Master Thesis Leiden University Public Administration
Crisis and Security Management 2015-2016
Victim vs. Resource: an Assessment of the Boundaries, Utility and State
Expectations of Citizen Self Reliance in the Dutch Security Context
Word Count: 29 942 Author: Sara M.S. Kunneman
Student Number: s1149245 Supervisor: Dr. J. Matthys Second Reader: Dr. E. Devroe
Abstract
The research question “How can the current Dutch political perspective on the utility of citizen self reliance in crisis- and disaster response be characterized and how can these characteristics be explained?” is approached by assessing three dimensions of the state's perspective on self reliance; the Objective dimension focuses on the state's current recognition of self reliance in its legal and operational framework. The Political dimension assesses the trends in the debate surrounding citizen self reliance in light of Helsloot and Ruitenberg's theory on citizen response through the analysis of parliamentary documents. The Operational dimension gauges whether Helsloot and Ruitenberg's 'myths' and remnant of Dynes' C3 model can be detected in fifteen case studies of crisis that occurred between 2010 and 2015. The three dimensions in parallel provide a replicable method of characterizing the state's political perspective on citizen self reliance. Combined, they reveal that the Dutch state recognizes the capabilities of citizens using their self reliance in times of crisis. This recognition can be observed from its objectives (the presence of self reliance stimulation campaigns) and its narrative (the normalization of citizen self reliance in the security context). However, the Operational aspect of the state's perspective on citizens as security actors shows that some myths surrounding citizen response are still pervasive; anti-social behavior is anticipated in half of the case studies and the focus on the distribution of state-verified, controlled information is significant.
Table of Content
1. Foreword p. 4
2. Introduction p. 5
2.1 Academic & Societal Relevance p. 7
3. Concepts & Theoretical Framework p. 8
3.1 Crises & Crisis Management p. 8
3.2 Citizenship in Security p. 10
3.3 Self Reliance (Helsloot & Ruitenberg 2004) p.11
3.4 Citizens Participation p.12
3.5 The Network Approach p.13
3.5.i The Spectrum of Citizen Participation p. 14
4. Research Method p. 17
4.1 Objectives for Self Reliance in the Netherlands p. 18
4.2 Parliamentary Document Analysis p. 18
4.2.i Labeling p. 20
4.2.ii Perspective on Citizens p. 21
4.3 Case Study Analysis p. 22
4.3.1 Operationalization: Dynes' C3 Model p. 23
5. Research Results & Analysis p. 25
5.1 The State's Objective: Self Reliance Enhancement in NL p. 25 5.2 The Political Dimension: Parliamentary Document Analysis p. 30
5.2.i Distribution of themes 2010-2015 p.30
5.2.ii Trends over Time p. 31
5.3 The Operational Dimension: Case Study Assessment p. 33
5.3.i The Operational Dimension II: Case Study Analysis p. 43
5.4 Cross-referencing Dimensions p. 47
7. Conclusion p. 54
8. References p. 56
(1). Foreword
After having explored potential thesis topics ranging from the governance of cyber security to the utility of peace innovation in security policy, I realized that Dr. Prins' presentation on citizen response sparked my interest the most. Featuring Helsloot and Ruitenberg's article “Citizen Response to Disasters: a Survey of Literature and Some Practical Implications” (2004) this Crisis Management class inspired me to think about citizenship in the security context and its implications.
With self reliance being such a broad and multifaceted concept in the context of security it was, at times, challenging to focus this research project. I am grateful to Dr. Matthys for his dedication and patience with my writing process. Furthermore, I would like to thank Werner Overdijk from Crisisplan for his guidance during my internship on crisis management and during this writing process.
(2). Introduction
In an age where every notable event is recorded and instantly made available to the online nation, citizens are more aware of crises, incidents and disasters than ever. Through online news media, Tweets, Vines, Snapchats and Facebook posts everyone with an internet connection is increasingly capable of sharing information, revealing a new realm of citizen response to disruption in their communities. The Netherlands being one of the most progressive nations in the world in terms of digital governance, the state and its citizens are increasingly faced with new security issues in an ever complexifying society. Ranging from issues in the digital realm (e.g. the DigiNotar security breach in 2011) to incidents in the physical realm such as the Chemie-Pack fire in 2011, with every 'crisis' the complexity of interconnecting networks that brings forth new security implications becomes more evident. Most states dedicate a considerable amount of their resources to protecting their citizens from threats, ranging from natural disasters to terrorist attacks. Furthermore, these states have established institutions that work together on various levels in response to societal disruptions. The Netherlands is certainly not an exception in coordinated response; its twenty five 'safety regions' (veiligheidsregio's) are geared to enhance the collaboration between fire departments, medical response teams, police forces and crisis management units. Individually and collaboratively, these institutions respond to disruptions on a daily basis.
The beneficiaries of such response efforts are those often most directly affected by threats, incidents, crises and disasters: citizens. Although they are not formally trained to mitigate these disruptions, citizens help themselves and each other in times of crisis; they provide first aid, initiate evacuations and extinguish fires before the state can come to the rescue1. Despite the lack of protocol
and training on behalf of citizen response, their actions comprise the first steps to, at times, life-saving crisis mitigation. The reaction of citizens to crisis situations has been researched by scholars, including Helsloot and Ruitenberg (2004), Quarantelli (1999), Perry and Lindell (2003), Tierney (1998) and Dynes (1994). Amongst other observations, their research sheds light on the practical, political, cultural and sociological implications of crises and particularly the ability of citizens to react to societal disruptions. The utility of citizen response and self reliance at its foundation is thus academically recognized. However, as pointed out by Helsloot and Ruitenberg in 2004, Western state governments at the time were yet to recognize the utility of self reliance by incorporating it into crisis preparation and -response practices2. According to their research, citizens are a more effective first response force
than they have been given credit for by the state due to the pervasiveness of several myth
1
Ruitenberg, A.G.W, Ira Helsloot, and H. Balk. Zelfredzaamheid Van Burgers Bij Rampen En Zware Ongevallen. Alphen Aan Den Rijn: Kluwer, 2004: 7. Print.2
Helsloot, I., and A. Ruitenberg. "Citizen Response to Disasters: A Survey of Literature and Some Practical Implications." J Contingencies & Crisis Man Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 12.3 (2004): 98. Web.surrounding citizen response. Specifically, their findings implied that the state should be more facilitating with respect to the manner in which citizens actually behave before, during and after a crisis3
.
With crisis preparedness increasingly gaining support on the Dutch national political agendasince 2004, this prompts questions as to how this stimulation takes shape in an environment where challenges to enhance citizen preparedness are recognized4. With self reliance being at the
foundation of effective citizen response to crisis situations, an investigation into the policymaking perspective towards the utility of citizen self reliance as a security resource is paramount.
