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How Does Vision Make Us Buy?
The Influence of Visionary Brands on Purchase
Intention
Author: Charlotte Marie Libaudière Student number: 10872701
Date: 27-01-2016
Msc. Business Administration – Marketing track Amsterdam business school, UvA
Supervisor: K. Venetis Second reader:
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Statement of originality
This document is written by Charlotte Marie Libaudière who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.
I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it. The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.
3 Table of contents List of tables ... 6 List of figures ... 6 Acknowledgements ... 7 Abstract ... 8 1. Introduction ... 9 Visionary branding ... 9 Purchase intention ... 10 Consumer-brand identification ... 11
Consumer-brand identification and purchase intention ... 12
Alternative explanations for the success of visionary brands ... 12
The research question ... 13
2. Theoretical framework ... 15
Structure ... 15
Visionary branding ... 15
Vision and the visionary brand ... 15
Visionary brands and the symbolic brand function ... 17
The perceived visionariness of a brand ... 19
Consumer-brand identification ... 20
From consumer-company identification to consumer-brand identification ... 20
The characteristics of consumer-brand identification ... 21
The perceived visionariness of a brand and consumer-brand identification ... 22
Consumer-brand identification and purchase intention ... 26
A consumer’s identification processes and purchase intention ... 28
The perceived visionariness of a brand and purchase intention ... 31
3. The conceptual framework ... 33
4. Methodology ... 34
Structure ... 34
Research design ... 34
Pre-test ... 36
Measurement of variables ... 38
The independent variable: perceived visionariness of a brand ... 38
The dependent variable: purchase intention ... 38
The mediator: consumer-brand identification ... 39
The moderator: the publicly and privately oriented purchase situation ... 39
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Demographic variables ... 40
The set-up of the survey ... 40
Population and procedure ... 41
Sample of the survey ... 42
The reliability of the scales ... 43
5. Results ... 45
Preliminary analyses ... 45
The division of the respondents over the eight conditions ... 45
Distribution per condition ... 46
The characteristics of the respondents per group ... 48
Checking the visionariness of the integrated brands ... 49
Creation of variables ... 50
The manipulation check ... 50
The univariate description of the laptop conditions ... 51
Bivariate analyses of the laptop conditions ... 51
The Spearman correlation ... 51
Checking the assumptions for the process analysis of the laptop conditions ... 53
Testing the hypotheses in process for the laptop conditions ... 53
The mediation: hypothesis 1a and hypothesis 1b ... 54
The moderation: the second hypothesis ... 55
The direct effect: the third hypothesis ... 55
Univariate description of the water bottle conditions ... 56
Bivariate tests for the water bottle conditions ... 56
The Spearman correlation ... 56
Checking the assumptions for the process analysis water bottle conditions ... 58
Testing the hypotheses in process for the water bottle conditions ... 58
The mediation: hypothesis 1a and 1b ... 59
The moderation: the second hypothesis ... 60
The direct effect: the third hypothesis ... 60
The explorative variable self-congruence for both the laptop and water bottle conditions . 61 6. Discussion ... 62
Structure ... 62
Discussion of the results ... 62
The mediating effect of consumer-brand identification ... 62
The moderating effect of the purchase situation: the personal and social identification pathway ... 64
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Exploring the effect of self-brand-congruity ... 68
Overall discussion ... 68
Theoretical contributions and managerial implications ... 69
Theoretical contributions ... 69
Managerial implications ... 71
Limitations and future research ... 73
Limitations ... 73
Alternative explanations and future research ... 75
7. Conclusion ... 78
Bibliography ... 81
Appendices ... 88
Appendix 1: Perceived visionariness of a brand scale by Thissen (2013) ... 88
Appendix 2: The purchase intention scale by Xia and Bechwati (2008) ... 88
Appendix 3: Consumer-brand identification scale by Venn (2005). ... 88
Appendix 4: The manipulation of the purchase situation in text in the survey ... 89
Appendix 5: The self-congruity scale by Landon (1974) ... 89
Appendix 6: The main survey ... 90
Appendix 7: The p-values of the Chi-square test of independence for gender, educational level and brand ownership ... 97
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List of tables
Table 1: The conditions in the 2 x 2 betweensubjects design for laptop and water brands Table 2: The results of the pre-test for the product category laptop
Table 3: The results of the pre-test for the product category water bottles Table 4: The distribution of participants over different education levels Table 5: Cronbach’s Alpha for the scales in the laptop condition
Table 6: The Cronbach’s Alpha for the scales in the water bottles condition Table 7: The distribution of respondents per condition
Table 8: Distribution of the variables per condition for the laptop product category Table 9: Distribution of variables per condition for the water bottles product category
Table 10: The Spearman correlation, means, standard deviations and p-values of the purchase intention, perceived visionariness of a brand, consumer-brand identification, purchase situation and the interaction variable variables for the laptop conditions
Table 11: An overview of the outcomes of the process analysis for the laptop conditions Table 12: The Spearman correlation, means, standard deviations and p-values of the purchase intention, perceived visionariness of a brand, consumer-brand identification, purchase situation and the interaction variable for the water bottles condition
Table 13: The overview of the outcomes of the process analysis for the water bottles condition
List of figures
Image 1: The proposed hypotheses, which will be tested in this research
Image 2: Process analysis visualized in the conceptual model for the laptop category representing the direct effect, the mediation and the moderation
Image 3: Process analysis visualized in the conceptual model for the water category representing the direct effect, the mediation and the moderation
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Acknowledgements
This thesis has been written as a part of my Master of Science in Business Administration, with marketing as specialization. The topic of this thesis, visionary branding, is in my opinion an interesting and relevant topic within the research field of marketing, as well as from a practical point of view.
