specific indicator. Furthermore, this type of experiments is not suited for the valuation of security to an urban scale. Han, Liu and Wang have found that the pressure – state – response (PSR) framework is the most suited to provide a valuation of several indicators over time. “In addition, the analysis resulted in a PSR framework that can be easily understood and applied by decision makers in practice”71_thus making it relevant for policy effectiveness understanding.

Thus, from these assumptions, assessing the level of environmental security and considering environmental policies put in place in countries provides an understanding of the reasoning and motivations behind these strategies. The field of environmental security is marked by a strong difference in the number of deductive analysis based on assumptions and the number of empirical studies assessing for an observed and measured level of security. Such studies have mostly been undertaken at the global level to assess for global warming, in the poles or within large regions. The field of environmental security requires more precise analysis based on local data and a common definition of environmental security on which policymakers can base their decisions.

From Global to Local Environmental Security, the case of Urban Environmental Security The call for national environmental policy to achieve ecological safety arose in the following year. Thomas Homer Dixon described that the population growth coupled with the

69_{Yongsian, L et all. (2016). Modeling the optimal ecological security pattern for guiding the urban constructed}

land expansions. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 19, 36.

70_{Romero Lankao, P. Qin, H. (2011). Conceptualizing urban vulnerability to global climate and environmental}

change. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability. 149.

71_{Han, B. Liu, H. Wang, R. (2015). Urban ecological security assessment for cities in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei}

Environmental Policies in the Principality of Monaco

Table of Contents

Monaco's Planned Emissions

Monaco's Commitment