The research problem hence revolves around the notion that the policymaking perspective on the ability of citizens to be a security resource rather than victims should be (re)evaluated in order to effectively stimulate and facilitate citizen response to disasters specifically, and security threats in general. The research gap with respect to the perspective of the state on the role of citizen self reliance in crisis- and disaster response prompts the following research question:
How can the current Dutch political perspective on the utility of citizen self reliance in crisis- and disaster response be characterized and how can these characteristics be explained?
Evaluating the perspective of the state on the utility of self reliance provides an insight into the underlying mechanisms that shape the national crisis management organization, specifically regarding to role of citizens in crisis response. The extent to which the myths surrounding citizen response (as posed by Helsloot and Ruitenberg) are still pervasive in the state's perspective reflects the recognition and incorporation of citizens as self reliant security actors in security policies. This thesis thus investigates what the application of Helsloot and Ruitenberg's theory on citizen response (2004) and Dynes' C3 model to crisis management practices and policies in the Netherlands reveals about the political perceptions of citizens as security actors.
In light of the recent literature on self reliance and parliamentary documents assessed for this thesis, the expected outcome, or 'hypothesis' of the research question is that between 2010 and 2015, the Dutch state has become increasingly eminent in stimulating self-reliance amongst citizens in general, but also in the field of security as the utility of citizens as security actors is increasingly recognized and the myths surrounding citizen response are increasingly regarded as such. The underlying mechanisms that shape this debate can be attributed to self reliance being increasingly regarded as a form of civic duty towards the state whilst it is overall considered financially desirable that citizens are more independent, also in the security context.
To fill the aforementioned research gap, this thesis is structured as follows: First and foremost the conceptual and theoretical framework is presented in which the most significant themes, terms and
3 Ibid. p. 98. 4 Ibid. p. 98.
theories are explained.. Subsequently the research method with respect to the observation of trends in the self reliance debate will be explained in relation to the use of multiple case studies. The section 'Research Results', presents the most significant findings from the parliamentary document-analysis and the case study analysis. Furthermore, a presentation of recent projects and campaigns that stimulate citizen self reliance and –response in the Netherlands over the last five years is provided as well as an in depth cross-sectional analysis between the literature, the findings on self reliance/ response campaigns, the case studies and the results from the quantitative parliamentary documents. In conclusion, the implications that these findings may have for policies and campaigns surrounding self reliance in the Netherlands are discussed.
(2.1) Academic and Societal Relevance
In broad terms this thesis aims to contribute to the academic field of public administration by urging academics to continuously assess the responsibilities and expectations of the state towards its citizens and vice versa. In the academic field of crisis and security management these responsibilities and expectations pertain to how the state organizes itself to protect its citizens from harm. The organization of crisis response structures accommodates- and is designed with the expected response of the largest stakeholder in mind: the citizen. Helsloot and Ruitenberg (2004) argue that the citizen response the state anticipates in its structures does not reflect real citizen response as observed by them through their survey of literature5. By focusing on the element of state perception, this thesis on
one hand tests the applicability of Helsloot and Ruitenberg’s observations on the contemporary Dutch state and on the other hand provides an additional method to assess the perspective of the Dutch government on citizen self reliance. By including policy document analysis according to a self-established coding scheme and a complementing method for assessing case studies, this thesis provides a replicable framework for future research in this field.
The state determines the allocation of security resources and develops and maintains security structures that directly affect the daily lives of citizens. Investigating the state's perspective on the utility of citizen self reliance is relevant in defining and, most importantly, (re)assessing the roles and responsibilities of these two major actors. With a well founded understanding of the government's interpretation of citizen capabilities in crisis situations, crisis management structures can be (re)designed to accommodate citizen behavior in response operations and allocate the strengths of its security actors appropriately. This thesis aims to provide a research framework and methodology to determine this perspective.
5
Helsloot, I., and A. Ruitenberg. "Citizen Response to Disasters: A Survey of Literature and Some Practical Implications." J Contingencies & Crisis Man Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 12.3 (2004): 98. Web.(3). Concepts & Theoretical Framework
This chapter explains the key concepts central to this thesis. Primarily the working definitions of 'crisis' and 'crisis management are provided. Subsequently the concepts surrounding citizens in the security context are presented starting with the most passive and broadest form of citizenship in security towards the narrow, more active form of citizen participation (which is called burgerparticipatie in the context of the Netherlands). These stages are depicted in the diagram below. Furthermore, this chapter explores the existing theories and findings surrounding citizens being recognized as security actors. The literature review and theoretical framework account for the assessment of self-reliance as being a reasonable factor in determining the organization of the security provision agenda. This conceptual and theoretical framework illustrates that citizens can contribute to various extents to the state objective of preserving safety and security; namely as actors in a security network, as members of citizen participation (burgerparticipatie) projects, and at the core as self reliant individuals that function better in crisis situations than that they have been given credit for as posed by Helsoot & Ruitenberg in 2004. The perspective of the state on citizens as security actors is demonstrated and analyzed based on an inspection of citizen participation in the Dutch context and parliamentary document- and case study analysis.
Figure 1: Theoretical Framework
(3.1) Crises, Disasters & Crisis Management
Since this thesis focuses on the role of citizens in security- (specifically the crisis management-) context, the working definitions of the main themes “Crisis”, “Disasters” and “Crisis Management” are provided below. Depending on the specific context in which these themes are discussed, the interpretation of the concept may be subject to slight change. Some scholars referenced in the theoretical framework may refer to a crisis as a disaster and vice versa since the parameters of these concepts are not rigid. In such case, their interpretation of the concepts used are
clarified. Considering the objective of this research, a (re)evaluation and application of Helsloot & Ruitenberg's theory on citizen response on the contemporary Dutch security context, the working definitions of the main themes reflect descriptions in article 1 of the Wet Veiligheidsregio's (Law Safety Regions) and the interpretations of those themes by Helsloot and Ruitenberg (2004) respectively.
The law, drafted on 11th February 2010, defines a crisis as “a situation in which a vital interest of society is negatively affected or risks being affected”6. The broadness of this description indicates
the variability of the situations (i.e. crises) in which the state deems intervention necessary. For the purpose of this thesis, a crisis is a situation in which the state actually intervenes by deploying more than one (albeit uncoordinated) first response resource. For example, a fire that requires the intervention of both the fire department as well as professional first aid by state-funded medical professionals. Although Helsloot and Ruitenberg primarily focus on citizen response to disasters, the concepts central to this thesis (namely self reliance in relation to the perspective from the state on citizens as security actors) are significant to disasters and the broader preservation of security as well. The working definition for 'Crisis Management' is as follows: “all measures taken, including preparatory measures, by the municipal- or safety region council in a crisis to maintain public order”7.