I could not have written this thesis without the support of a number of people and therefore I would like to take the opportunity to thank them. First, I would like to thank my supervisor Drs. K. Venetis for introducing me to the topic of visionary branding. During the writing of my thesis, which at times seemed like an impossible task to me, her constructive and creative advice helped me. Besides, I would like to thank the second reader in advance for taking the time to read and evaluate this thesis. Further, I would like to thank my friends and family, foremost my parents, for their unconditional support and understanding throughout my whole studies, but especially during the time that I was writing my thesis. It has been an instructive process for me, which has resulted in both academic and personal growth. For which, in the end, I am very thankful.
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Abstract
This study investigates in which ways the perceived visionariness of a brand influences purchase intention. More specifically, the relation between the perceived visionariness of a brand and purchase intention mediated by consumer-brand identification was tested, as well as the effect of a consumer’s personal and social identification process on purchase intention and the direct relation between the perceived visionariness of a brand and purchase intention. This research included two different product categories, namely high and low involvement products.
A survey conducted among 184 Dutch respondents confirmed that there was a partially mediated relation between the perceived visionariness of a brand and purchase intention via consumer-brand identification and a direct relation between the perceived visionariness of a brand and purchase intention for both levels of consumer product involvement. For high consumer involvement products, purchase intention is higher when besides a consumer’s personal identification pathway a consumer’s social identification pathway is active in determining a consumer’s motivation regarding the purchase of a brand. This was not the case for the low consumer involvement product category.
The finding of the direct relation between the perceived visionariness of a brand and purchase intention extends the framework of visionary branding. It shows that there is more to the perceived visionariness of a brand than the influence it has on brand success via consumer-brand identification. Further, this research creates a refinement of insights within the context of visionary branding concerning the effect of consumer-brand identification on purchase intention, by studying the effect that both a consumer’s personal and social identification processes have on purchase intention. Marketing managers should be aware that visionariness positively influences purchase intention in multiple ways and they should therefore stress the development and communication of a brand vision to expand their brand’s visionariness.
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1. Introduction
“Make a brand ideal your North star and sky’s the limit” - Jim Stengel (2011, p. 57)
Consumers in the 21st century make multiple brand decisions on a daily basis. Some examples of these brand decisions are: after waking up consumers might wash their hair with ‘Garnier’ shampoo, use ‘Dove’ deodorant and squeeze their ‘MacBook’ and a bottle of ‘Coca Cola’ into their bags. All these brands represent certain values that might or might not be attractive to a consumer. Furthermore, all these brands have ideals that are used as a guide within their organization and which they communicate externally (Stengel, 2011).
Research has found that vision and its integrated ideals have become increasingly important to brands and organizations (Stengel, 2011; Quigley, 1994). Whereas brands and used to be primarily driven by a mission statement, which is narrow and self-serving, the role that vision plays within a company brand has increased throughout the years. This has led to the transformation from ‘idea’ into ‘ideal’ driven brands (Mosmans, 2014).
Visionary branding
Related to these ‘ideal’ driven brands, Jim Stengel wrote a book called “Grow” (2011), in which he introduces the concept of ideal-driven company brands, also known as visionary brands, by looking at the financial success that these brands have compared to non-visionary brands. He states that visionary brands have a growth rate that on average is three times larger than that of competitors in the same industry.
Contrary to other brands, visionary brands are guided by brand ideals, which are based on fundamental human values, that represent the priorities of a company (Stengel, 2011). Visionary brands consider the wellbeing of consumers and go beyond making profit and increasing performance by emphasizing the soul of their brand.
10 The notion, of brands outperforming competitors by vision, is relatively new within the research field of marketing. A lot of academic research focuses on strategies on managing and maintaining a successful brand. However, only little attention has been given to the effect of visionariness on the success of a brand. Since visionary brands seem to perform substantially better than non-visionary brands and because there has been little research on this topic it would be useful to fill this knowledge gap regarding how a brand’s visionariness can affect a brand’s success.
The few researchers who did look into the novel concept of visionary branding state that the perceived-visionariness of a brand is positively related to a consumer’s behaviour, such as: brand preference (Thissen, 2013), consumer-brand identification (CBI) and the perceptions that consumers have of a brand’s quality (Horsch, 2013). This paper will extend these pioneering studies by further investigating the concept of visionary branding in relation to CBI, purchase intention and purchase situations.
Purchase intention
That visionary brands financially outperform their non-visionary equivalents implies that their profits tend to be higher. Subsequently, this leads to the necessity of consumers purchasing a specific brand instead of purchasing the competitor’s brand (Ailawadi, Neslin & Lehmann, 2003; Zeithaml, Berry & Parasuraman, 1996). A valid indicator regarding the purchase behaviour of consumers is their purchase intention (Algesheimer, Dholakia & Hermann, 2005). Purchase intention is related to brand performance and therefore relevant to marketeers (Ailawadi et al., 2003).