This definition is similar to that of 'Disaster Management': “all measures taken, including preparatory measures, by the municipal- or safety region council geared towards avoiding disasters and mitigating its adverse effects”8. For the purpose of this thesis, the municipal- and safety region councils are
representatives of the state with the mayor in a leading role as the citizen's elder ('burgervader'). The municipalities' perception on self reliance, as measured through parliamentary document analysis and case study review, are also taken into account.
The Safety Regions Law defines the term “disaster” as “A severe accident or event by which the lives of many people, the natural environment or material interests are damaged or threatened to be damaged, which requires the coordinated deployment of state- and/or private organizations to mitigate the threat or damages”9. Although this definition is clear in differentiating a disaster from a
crisis by specifying the need for coordinated, interdisciplinary deployment, the use of the term 'disaster' is increasingly contested. The severity of the event in terms of loss of life or material damages may prompt the media (and therefore the public perception) and academics alike to brand a crisis as a disaster. The Volendam New Year's fire in 2001, for example, was described by the mayor Frank IJselmuiden and the Health Care Inspectorate as a 'disaster', although the coordination of interdisciplinary deployment was not necessary10. Drs. Jaap Smit from the Victim Support institute
6 Wet Veiligheidsregio's 2010, Art 1.
7 Ibid.
8 Ibid.
attributes the inflation in the use of this term to the high visibility of crises through (social) media11.
Helsloot and Ruitenberg acknowledge the tendency for such events to be misbranded and point out that their research does not solely focus on severe calamities12. This thesis will consider events that
have been subject to review by independent organizations and thus includes both crises and disasters as defined by the Safety Regions Law.
(3.2) Citizenship in Security
Self reliance is a form of citizenship that does not necessarily involve active assertiveness from civilians in the form of assemblies or campaigns; as the member of a sovereign democratic state, a citizen assumes not only the rights that come with this membership, but also the duties. Aside from the obvious obligation to follow the law, the broader interpretation of citizenship also takes into account the agency of citizens to determine the quality of their own lives as a civic duty13, for instance being a
member of a community or, in the realm of safety and security, being aware of internal and external threats and taking steps to enhance resilience against those threats on an individual level. Working with limited resources and decentralization of state tasks in the Netherlands, it is a reasonable expectation for Dutch policy makers to regard resilience and therefore citizen self reliance as a desirable development. To determine the extent and the motivations of the desirability of self-reliance in the realm of security, this thesis investigates the manner in which self reliance is perceived by the Dutch state.
In “Redefining Security” (1983), Ullman explores the factors that have determined the working definition of security in the United States up until that point. These factors include the wars that the US has been involved in, its influence on military spending, and the continuous trade off between internal and external threats whilst assessing the responsibility of national security actors. According to Ullman, citizens and the extent to which they are self-reliant influences their utility to national security and should thus be considered a significant actor in the characterization of security policy14. Although
citizens primarily look to the state for protection against internal and external threats15, they make
decisions on the individual and collective level to minimize threats and enhance their self reliance (for
10
Inspectie Voor De Gezondheidszorg. Evaluatie Cafébrand Volendam. Rep. Den Haag: n.p., 2001. Print.11
Leferink, Sonja, and Rob Sardemann. Kramp Na De Ramp - Een Kritische Beschouwing Op De Hulpverlening Na Rampen. Rep. Utrecht: n.p., 2013. Print.12
Ruitenberg, A.G.W, Ira Helsloot, and H. Balk. Zelfredzaamheid Van Burgers Bij Rampen En Zware Ongevallen. Alphen Aan Den Rijn: Kluwer, 2004:33. Print.13
Heater, Derek Benjamin. A Brief History of Citizenship. New York: New York UP, 2004:39 Print.14
Ullman, Richard H. "Redefining Security." International Security 8.1 (1983): 131. Web.example, their living location)16. The state, in turn, ideally incorporates citizen agency into their security
policy by investing in civilian self reliance17. This thesis aims to encourage these investments to be
made based on well researched theories rather than presumptions on citizen behavior.
(3.3) Self Reliance: Helsloot and Ruitenberg (2004)
One of the first research projects in the Netherlands on the self reliance of citizens was conducted by Helsloot and Ruitenberg (2004). In “Citizen Response to Disasters: A Survey of Literature and Some Practical Implications” the researchers claim that self reliance is at its foundation an important aspect of citizen participation in the field of security18. Before the creation of nation
states, the monopoly on violence and the notion of the Social Contract, people were at a state of utmost self reliance. Whilst being a citizen in most countries means that they enjoy the protection from their government from internal and external threats and make use of technologies that enhance their quality of life as well as their personal security, Helsloot and Ruitenberg reason that their self reliance is used on a daily basis19; people take measures to protect themselves against threats on a daily
basis. For example, these threats include personal harm, burglaries, house fires and even cyber threats. Most importantly, citizens have higher levels of resilience against disasters or crisis situations that they have been given credit for, which prompts Helsloot and Ruitenberg to demonstrate and subsequently debunk a number of persistent misconceptions about citizen response. Their conclusions on these myths are as follows:
•
Unlike Hollywood movies (and ostensibly many Western Security policies) suggest, citizens panicking on a massive scale is rare20.•
Citizens are not wholly dependent on first response organizations, as they have higher levels of self reliance and resilience than they are given credit for21.•
Looting almost never takes place after a disaster22.The second myth primarily pertains to the research problem that this thesis is aiming to tackle, since it considers the underestimation of citizen self reliance from the perspective of the authorities. Given
16 Ibid. (1983): 138 17 Ibid. (1983): 131
18
Helsloot, I., and A. Ruitenberg. "Citizen Response to Disasters: A Survey of Literature and Some Practical Implications." J Contingencies & Crisis Man Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 12.3 (2004): 98. Web.19 Ibid. p. 98. 20 Ibid. p. 102. 21 Ibid. p. 103. 22 Ibid. p. 103.
their theory one could assume that the Dutch disaster management structure still anticipates on erratic citizen behavior in crisis situations, even with the importance of self reliance on the security agenda and running campaigns such as NL Alert and Denk Vooruit. This notion inferred from Helsloot and Ruitenberg's theory prompted this thesis in investigating its applicability to the Dutch context. The state's 'perspective' on its citizen's role of security actors through their self reliance is measured through the assessment of the citizen's role in the Dutch security context, parliamentary document assessment and case study analysis. Particularly the case study analysis is inspected on the pervasiveness of the C3 model, as posed by Dynes (1994)
As a remnant of World War II, Dynes argues, many current Western disaster management structures still approach threats with the Chaos, Command, Control (C3) doctrine at the foundation2324.
Even though most governments currently depend more on a co-operation based emergency management system, some remnants of the C3 model are pervasive25 and affect the way citizens are
viewed as security actors. This pervasiveness entails (a) the prioritization of preparing for 'antisocial' and chaotic behavior, (b) investment in alternative modes of communication, (c) provision of information to the public under the assumption that they cannot collect this information themselves, (d) a pervasive focus on victims and (e) being suspicious/unsupportive of emergent groups (e.g. volunteers) that do not conform to the contingency plan26. The consideration of these elements is
important for the purpose of this thesis, as it may reveal some of the underlying mechanisms that have shaped the state's perspective on citizen reliance in the Netherlands. Section (5) 'Research Results' contains the case study assessments in which the relevance of Dynes' assertion is applied. Assessing the perspective of the state on the role of citizens in the security context, looking specifically at self reliance as passive- and citizen response as active -participation, the expectations of the state can be clarified. This, in turn, can contribute to the enhancement of self reliance and citizen response, and streamline the state's crisis management organization to accommodate the citizen's role as security actors.
(3.4) Citizen Participation
Although it is unlikely that most people do not view themselves as security actors per se with 'acting' insinuating activeness as opposed by passiveness, this thesis assumes the term 'citizenship'
23 Ibid. p. 104.
24
Dynes, R. R. "Community Emergency Planning: False Assumptions and Inappropriate Analogies." International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters 12.2 (1994): n. pag. Web.25
Helsloot, I., and A. Ruitenberg. "Citizen Response to Disasters: A Survey of Literature and Some Practical Implications." J Contingencies & Crisis Man Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 12.3 (2004): 104. Web.refers to participation of the governed, even in it's most passive form. John Locke (1689), Jean Jaques Rousseau (1762), Immanuel Kant (1797) and Hugo Grotius (1925) interpreted this relationship between the citizen and the state in different ways, but all referred to the responsibilities, or duties that come with citizenship. These responsibilities, aside from abiding to the law and paying taxes include participating by complying to the unspoken rules, regulation and cultural norms of the respective nation. In the context of security, the concept 'citizen participation' tends to insinuate conscious, active actions and interactions between the state and citizen or citizens amongst themselves to improve their security. This thesis explores the spectrum of citizen involvement in the security realm, with active participation on the one end and passive citizenship on the other. Moreover, it demonstrates where the Dutch state considers self reliance to be on the spectrum of citizen participation in terms of utility in the security context. By extension, this thesis urges academics and politicians alike to consider citizens that practice self reliance in crisis situations as security actors and thus incorporate them more efficiently in their crisis management structures.
(3.5) Citizen Participation (3.5.i)the Network Approach
For the purpose of this thesis a network approach is taken in viewing citizen participation in its most active form. Chad Whelan's renowned analysis of security networks (2012) shows not only the multifaceted nature, strengths and weaknesses of Security Network structures, but also aptly demonstrates that citizens often pose as an essential security actor within a network. According to Whelan's method of analysis, (mutual) trust is one significant element of security networks27, which
should be taking into consideration when assessing the relationship between the Dutch state and its citizens in the security context. The extent to which the state 'trusts' its citizens in being self reliant may be visible in its security policy, whilst the trust of the citizen in the state may affect the extent to which they prepare themselves for crisis situations as to decrease reliance on the national first response organizations.
Compared to the Netherlands the element of trust (or lack thereof) and its effects on citizen self reliance seems more visible in the United States. The American custom of preparing for disaster situations has been instilled into the public for decades. During the Cold War the Federal Civil Defense Administration released several campaigns, amongst which the famous Duck and Cover campaign (1951) is one of the most well-known28. With the looming threat to American civilization over the next 27 Whelan, Chad. "Network Dynamics and Network Effectiveness: A Methodological Framework for Public Sector Networks in the Field of National Security." Australian Journal of Public Administration 70.3 (2011): 280
28
Matthews, Melvin E. Duck and Cover: Civil Defense Images in Film and Television from the Cold War to 9/11. Jefferson, NC: McFarland &, 2012. p. 3.decades, civil defense became an accepted part of life, prompting many Americans to invest in disaster supply materials, home safety equipment and personal firearms29. Fueled by the threat of
nuclear disasters during the cold war, economic collapse during the 80s and 90s, followed by the danger of terrorism after 9/11, the United States government and its citizens constantly seem to reevaluate their capabilities and responsibilities in protecting themselves from these threats. Their notoriety of civilian disaster preparation can be attributed to the phenomenon of “Doomsday Preppers” and the discussion surrounding the protection of the Second Amendment (the Right to Bear Arms) after mass shootings. However, such extremes do not represent the entire population or American attitude towards resilience. Nevertheless, it is clear that the US government calls upon the ability of its citizens to be self reliant security actors in inconspicuous ways. This thesis' hypothesis poses that the same attitude is expected in the Netherlands, but then to a significantly lesser extent. Rather than merely investigating the prevalence and desirability of self reliance from the state perspective, this thesis also delves into how the Dutch state views its citizens as competent security actors through self reliance.
Although Whelan's method of analysis provides an apt overview on the interconnections between actors of security networks, some social structures are too vast and dispersed to analyze the network structure, -culture, -policy, -technology and -relationships30. Analyzing the Netherlands'
relationship with its citizens in a security context (which is the foundation of determining the state's perspective on its citizens as self reliant security actors) from Whelan's perspective would be too widespread and is far fetched to be considered as a solid security network as such. However, Whelan's method would prove useful in investigating localized security projects and campaigns in which citizen self-reliance is called upon vis a vis the state's perspective on citizens as security actors. Moreover, it would provide a clear overview of citizen participation projects established by citizens themselves, the private security industry and the manner in which overt, active collaboration with state organization occurs.
(3.5.ii) The Spectrum of Citizen Participation
Van der Land et al (2014) have found in their research on 'burgerparticipatie' (citizen participation) that current research on citizen contribution to security primarily focuses five types of participation31:
29 Ibid. p. 3.
30 Whelan, Chad. "Network Dynamics and Network Effectiveness: A Methodological Framework for Public Sector Networks in the Field of National Security." Australian Journal of Public Administration 70.3 (2011): 280
31
Land, Marco Van Der, Bas Van Stokkum, and Hans Boutellier. "Burgers in Veiligheid: Een Inventarisatie Van Burgerparticipatie Op Het Domein Van De Sociale Veiligheid." Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Leerstoel1.
Surveillance: providing information to the state in general322.
Crime investigation: providing information to the police that contributes to the prosecution of individuals333.
Maintenance: taking care of public spaces (actively keeping public space clean)344.
Mediation: functioning as an impartial third party to a conflict with the aim to resolve it355.