Since visionary brands outperform non-visionary brands, it seems likely that the purchase intention for these brands is higher compared to their non-visionary competitors.
11 Accordingly, this research assumes that visionariness is positively related to purchase intention.
Consumer-brand identification
Research by Migge (2013) has shown that an explanation for the higher purchase intention concerning visionary brands is based on consumer-company identification (C-C identification), which is similar to the concept of consumer-brand identification (CBI) (Lam, Ahearne & Schillewaert, 2012). Due to this study specifically focusing on brands, it will focus on the concept of CBI. This paper assumes that the effect CBI has on purchase intention will be comparable to the effect C-C identification has on purchase intention, since a consumer’s identification with a company and with a brand have a lot of similarities (Lam et al., 2012). This will be explained in more depth in the theoretical chapter of this paper. The values a brand represents may result in consumers identifying with that brand, as these values might be congruent with a consumer’s identity (Johar & Sirgy, 1991; Tuskej, Golob & Podnar, 2013). An individual’s identity is formed by a personal and a social self-concept (Onorato & Turner, 2004; Stets & Burke, 2000). Accordingly, the represented brand values may be congruent with the personal and/or social self-concept of a consumer, resulting in CBI. Further, when consumers identify with a brand, this can result in an increased intention to purchase that specific brand (Currás-Pérez, Bigné-Alcañiz & Herrera, 2009). One explanation for this is that when consumers identify with a brand, it is able to provide them with psychological benefits, which motivates them to purchase that specific brand (Belén del Río, Vazquez & Iglesias, 2001; Stokburger-Sauer & Teichmann, 2014; Stokburger-Sauer, Ratneshwar & Sen, 2012).
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Consumer-brand identification and purchase intention
The body of research that reports on the importance of consumer-brand identification (CBI) within the research field of marketing is growing (Homburg, Wieseke & Hoyer, 2009; Kuenzel & Halliday, 2008; Currás-Pérez et al., 2009). Brands are increasingly aiming at consumers identifying with their brand because this results in positive outcomes for their brand (Keh & Xie, 2009). However, the preceding literature has left a gap when it comes to taking a closer look at the relation between CBI and purchase intention. That is, the effect of CBI on purchase intention might vary across situations because of a consumer’s personal and/or social identification process being active in determining a consumer’s motivation to purchase a specific brand. This research will create an understanding regarding the different effects a consumer’s personal and social identification processes, which together shape CBI, might have on purchase intention.
Alternative explanations for the success of visionary brands
In addition to the positive influence of the perceived visionariness of a brand (PVB) on purchase intention through a consumer’s identification with a brand there might be other explanations for the success of visionary brands. Research by Migge (2013) suggests that there is more to the success of visionary brands than a consumer’s identification. More specifically, her explorative analyses show that there was another direct effect that did not run via a consumer’s identification with the brand. The existence of an alternative effect on purchase intention is relevant for marketing managers. since it would imply that visionariness has multiple ways to contribute to a brand’s success. Therefore, this research will study the direct effect of the perceived visionariness of a brand (PVB) on purchase intention.
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The research question
The discussed research has shown that it can be assumed that visionary brands lead to an increased purchase intention via consumer-brand identification (CBI) (Horsch, 2013; Migge, 2013). Currently, insight as to how different identification processes, personal and social, could lead to different effects of CBI on purchase intention is lacking. Therefore, this research will integrate different situational contexts (i.e. purchase situations) that will lead to the different identification processes being active in determining a consumer’s purchase decision. Thereby, this research will reveal how a consumer’s personal and social identification processes influence purchase intention within the indirect relationship between the perceived visionariness of a brand (PVB) and purchase intention, through CBI. This will create a refinement of insights within the context of visionary branding concerning the effect of CBI on purchase intention. Further, this paper is the first to propose a direct relation between PVB and purchase intention. The previously identified research gaps lead to the following research question:
In which ways does the perceived visionariness of a brand affect purchase intention?
This study aims to fill the previously identified gap by examining how the influence of PVB on purchase intention, mediated by CBI, differs based on the presence of consumers personal and social identification pathways in the process of determining their purchase decision regarding a specific brand. Further, it will contribute to the marketing literature by investigating if PVB has a direct positive influence on purchase intention.
Not only is this knowledge a valuable contribution to the further conceptualization of visionary branding as a rather novel topic in marketing research, it can also provide valuable insights for practitioners such as brand managers and specialists. Due to the relative new
14 insight of visionary brands, brand managers are still struggling on how to deal with this concept and its effects.
In the next chapter the context of how visionary brands affect purchase intention and what variables are proposed to influence this relation will be discussed. After which the model that is developed from the theoretical framework will be presented and the methodology regarding the testing of this model will be set forth. Thereafter, the results will be presented and discussed. Further, the limitations of this research will be reviewed along with opportunities for future research. Finally, a general conclusion will be drawn based on the outcomes of the current research.