Policy influence: stimulating policy development by providing prioritization of issues to be resolved36At varying degrees of active participation, these five types of citizen contribution have different degrees of impact on security37. The maintenance of public spaces, for example, enhances security in
a more indirect manner compared to the provision of key information to the police, which requires a more established network through which this information can flow. The assessment of (active) citizen participation in its various forms primarily occurred from a network perspective in the academic realm (Terpstra, 2008; Whelan, 2012; van der Steen, 2010; Rhodes, 1997; Pierre, 2005). Research that considers the role of the citizen as a security actor in the context of a network tends to overlook the individual aspect, namely the ability of citizens to be self reliant38, which is what this thesis aims to
investigate with respect to the state's perspective.
Rather than taking a network perspective or focusing on active citizen participation, Hijlkema et al consider the utility of citizen self-reliance in their research “Active, Supportive and Inspiring for Security” (2013) with regards to the safety region Ijsselland (North- and West-Overijssel). Aside from Veiligheid En Burgerschap (2014): 48. WODC, Ministerie Van Veiligheid En Justitie. Web.
32
Land, Marco Van Der. "De Buurtwacht: Naar Een Balans Tussen Instrumentalisering En Autonomie Van Burgers in Veiligheid." Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (2014): n. pag. Web.33
Meijer, A., S. Grimmelikhuijsen, A. Bos, and D. Fiktorie. "Burgernet via Twitter Onderzoek Naar De Waarde Van Dit Nieuwe Medium." Universiteit Utrecht (2011) Print.34
Duyvendak, J., and P. Van Der Graaf. "Opzoomeren, Stille Kracht? Een Onderzoek Naar De Kwaliteiten Van Het Opzoomeren in Rotterdam." Verwey-Jonker Instituut (2001): n. pag. Web.35
Jansen, M., S. Meijer, and K. Bongers. "Buurtbemiddeling in Perspectief: Een Praktijkevaluatie." Het CCV (2010): n. pag. Web.36
Stokkom, B.A.M Van, M. Becker, and T. Eikenaar. "Participatie En Vertegenwoordiging. Burgers Als Trustees." Amsterdam University Press (2011): n. pag. Web.37
Land, Marco Van Der, Bas Van Stokkum, and Hans Boutellier. "Burgers in Veiligheid: Een Inventarisatie Van Burgerparticipatie Op Het Domein Van De Sociale Veiligheid." Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Leerstoel Veiligheid En Burgerschap (2014). WODC, Ministerie Van Veiligheid En Justitie. Web38
Land, Marco Van Der. "Citizens Policing Citizens: Are Citizen Watches Manifestations of Contemporary Responsible Citizenship?" Citizenship Studies 18.3-4 (2014): 423-34. Web.determining the degree to which citizens in the respective are self reliant (Adopting the definition of self-reliance from Helsloot and Ruitenberg), Hijlkema et al aim to assess the visions of professionals in first response organizations and local government on what self-reliance can mean for the Ijsselland and other safety regions. They conclude that first response organizations and the government at the Local level recognize their limitations to prevent- and protect their citizens against disasters and calamities, and thus deem self reliance as an important security factor39. However, Hijlkema et al also
found that first response organizations (those who have most frequent contact with citizens in crisis situations) are not sufficiently trained in anticipating on the involvement of citizens as active security actors40. Moreover, they conclude that local government regards the stimulation of self reliance
primarily a state task, which can be achieved by educating citizens on existing threats and providing assistance (practical or financial) to existing applicable initiatives41. Since Hijlkema et al focus on one
particular area and assesses local initiatives and interpretations of self-reliance, it does not sufficiently provide an inclusive appraisal on self-reliance in the policy sphere. This thesis acts on its own as an investigation into the political attitude towards self-reliance on a state level and therefore may provide localized safety regions such as Ijsselland an insight into which factors determine the support they may get from the Dutch government.
Maurice Specht found through his research on the pragmatics of citizen participation (2012) that some citizens are taking an increasingly active role in securing their environment42. Albeit this
research focuses on a more active type of citizenship, it characterizes the academic attention that citizenship in the realm of security receives. Aiming to provide the, as he claims 'unseen' perspective of the citizen, Specht's research contributes to understanding the underlying motivations for citizen behavior that the state projects to stimulate, namely self-reliance.
39
Hijlkema, Silvan, Stefan Van Der Meulen, and Jaap Timmer. "Actief, Ondersteunend En Inspirerend in Veiligheid : Een Onderzoek Naar Zelfredzaamheid En De Rol Van Burgers, Professionals En Bestuurders." Windesheim (2013): 19. HBO Kennisbank. Web.40 Ibid. (2013): 65. 41 Ibid. (2013): 97
42
Specht, Maurice. De Pragmatiek Van Burgerparticipatie - Hoe Burgers Omgaan Met Complexe Vraagstukken Omtrent Veiligheid, Leefbaarheid En Stedelijke Ontwikkeling in Drie Europese Steden. Diss. Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 2012: 248 Print.(4) Research Method
This thesis' approach to the research question, How can the current dutch political perspective on the utility of citizen self reliance in crisis- and disaster response be characterized and how can these characteristics be explained?, is threefold. Figure 2 below visualizes how the three different methodical components are used and linked to determine the contemporary state perspective on citizens as security actors through self reliance.
Figure 2: Research Method
The 'objective' component is an assessment of the Dutch security context with regards to the citizen's role in crisis situations. The literature on self reliance in the Netherlands and citizen participation in Dutch security projects frames self reliance as a security tool. The 'narrative' component comprises an extensive parliamentary document analysis that provides an insight into the state's political and bureaucratic perspective on the utility of citizen self reliance in crisis situations. Since the first two methods by themselves lack in demonstrating the state's stance in practical terms, the 'operational' component is utilized to fill that gap. This final component comprises an analysis of fifteen crises- and disaster evaluations that have been published between 2010 and 2015 to demonstrate the state's operational 'attitude' towards self reliance. Hence, a combination of qualitative and quantitative research is used to determine how the Dutch political perspective on citizens as security actors can be characterized vis a vis the observations of Helsloot and Ruitenberg (2004) and Dynes (1994) on citizen self reliance.
The literature/ campaign analysis aims to show how citizens have been viewed as security actors in the past, may it be in the context of active citizen participation or their behavior before, during and after crisis situations. Furthermore, the literature provides some theories on whether the utility of
citizen self reliance is recognized in the policy making sphere and the extent to which this recognition has led to security policies that take it into account. The semi-quantitative analysis of Parliamentary documents and discussions supplements the literature analysis since it gauges the recognition of citizen self reliance in the last five years. Furthermore, it provides an insight into which contexts citizen self reliance is appraised (with the perspective that citizens are a security resource), normalized (a neutral perspective), or questioned (with the perspective that citizens are victims that depend on the state's security resources). The case study analysis of incidents that occurred between 2010 and 2015 as well as stimulation campaigns show how 'real-life' events reflect- and contribute to the current perspective of citizens as self reliant security actors.
This methodological triangulation approach is used to attain a comprehensive perspective on the utility of self reliance and on the current perspective of Dutch policy makers. Most importantly, this approach aims to reevaluate Helsloot and Ruitenberg's assertions with respect to citizen response and its recognition in the policymaking sphere.
(4.1) Objectives for Self Reliance in the Netherlands
To determine the state's objectives with regards to the role of citizens as security actors through their self reliance, current self reliance enhancement- and citizen participation campaigns are assessed in the dutch security context. In accordance with the theoretical framework, this methodical component will also hone in on the state's approach towards crisis communication and risk perception. The objective component provides the context in which the results from the parliamentary document analysis and the case study assessment are interpreted.
(4.2) Parliamentary Document Analysis
For the parliamentary document analysis, an approach similar to Dr. Ruth Prins' research method used for the dissertation “Safety First: How local processes of securitization have affected the position and role of Dutch mayors” (2014) by means on content analysis43 has been utilized. In this
case, all parliamentary documents published between this time period are coded, categorized and assessed for context respectively. These parliamentary documents (supplemented by the literature on self reliance and case studies on respective campaigns) are used as the primary resource for this research which include but are not limited to policy proposals, parliamentary questions (answered and unanswered) and -debates, as well as addenda that have passed through the Senate, the House of Representatives and its general assemblies. Rather than focusing the local administrative level (which would be recommendable when assessing localized citizen participation initiatives as case studies), the perspective from the national government is assessed as this provides a broader view regarding
43
Prins, Ruth. Safety First: How Local Processes of Securitization Have Affected the Position and Role of Dutch Mayors. Diss. Erasmus U Rotterdam, 2014. The Hague: Eleven International, 2014. Print. p. 99.the manner in which self reliance is viewed by all levels of government in the Netherlands. This implies the assumption that the regional and administrative level adopts the national government's policies and assertions44 on citizen self reliance.
Over a period of five years, all documents (nearly two hundred) that have discussed citizens' self-reliance and citizens response to crisis situations have been assessed through a self-established coding- and categorization mechanism. This coding scheme is used to determine to observe patterns that arise surrounding particular (security) issues, which in this case is the manner in which citizens are viewed in crisis situations. These patterns allow for observations to be made regarding the most significant characteristics to the manner in which citizen self reliance has been discussed in the Political sphere between 2010 and 2015. Furthermore, the analysis of self reliance campaigns as well as observations obtains from the literature analysis may provide insights into the underlying mechanisms that shape self reliance debates in general and in the Netherlands specifically. Most importantly, this data can provide an insight into the extent to which Helsloot and Ruitenberg's assertion that citizens are more likely to be viewed as victims rather than resourceful actors in disaster response policy45 can be confirmed for the polity climate within the specified time period.
Step 1: Coding the Parliamentary Documents
To ensure that relevant topics related to citizen self reliance are taken into account during the data collection, all parliamentary documents containing the terms 'zelfredzaamheid' (self reliance), 'burgerparticipatie' (citizen participation), and 'ramp' (disaster) were considered for this research. Each document that contained the above terms has been read and coded according to a self-established scheme. Although this strategy is often applied with the use of qualitative data analysis software, this research has been conducted without the aid of such program. This has been done to ensure that no relevant documents, passages or discussions have been left out and to verify the applicability of the Theme and context discussed. Furthermore, to determine the overall 'attitude' or perspective on the citizen as a security actor (coded as 'resource', 'neutral' or 'victim'), human observation is deemed necessary to observe and pick up on significant nuances. Limitations to this type of analysis should, however, be considered. An explanation on these limitations and its implications for this research project is provided at the end of this chapter.
Step 2: Categorization and Subcategorization
44
Ibid. p. 98.45
Helsloot, I., and A. Ruitenberg. "Citizen Response to Disasters: A Survey of Literature and Some Practical Implications." J Contingencies & Crisis Man Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 12.3 (2004): 110. Web.The terms that have been used to select all relevant parliamentary documents between 2010 and 2015 have provided a large amount of files, which were subsequently categorized according to the time of publishing (as discussed in section II.A), subject (coded as 'Theme'), context, and the specific attitude towards the citizen as a security actor (coded as 'Perspective on Citizen'). The coding framework under which the parliamentary documents are categorized and subcategorized is visualized below in figure 1. From left to right, parliamentary documents have been assessed and categorized in the order of the labels respectively.
Figure 3. Parliamentary Document Analysis
(4.2.i) Operationalization: Labeling
Time:
All published parliamentary documents published between September 2015 and March 2010 have been assessed according to a month-year format. This allows for observing developments of themes, contexts and perspectives on citizens as actors or victims on a monthly basis. Publications have not been taken into account on a daily basis, as the documents on the government's database46
are published several days after the original publishing date due to processing time. Furthermore, publication on a daily basis would be rather appropriate for more time-specific analysis; in the circumstance that one particular year (e.g. 2010-2011) is researched in which case this model would
be applicable as well. The disparity between these dates are not deemed as significant to the purpose of this research and are not crucial to the identification of patterns.
Theme :
The label “Theme” describes the overall subject of the parliamentary document. For instance, a debate in the House of Representatives about the security issues surrounding the establishment of a new railway in the Amsterdam region would be categorized under the theme “(critical) Infrastructure”. These categories were determined based on the available information in the parliamentary documents in order to lump emergent sub-themes, including 'transportation' (which is coded as “(Critical) Infrastructure”) or “Epidemics” (eventually coded under “Health”). Although there is a significant risk in losing the ability to identify more detailed patterns, the subcategory “CONTEXT” allows for the precise subject matter to be accounted for. Moreover, lumping is necessary to avoid an overload of categories and codes, which would be problematic for analysis47.
Context :
After a parliamentary document has been coded under a particular theme, the subject context is identified in relation to the manner in which the role of citizens is discussed. The 'context' label is significance is twofold: (a) the context refines the Theme under which the parliamentary document is coded (the context “Transportation of Hazardous Materials” would follow the theme “(Critical) Infrastructures”), and (b) the context explains to a certain extent the categorization of the perspective on citizens, which is the fourth and final label. For instance, the code 'Communication” clarifies the context in which citizens are discussed under the theme “Disaster Management” in the case of the policy plan “Disaster Management”48 (letter from the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations
to the Second Chamber of the States General, dated July 16th 2010). In this particular example, citizens are coded under “Resource”, as the communication tool discussed in the policy plan (NLAlert specifically) was described as enhancing citizens' ability to be self-reliant actors in disaster response49
rather than victims.