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2. Theoretical framework
Structure
This theoretical chapter provides an overview of the existing theories to describe how the perceived visionariness of a brand (PVB) impacts purchase intention. The starting point will be exploring the concept of ‘vision’ within the context of visionary brands. Previous research on the following topics: visionary branding, consumer-brand identification (CBI), and purchase intention will be discussed. Based on previous theories the hypothesized relations between these constructs will be explained. The influence of PVB on purchase intention via CBI will be reviewed. Furthermore, the influence of consumers personal and social identification pathways on purchase intention will be addressed. Finally, the direct relation between PVB and purchase intention will be discussed. Overall, this chapter will provide a framework for the construed hypotheses, which will be tested in this research.
Visionary branding
Vision and the visionary brand
This section will discuss how ‘vision’ is conceptualized within the context of visionary branding. The concept of vision itself is grounded in the organizational theory and is mainly concerned with the effects of vision on the internal side of the organization (House & Aditya, 1997; Kantabutra & Avery, 2003). However, this research focuses on the external effects vision might have on a consumer’s behaviour, such as purchase intention.
Due to the small amount of literature on visionary branding, for the purposes of the current research, the concept of vision as in visionary branding will be explored by literature from the vision-based school. Within this school De Chernatony (2001) specifically conceptualizes brand vision and argues it consists of three components, namely: an envisioned future, purpose and brand values. The first component, the envisioned future,
16 concerns a long-term view on the contribution of the company to society and the world in general. The second component, the brand purpose, refers to how the world is going to be a better place as consequence of the influence the brand has on the world. The last component, the brand values make up the brand, deliver its promises and enable consumers to recognise the unique benefits of the brand.
When combining the conceptualization of brand vision by De Chernatony (2001) and the description of ideal-driven, visionary brands by Stengel (2011) it can be theorized that visionary brands are driven by a strong brand vision. First, visionary brands are guided by their brand ideal, which is based on the values and priorities that lie at a brand’s core and forms a brand’s reason for existence (i.e. a brand’s purpose) (Stengel, 2011). Moreover, Stengel (2011) states: “by linking the core belief of a business with fundamental human values, an ideal of improving people’s lives clarifies the business’ true reason for being” (p. 17). What he calls a brand ideal seems to contain the brand purpose and is similar to what De Chernatony (2001) describes as brand values, two elements of brand vision. Second, in contrary to non-visionary brands, visionary brands take on a holistic approach where they not only look for profit and optimizing their business, but also focus on the future (Stengel, 2011). The characteristics of visionary brands as previously outlined in this section are in line with the characteristics of the aforementioned definition of brand vision by De Chernatony (2001). In conclusion, visionary brands are guided by a brand vision that is based upon their brand ideal and evokes aspirations for the future. Thereby, these brands communicate values that build up the brand and which form the brand purpose, by which they engage both employees and consumers. Based on the discussed literature (De Chernatony, 2001; Stengel, 2011) this study defines visionary brands, in line with Migge (2013), as brands that are built on core values, which are perceived as visionary by consumers.
17 This study will delve into brands that are driven by a strong vision that affects consumer behaviour and ultimately results in a brand’s success. Thereby, it follows on the limited research on visionary branding by Stengel (2011), Horsch (2013), Migge (2013) and Thissen (2013) who have started to pave the way for this novel concept.
Visionary brands and the symbolic brand function
Throughout the years a lot of research has been conducted on why certain companies outperform others and this remains the most important topic within the research field of marketing. Within this subject, Stengel (2011) has found that visionary brands financially outperform non-visionary brands. This makes the concept of visionary branding relevant for marketeers as they aim for excellent performance of their brand (Farris, Bendle, Pfeifer & Reibstein, 2008). This section will provide further insight into a possible explanation for the difference in success, within the context of theory on the symbolic brand function, between visionary and non-visionary brands will be provided.
Brands can have two different functions for a consumer, namely functional and symbolic (Bhat & Reddy, 1998; Levy, 1959). The functional aspect of a brand refers to the expected quality of the product before the consumer actually makes the purchase (Fischer, Völckner & Sattler, 2010; Jacoby & Kyner, 1973; Murphy, 1998). The symbolic function is related to the identification that consumers might have with a specific brand (Fischer et al., 2010; Stokburger-Sauer et al., 2012). This symbolic brand function enables visionary brands to differentiate themselves from their competition by their vision. However, the symbolic function of a brand only becomes an asset of competitiveness once the performance on functional levels, such as product quality and endurance, is intermittently high (Franzen & Moriarty, 2008).
18 The recent attention for the symbolic brand function is caused by a trend amongst consumers where they increasingly started attaching importance to what a brand represents (Kuenzel & Halliday, 2008; Louro & Cunha, 2001). They are willing to build and stay in a relationship with a brand when a brand meaning appeals to them. Accordingly, the recent paradigm shift towards value driven and relational marketing conveys an increased importance of the symbolic brand function (De Chernatony, McDonald & Wallace, 2010; Kaur & Mahajan, 2012; Louro & Cunha, 2001). Moreover, it has become a priority for brands to add value to the life of the consumer by focusing on their symbolic function (Louro & Cunha, 2010).
Along with the rising importance of the symbolic brand function, vision became of more interest to both consumers and brands. More specifically, brand vision is important in attracting consumers and creating a bond with them (Horsch, 2013; Stengel, 2011). Particularly, visionary brands aim at creating brand resonance 1 in good relationship with the consumer, by communicating their vision to both employees and consumers (Stengel, 2011; Thissen, 2013).
In conclusion, as the symbolic function of brands and consequently brand meaning is becoming more important to consumers, having a clear and well communicated vision is more important for brands, since this might lead them to gain a competitive advantage. Consequently, visionary brands are of interest since it has recently come to the attention of scholars that their emphasis on vision leads visionary brands to financially outperform their non-visionary equivalents (Horsch, 2013; Migge, 2013; Stengel, 2011; Thissen, 2013).
1 Brand resonance is achieved when consumers feel a deep psychological bond with your brand and a
meaningful connection is created (Keller, 2001). It consists out of behavioral loyalty, attitudinal attachment, sense of community and active engagement.
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The perceived visionariness of a brand
This section will discuss the effect that the perceived visionariness of a brand (PVB) might have on consumer behaviour. PVB can be defined as to what extent a consumer perceives the brand to be driven by its vision (i.e. driven by values that are perceived as visionary by the consumer) (van Workum, 2015). This research studies the effect visionary brands have from an outside-in perspective, ergo it views brands as they are perceived by the consumer (Ind & Bjerke, 2007). Thereby, it can create insight as to how visionary brands influence consumer behaviour based on whether the consumer perceives the brand as visionary.
The Stengel fifty, a list of the fifty most visionary brands, contains brands in different categories such as luxury brands (Mercedes Benz), E-commerce brands (Amazon.com) and consumer-good brands (Heineken) (Stengel, 2011). These brands seem to have a high level of perceived visionariness in the mind of the consumer, resulting into a successful brand performance (Horsch, 2013; Stengel, 2011). That brands that are perceived as visionary turn out to be more successful than brands that are perceived as non-visionary is based on their financial success (Stengel, 2011) and brand equity (Horsch, 2013). The difference in success implies that a consumer’s intention to purchase, and consequently the actual purchase, lies higher for visionary brands in comparison to their non-visionary equivalents.
In developing a scale to measure the relatively novel concept of visionary branding, as perceived by the consumer, Thissen (2013) showed that consumers positively relate PVB to brand loyalty, commitment, preference and self-brand connection. Accordingly, Horsch (2013) found that as the level of PVB rises, so does a consumer’s identification with the brand. This finding is consistent with Stengel (2011) who argues that the reason why visionary brands outperform non-visionary brands is based on the connection that they are able to make with consumers.
20 Therefore, it seems that PVB results in an increased purchase intention, which might be caused by the level of identification consumers have with brands that they perceive as visionary. This research will further explore the concept of consumer-brand identification (CBI), in the context of visionary branding, since it appears to positively affect consumer behaviour, such as the intention to purchase (Currás-Pérez et al., 2009). Therefore, the next section will elaborate on the topic of CBI.
Consumer-brand identification
This section will review the literature concerning the concept of consumer-brand identification (CBI) by explaining why this study specifically focuses on this concept, its importance and the process that leads to a consumer identifying with a brand.
From consumer-company identification to consumer-brand identification
Literature in the research field of marketing often investigates identification by using the concept of consumer-company identification, which is closely related to consumer-brand identification (CBI) (Migge, 2013). However, in building forth on the framework of Bhattacharya and Sen (2003) the theory of customer-company identification has recently been extended into the branding literature (Lam et al., 2012). The concept of CBI explains how consumers do not only identify with companies, but also with brands (Donavan, Janda & Suh 2006; Kuenzel & Halliday, 2008). Moreover, a consumer’s relationship with a company can differ from his or her relationship with one or more of its brands. Since this research focuses specifically on brands it will investigate a consumer’s identification with a brand by using CBI as guiding construct. Nonetheless, it does expect the effect to be similar to the effect of consumer-company identification due to the close relatedness of these two concepts.
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The characteristics of consumer-brand identification
Due to their increased presence in the personal lives of consumers, brands are increasingly becoming potential identification targets for consumers (Stokburger-Sauer & Teichmann, 2014). Even though the relationship between a consumer and a brand is not interpersonal, brands can take on the role of “the other” with whom the consumer identifies (Fournier, 1998). Accordingly, the consumer perceives the brand meaning and its characteristics as his or her own. Therefore, to build CBI, brands put an effort into the creation of brand meaning for the consumer (Kuenzel & Halliday, 2008).
For companies and brands a consumer’s identification with a brand is relevant in building consumer-brand relationships because it creates strong ties between consumers and brands (Keh & Xie, 2009; Lam et al., 2012; Stokburger-Sauer & Teichmann, 2014; Tuskej et al., 2013). Accordingly, when a consumer identifies with a brand this has positive consequences regarding a consumers behaviour towards that brand. These positive outcomes include (re)purchase intentions (Ahearne, Bhattacharya & Gruen, 2005), satisfaction (Kuenzel & Halliday, 2008), a higher customer loyalty, a higher willingness to pay (Homburg et al., 2009) and positive word of mouth (Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003; Tuskej et al., 2013).
Consumer-brand identification refers to the extent by which consumers identify themselves with a particular brand (Kuenzel & Halliday, 2008). More specifically, when a consumer perceives similarity with a brand and psychological attachment to a brand CBI arises (Stokburger-Sauer et al., 2012; Tuskej et al., 2013). In other words: “it is the perceived state of oneness with a brand” (Stokburger-Sauer & Teichmann, 2014, p.131).