(4.2.ii) Perspective on Citizens:
All parliamentary documents and discussions covered (some to a more significant degree than others) the extent to which citizens are self-reliant and, by extension, actors or victims in situations that affect their security. In differentiating between these various perspectives on citizens, the documents are attributed to three subcategories, labeled “Resource”, “Neutral” and “Victim”. In order
47
Gläser, Jochen, and Grit Laudel. "Life With and Without Coding: Two Methods for Early-Stage Data Analysis in Qualitative Research Aiming at Causal Explanations." Qualitative Social Research 05th ser. 14.02 (2013): n. pag. 27. Web. <http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/1886/3528#g52>.48
29 668 Beleidsplan Crisisbeheersing. Nr. 30 HERDRUK 1BRIEF VAN DE MINISTER VAN BINNENLANDSE ZAKEN EN KONINKRIJKSRELATIES, Den Haag, 16 july 2010to identify which category is most appropriate, the context in which the citizen is mentioned is taken into account, as well as specific references to (projected) citizen response. For example, the parliamentary document that contains the following passage “The fire department aims to reassess conventional firefighting tasks by introducing new technologies, focusing on enhancing the self reliance of citizens”50 by van Veldhuizen et al (2013) is categorized in “Resource” under the label
PERSPECTIVE on CITIZEN, since the passage in context of the text as a whole implies that citizens can be self-reliant and thus can be considered as an actor rather than a victim in a crisis situation that requires first response aid from the fire department.
Considering there is such a large number of documents assessed with the aim to identify patterns regarding the state's perspective on citizens as security actors over a period of five years, it is unrealistic to provide a detailed explanation of de codes attributed for every publication. This particular coding system is tailor made to suit this research objective, although the method a suitable for future research in other fields as well. Raw data tables containing all the sources can be found in Appendix I.
To identify and visualize patterns over time and for particular Themes, the codes under PERSPECTIVE on CITIZEN are weighted according to their occurrence. This data can be used to assess whether the occurrence of crisis situations influences the manner in which citizens are discussed as security actors. Moreover, it may reveal whether initiatives geared towards strengthening self-reliance, such as the “Denk Vooruit” campaign reinforce the notion that citizens are a resource of security provision.
(4.3) Case Study Analysis
To account for the operational component of citizen self reliance, fifteen evaluations of crises/incidents that occurred between 2015 and 2015 are assessed on prevalence of the C3 model. Furthermore, they are assessed on whether they can account for the characteristics of the current dutch political perspective on self reliance that are derived from the document analysis. By including a relatively large number of case studies as opposed to taking a single case study approach, this method provides a broader perspective into the role of citizen response within crisis management approaches taken by the state. The multiple case study design is subjected to theoretical replication (specifically the application of Dynes' C3 Model), which results in more generalizable results51.
Thankfully it has not been necessary for the Dutch crisis response structure to be utilized in crises akin to the terrorist attacks in Paris and Belgium in 2015 and 2016, nor has it experienced disasters such as the massive train collision in Harmelen in 1962. Rather on basis of severity in terms of casualties or infrastructural damage, these case studies have been selected based on (a) the involvement of the
50 Van Veldhuizen et al. Evaluatie Wet Veiligheidsregio's, Andersson Elffers Felix, Utrecht, 3 juli 2013 GV188-3-271, p. 101.
51Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2003. Print.
major of the affected municipality since it indicates (b) the necessity for interdisciplinary first response units to be deployed. To analyze these case studies, the manner in which crisis response is conducted will be assessed alongside the lessons learned and recommendations of the evaluation committees. Assuming that crisis situations and reflections on crisis response operations are a factor in security policy making taking into account lessons learned, this case study analysis provides another angle to view the development of the self reliance debate in the Netherlands.
Every case study is assessed on the extent to which it takes citizen self reliance into account and whether elements of Dynes' C352 model can be detected. The pervasiveness of these elements
indicate that current crisis management structures use response strategies based on assumptions surrounding citizen response and self reliance.
(4.3.i) Operationalization of Dynes' C3 Model
Helsloot and Ruitenberg (2004) point out that elements of Dynes' C3 model (Chaos, Command, Control) still exist in current disaster management structures with respect to crisis response strategies53. The crisis management structures that were employed in the aforementioned
case studies will be assessed on the presence of these following elements:
1.
The crisis response procedures are geared towards preventing and controlling anti-social behavior54. This includes but is not limited to: placement of crowd control barriers, employmentof security checkpoints, unnecessary (as deemed by the evaluation committee) evacuation of buildings.
2.
Customary means of communication are avoided amongst the operational crisis management actors. This means that actors on the operational level (police officers, firefighters, medical assistance) communicate with one another using measures on which citizens have no influence or input, such as internal telephone connections or walkie-talkies55.52
Helsloot, I., and A. Ruitenberg. "Citizen Response to Disasters: A Survey of Literature and Some Practical Implications." J Contingencies & Crisis Man Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 12.3 (2004): 104. Web.53
Helsloot, I., and A. Ruitenberg. "Citizen Response to Disasters: A Survey of Literature and Some Practical Implications." J Contingencies & Crisis Man Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 12.3 (2004): 104. Web.54 Ibid. 55 Ibid.
3.
The respective crisis management structure assumes that citizens need state-verified information in order to be self reliant56. Cases that involve press conferences, the use of crisiscommunication tools such as NL alert or www.crisis.nl qualify in containing this element.
4.
The respective crisis management structure presumes that citizens are inactive and need assistance from first response forces to solve their problems57. Crises during or after whichcitizens are provided assistance in the form of psychological or victim-oriented care qualify for the presence of this element.
5.
The independent actions of volunteers to aid during a crisis situation are mistrusted58. Thecases in which citizens that assist during the crisis response procedures are regarded as a nuisance by first response personnel qualify for the presence of this element.
The presence of these elements, or lack thereof, determine whether the respective crisis management structures view citizens as security actors (resource) or as a burden to crisis response procedures (victims). Hence, the detection of multiple elements indicate a low valuation of citizen self reliance; the higher the prevalence of these elements (which will be measured according to occurrence) the lower the valuation.