This definition describes CBI as a state and sets it apart from the process that forms the identification, namely: the mental comparison between one’s self-concept and the brand (Lam, Ahearne, Hu & Schillewaert, 2010). A consumer’s self-concept consists of a personal and a social self-concept (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Brewer, 1991; Onorato & Turner, 2004;
22 Stets & Burke, 2000). In their identification process consumers compare their own defining values with those that define the brand (Escalas & Bettman, 2003; Johan & Sirgy, 1991; Maggioni, 2014; Tuskej et al., 2013). Accordingly, CBI can come about via congruency between a brand and both a consumer’s personal and social self-concept. More information on this distinction will be provided in the next section.
The greater the perceived congruency between the values of a brand and a consumer, the higher the level of identification that the consumer perceives to have with a brand (Escalas & Bettman, 2003; Ericksen, 1997; Larasati & Hananto, 2012; Tuskej et al., 2013). When brands are congruent with a consumer’s self-concept they are a useful tool in the process of enhancing and representing a consumer’s identity (Belk, 1988; Lisjak, Lee & Gardner, 2012). More specifically, brands are able to fulfil consumers their self-definitional needs (Stokburger-Sauer & Teichmann, 2014). Consumers can for example achieve self-continuity (knowing themselves), enhancement (feeling content about themselves) and self-distinctiveness (the feeling of uniqueness) through the self-motivated, identification-driven usage of a brand (Currás-Pérez et al., 2009; Stokburger-Sauer et al., 2012).
In conclusion, consumers are attracted to brands with values that are similar to the values that define their self-concept and might use these brands to define themselves both personally and socially (Escalas & Bettman, 2003; Huffman, Ratneshwar & Mick, 2000; Maggioni, 2014; Thorbjornsen, Pedersen & Nysveen, 2007). The next section will describe how the relation between the PVB and CBI works, via the personal and social identification processes of a consumer.
The perceived visionariness of brand and consumer-brand identification
In this section theory will be discussed as to how the perceived visionariness of a brand (PVB) can lead to consumer-brand identification (CBI). In explaining this relation the
23 consumer’s personal and social identification process, which can be triggered by PVB, will be reviewed.
Research shows that one way in which brands can achieve CBI is by being visionary (Horsch, 2013; van Workum, 2015). This is supported by the theory on CBI by Bhattacharya and Sen (2003), which states that consumers have the opportunity to identify with a brand due to its vision. Accordingly, the values by which consumers identify themselves lie within the vision of a brand (Ahearne et al., 2005). Thus, a brand’s core values and beliefs, which contribute to PVB, also affect CBI (Ahearne et al., 2005; Stengel, 2011; Whetten & Godfrey, 1998 as in Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003). Moreover, visionary brands are attractive to identify with because they possess and clearly communicate distinctive values (Horsch, 2013). Further, when consumers perceive a brand as being able to fulfil their self-definitional needs, this induces them to identify with that brand (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003; Escalas & Bettman, 2005; Stokburger-Sauer et al., 2012). Since brand values can be used to satisfy self-definitional needs, the level of CBI might be higher for visionary brands than for non-visionary brands (Horsch, 2013). To summarize, it can be theorized that consumers identify more strongly with visionary brands than with non-visionary brands, which contributes to the notion that PVB has a positive influence on CBI (Horsch, 2013).
As discussed previously CBI comes about by two pathways, namely via the personal and social identification a consumer might have with a brand. The personal and social identification together make up the total identification of a consumer with a brand (Belén del Rio et al., 2001). In activating these pathways, brand values can act as an important and basic linking element between consumers and a brand (Allen, Hung & Wilson, 2002; De Chernatony & McDonald, 2003; Tuskej et al., 2013). Therefore, based on their well-communicated core values (Stengel, 2011; Thissen, 2013), visionary brands are more likely to set consumers identification pathways in motion than non-visionary brands.
24 The values brands communicate are able to activate a consumer’s personal identification process as they possibly appeal to and are congruent with the values that define a consumer’s personal self-concept (Marin, Ruiz & Rubio, 2009). In other words, the personal identification process comes from the similarity between a consumer’s personal self-schema and the schema that is held for the brand (Bélen del Rio et al., 2001; Carlson, Suter & Brown, 2008). This means that the values of the brand enable the consumer to enhance and strengthen their personal self-concept (O’cass & Frost, 2002; Thorbjornsen et al., 2007).
Further, brands can trigger the social identification process of a consumer. In the development of their identity consumers draw meaning from being part of a group or a social structure and a brand is able to embody this (Stokburger-Sauer & Teichmann, 2014; Thorbjornsen et al., 2007). Consumers use brands to define themselves and therefore brands are integrated in the individual’s social identity (Keh & Xie, 2009; Kleine, Kleine & Kernan, 1993; Underwood, Bond & Baer, 2001). To activate a consumer’s social identification process, the brand values have to appeal to, and be congruent with, how a consumer sees and wants to present him or herself socially (Bélen del Rio et al., 2001; Thorbjornsen et al., 2007). Thus, the values that a brand communicates can touch upon the social self-concept of consumers, enabling them to define themselves socially (Abrams & Hogg, 2006; Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003; Sirgy, 1982; Thorbjornsen et al., 2007).
Furthermore, the values a brand communicates can appeal to a person’s actual and ideal self-concept. These additional appeals can reinforce a consumer’s identification with a brand (Quester, Karunaratna & Goh, 2000). When the brand values respond to a consumer’s actual self they are congruent with who consumers think they are and how they see themselves (Graeff, 1996; Hosany & Martin, 2012; Sirgy, 1985). On the other hand, when the brand values respond to a consumer’s ideal self, they are congruent with who they think they would like to be, their desired self.
25 The congruency, with one’s actual and ideal self, can be present in both the personal and social identification processes of a consumer (Clairborne, Johar, Samli & Sirgy, 1991; Kleine & Kleine, 2000; Hosany & Martin, 2012). When values of a brand are congruent with a person’s ideal and/or actual self this can reinforce the level of identification. Therefore, it is important to take this into account when studying the effect of PVB on CBI.
In conclusion, this research argues in line with the findings by Horsch (2013) that PVB positively affects CBI. As discussed, the perception a consumer has of how a brand’s vision and its integrated values correspond to a consumer’s self-concept is the fundamental basis for CBI (Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003; Brown & Dacin, 1997). Due to its creation of unique perceptions by a clearly communicated vision, consumers tend to identify more strongly with visionary brands, this can occur via both a consumer’s personal and social identification process. Based on the discussed theory (Ahearne et al., 2005; Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003; Horsch, 2013; Stengel, 2011) it can be hypothesized that PVB positively influences CBI. Formally stated:
H1a: The perceived visionariness of a brand has a positive influence on consumer-brand identification.
Purchase intention
This section will discuss the concept of purchase intention, as it is an outcome of consumer-brand identification (CBI) (Currás-Pérez et al., 2009). Purchase intention continues to be a relevant topic within the research field of marketing. Since it is such a broadly studied topic there are various definitions of this concept in the marketing literature. Laroche, Kim and Zhou (1996) describe it as one of the aspects of a consumer’s cognitive behaviour on how an individual tends to buy a specific brand or product. Other definitions of purchase intention focus more on the repetition of the purchase and define it as the decision of a consumer to
26 purchase the brand whenever one returns back to the market to buy this product again (Fandos & Flavian, 2006; Jin & Kang, 2011). In this paper the following definition will be used: “an individual’s conscious plan to make an effort to purchase a brand” (Spears & Singh, 2004, p. 32).
There have been a lot of studies that integrate purchase intention into their research within different markets and segments (Bouhlel, Mzoughi, Ghachem & Negra, 2010). A major school of thought is called the theory of reasoned action, which argues that behaviour is determined by intention (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). The scholars within this framework study behavioural intentions as they indicate whether an actual purchase (the behaviour) will take place (Venkatesh & Davis, 2000; Zeithalm et al., 1996). Accordingly, this research is interested in purchase intention because of the causal link between intention and the actual purchase. Eventually, the outcomes of this research will provide insight into a brand’s performance (Ailawadi et al., 2003; Zeithalm et al., 1996). The next section will provide more insight as to how CBI affects purchase intention.
Consumer-brand identification and purchase intention
As discussed consumers tend to identify more strongly with visionary brands compared to non-visionary brands, which implies that creating a connection with consumers might lead brands to be more successful. By studying the relationship between the perceived visionariness of a brand (PVB) and purchase intention, mediated by consumer-brand identification (CBI), this research follows on previous research by Migge (2013), who argues that PVB positively influences purchase intention with customer-company identification as mediator.
According to Currás-Pérez et al., (2009) consumer-brand identification (CBI) affects purchase intention. They state that consumers are more committed and have a positive attitude
27 towards the brand when they can identify with it, which leads to an increased purchase intention. Various scholars found that an increase in CBI leads to stronger positive feelings towards a specific brand, which influences the attitude and behaviour towards that specific brand, resulting in an increased intention to purchase (Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003, Keller, Apéria & Georgson, 2012; Lassar, Mittal & Sharma, 1995). Thus, identification with a brand can resultin an increased purchase intention.
Other scholars proposed that identification with a brand leads to identity-congruent behaviour, such as (re)purchasing the brand (Ahearne et al., 2005; Cornwell & Coote, 2005; Yoo, Donthu & Lee, 2000). Once individuals have adopted an identity they will behave in line with it (Tuskej et al., 2013; Gollwitzer, Wicklund & Hilton, 1982). More specifically, they will want to use brands that they find fitting for their identity. Further, a brands ability to fulfil a consumer’s self-definitional needs can serve as a motivation to purchase a brand (Escalas & Bettman, 2005). Moreover, individuals find it important to enhance and express their identity and are able to do this by using a specific brand, resulting in an increased intention to purchase that brand (Horsch, 2013; Migge, 2013).
To summarize, a large number of scholars recognize that CBI results in purchase intention (Ahearne et al., 2005; Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003; Cornwell & Coote, 2005; Escalas & Bettman, 2005; Gollwitzer et al., 1982; Keller et al., 2012; Lassar et al. 1995; Tuskej et al., 2013; Yoo et al., 2000). Therefore, this research hypothesizes that CBI has a positive influence on purchase intention. Formally stated:
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A consumer’s identification processes and purchase intention
As discussed in the section on the influence of the perceived visionariness of a brand (PVB) on consumer-brand identification (CBI), a consumer’s identification with a brand can arise via both a consumer’s personal and social identification pathway. The fact that consumers identify with brands is relevant for marketing managers since it has positive outcomes regarding a consumer’s behaviour, such as purchase intention (Ahearne et al., 2005; Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003; Cornwell & Coote, 2005; Keller et al., 2012; Lassar et al. 1995; Yoo et al., 2000).