56 Ibid. 57 Ibid. 58 Ibid.
(5). Research Results & Analysis
The literature on citizenship in security mainly revolves around on the ability of citizens to be security actors, their participation in (and the effectiveness of) security campaigns and citizen response to crisis situations. Helsloot and Ruitenberg's assertion that citizens are more likely viewed as victims rather than resources in crisis situations59 prompts the question how the current
policymaking perspective can be characterized in this light. The Netherlands has thankfully not experienced many disasters on Dutch soil which would allow for a comprehensive case study-based evaluation that is catered more to Helsloot and Ruitenberg's assertions to crisis response. This research focuses mainly on the perspective of the state on citizen self reliance and how they can be viewed as security actors, rather than their specific disaster response capabilities. Self reliance, albeit it being a broader and more nuanced interpretation of security activity, it can be argued as a form of participation that applies to the entire Dutch population rather than specifically those who (a) are affected by disasters and (b) actively contribute to security causes (for example, volunteering at the Fire Department or being a member of a neighborhood watch group). Hence, the aim of this (partially quantified) qualitative research project is to determine how the state's perspective views its largest stakeholder as security actors. This chapter presents and analyzes the most significant findings on the state's perspective on citizen self reliance in the Netherlands, focusing on the government's objective (through the assessment of self reliance campaigns and stimulation), its narrative (through parliamentary document analysis), and operations (through a case study analysis on the prevalence of Dynes' C3 model) posed by figure 2 on the Research Method. Prior to the conclusion, a cross sectional analysis between the findings on the state's narrative and operations is conducted to determine whether a relationship can be found.
(5.1) The State's Objective: Self Reliance Enhancement in The Netherlands
Although the United States is clearly at the forefront in resilience stimulation, the state's objective to increase self reliance can clearly be observed in the Netherlands. The Denk Vooruit campaign is such an initiative; through raising awareness about the advantages of self-reliance, the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Kingdom relations uses the campaign since 2008 to increase disaster resilience amongst citizens. Their website, crisis.nl, provides guidelines for evacuation, links to crisis communication tools such as NL Alert, and even recommends the purchase of an 'emergency kit'60.
Furthermore, crisis.nl informs citizens on how they can contribute to protect themselves from threats
59
Helsloot, I., and A. Ruitenberg. "Citizen Response to Disasters: A Survey of Literature and Some Practical Implications." J Contingencies & Crisis Man Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 12.3 (2004): 104. Web.including fires, extreme weather, cyber attacks, and even terrorist attacks61. Evaluation of the
campaign has shown that nearly three quarters of the survey participants are aware that the state is encouraging citizens to be more self-reliant62 and that it provides information to do so. The availability
of this information and the presence of NL Alert indicates that the government finds self reliant citizens desirable overall, although it does not provide an insight into whether/ how the state views citizens as self reliant actors, nor how this perspective is subject to change over time. Identifying key characteristics and significant factors that may affect developments in precisely this area can be attained by the triangulation of research methods that this thesis uses. The characterization of the state's perspectives and, by extension its prioritization, is beneficial to organizations and initiatives that aim to enhance self reliance.
Helsloot and Ruitenberg (2004) identified one of the main issues that inhibit the stimulation of citizen preparedness as their unlikeliness to prepare for risks that are difficult or gauged or that are deemed acceptable63. A number of crisis- and risk-communication tools have been developed in the
Netherlands to enhance preparedness for security risks with the intention to provide citizens with information that may help them before a crisis or disasters occurs. Crisis communication intends to inform citizens with instructions when an imminent threat (a disaster) is in order, whereas risk communication tools are more geared towards enhancing preparedness for threats in general. Both types of measures are intended to increase self reliance amongst citizens at varying degrees depending on the imminence of the threat and the type of threat, as some are more commonly accepted to be prepared for compared to others. For example, citizens are generally more prepared with regards to 'crises' that are common and occur in and around their home (e.g. citizens and businesses often possess fire hydrants or simply first-aid kits) as opposed to threats that are more wide-scale and deemed as less likely, such as terrorist attacks or nation-wide flooding.
Crisis Communication
NL Alert is a prime example of a crisis communication tool, as it targets citizens that are exposed to this imminent threat; only those who are expected to be affected by the respective threat will be notified through instant message to enhance their self reliance64. Since it does not depend on
the regular cellular network but on 'cell broadcast', the messaging service remains in operation, even
61
Crisis.nl. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Oct. 2015. <http://www.crisis.nl/wees-voorbereid.aspx>.62
Rijksoverheid. "Denk Vooruit-campagne Dit Najaar Voortgezet." Rijksoverheid. N.p., 23 July 2009. Web. <https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/actueel/nieuws/2009/07/23/denk-vooruit-campagne-dit-najaar-voortgezet>.63
Helsloot, I., and A. Ruitenberg. "Citizen Response to Disasters: A Survey of Literature and Some Practical Implications." J Contingencies & Crisis Man Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 12.3 (2004): 98.when the regular network is overburdened65. This crisis communication tool, an initiative from the
Dutch government, was introduced on a national basis in the Netherlands in November 201266, and
was first used a month later to notify citizens in Tolbert on a local fire67. Up until november 2015, NL
Alert has been used a total of 58 times. Crisis communication tools such as NL Alert makes it easier for the Dutch government in general to warn its citizens, which it is legally obliged to do according to the Safety Regions Act68. To ensure the effectiveness of NL Alert in enhancing citizen self reliance, the
state has established official guidelines for when NL Alerts may be issued and the format that the messages must adhere to69; they may only be sent out during- or in the imminent phase of a crisis that
(a) require an immediate reaction from citizens, (b) pose a physical threat, and (c) will disrupt society at large70. Moreover, every message should contain the following components:
(a) Authorization71: the citizen must immediately recognize that the message is from a
credible source and should be taken seriously. Every alert contains the heading “NL- Alert”. (b) Time and Date72: if citizen view the message at a later time, the time reference and their
respective knowledge on the crisis situation will give them an indication on how imminent the threat is.
(c) Risk73: the threat is described, as well as its most likely implication (e.g: “Fire at H&M
Molenstraat – possible traffic disruption”).
(d) Location74: Although the NL Alert will only be sent to those in the same region as the
crisis, a specific location is provided.
(e) Instruction75: one of three types of recommended 'actions' are provided to prompt
desirable self reliant action (e.g. “Go inside and close all windows and doors”).
The guidelines that apply to this crisis communication tool are absolute and may not be deviated from. In principle, only governmental organizations carry the authority to send out an NL Alert, since they are
65 Ibid.
66
Kazemier, Jan. "NL-Alert Gaat Volgende Week Van Start." Tweakers. N.p., 3 Nov. 2012. Web. <http://tweakers.net/nieuws/85320/nl-alert-gaat-volgende-week-van-start.html>.67
"Actueel." NL Alert. Rijksoverheid, n.d. Web. <http://www.nl-alert.nl/actueel/?id=16>.68
Jagtman, Ellen. "NL -Alert: Meer Dan Een Sirene in Je Telefoon." NVVK (2013): 6. Faculteit Techniek, Bestuur En Management, TU Delft. Web.69 Ibid. p. 8. 70 Ibid. p. 8. 71 Ibid. p. 8. 72 Ibid. p. 9. 73 Ibid. p. 9. 74 Ibid. p. 9. 75 Ibid. p. 9.