Due to CBI being formed by a consumer’s personal and social identification process, it leads to the suspicion that the effect of CBI on purchase intention could be dependent of a specific purchase situation. Moreover, situational factors can determine which identification pathways are active in a specific situation (Arnett, German & Hunt, 2003; Stets & Burke, 2000). For instance, it is conceivable that in a privately oriented purchase situation (e.g. a beer for private consumption) a consumer’s personal identification determines a consumer’s motivation regarding which brand to purchase, but the consumer’s social identification plays no role. Whilst publicly oriented situations (e.g. a beer for public consumption) also activate a consumer’s social identification as determinant in a consumer’s motivation, regarding his or her purchase decision. This indicates that a specific purchase situation might affect the way CBI influences purchase intention.
To my knowledge, scholars have not yet tested this moderation, although it could potentially have a significant influence on a consumer’s purchase intention. There are reasons to assume this relation based on previous research, which will be discussed in this section. As previously explained the personal identification process is based on a brand’s congruency with the consumer’s personal values and the enhancement, expression and representation of the personal self-concept towards the self (Bélen del Rio et al., 2001; O’cass & Frost, 2002;
29 Sirgy, 1982; Thorbjornsen et al., 2007). This results in a consumer’s personal motivation (i.e. based on a consumer’s personal identification process) to purchase a brand, which leads to an increased purchase intention. A consumer’s personal motivation could for instance be based on a consumer feeling real and authentic through the usage of a specific brand (Stets & Burke, 2000). In a privately oriented purchase situation, there is no social dimension of brand usage, which implies that a consumer’s personal motivation would solely drive a consumer’s purchase intention.
Additionally, it is conceivable that there might be a different effect on purchase intention when not only the personal identification process, but also a consumer’s social identification process is activated. As previously mentioned the social identification process is based on congruency with how one sees and wants to present him- or herself socially and the expression of this towards others (Abrams & Hogg, 2006; Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003; Sirgy, 1982; Thorbjornsen et al., 2007). Hence, it should result in a socially motivated (i.e. based on a consumer’s social identification process) purchase decision on top of the existing level of personal motivation that a consumer might have. An example of a social motivation is consumers gaining social self-confidence via the usage of a specific brand (Stets & Burke, 2000).
The theory of conspicuous consumption (Belk, 1988; Veblen, 1899) and the consumer culture theory (Hung, Cheng, Peng, Hackley, Tiwsakul & Chou, 2011) emphasize the importance of extrinsic brand benefits, such as the communication of meaning towards others, which suggests that social motivation is more important to consumers. The theory of conspicuous consumption states that the desire to communicate certain identities and possessions is the main driver behind consumer behaviour (Belk, 1988; Veblen, 1899). In line with this, the consumer culture theory states that consumers use brands and possessions to express and alter their identities to show others who they are and who they want to be (Hung
30 et al., 2011). According to these theories a consumer’s social motivation for brand usage is of great importance, resulting in consumers purchasing specific brands to present an identity towards their environment (Chao & Guptha, 1998; Elliot & Wattanasuwan, 1998; Levy, 1959). Following this line of reasoning a consumer’s social motivation is theorized to have a stronger effect on purchase intention than his or her personal motivation.
However, a consumer’s social motivation is only present in specific circumstances (Fischer et al., 2010). As the social identification pathway is based on the purpose of defining oneself socially the purchase situation requires the presence of a social dimension, containing visibility towards others, which enables consumers to express themselves socially. It may very well be the case that a publicly oriented purchase situation allows for both identification pathways, personal and social, to be activated in a determining a consumer’s motivation concerning a specific brand purchase. That is, in a public purchase situation were a consumer’s social identity pathway is triggered it cannot be assumed that one’s personal motivation is absent. If this is the case than both identity pathways may be activated in a publicly oriented purchase situations, which allows CBI to influence purchase intention more strongly.
In conclusion, based on the conspicuous and consumer culture theory (Belk, 1988; Veblen, 1899) and the notion that in the publicly oriented purchase situation consumers can be both personally and socially motivated to make a specific brand purchase, this research hypothesizes that for visionary brands the effect of the publicly oriented purchase situation on the relation between CBI and purchase intention is expected to be stronger in comparison to the privately oriented purchase situation. Thus, the relation between CBI and purchase intention may be influenced by a specific purchase situation, since CBI is formed by a consumer’s personal and social identification process. Hence, the following hypothesis has been established:
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H2: The purchase situation moderates the relation between consumer-brand identification and purchase intention, such that in the publicly oriented purchase situation the moderation effect is stronger than in the privately oriented purchase situation.
The perceived visionariness of a brand and purchase intention
In this theoretical chapter, the relation between the perceived visionariness of a brand (PVB) and purchase intention mediated by consumer-brand identification (CBI) has been discussed. The assumed mediation effect of CBI is based on the theorization that brand vision and the values it represents activate a consumers personal and social identification processes resulting in CBI, which in turn leads to an increased intention to purchase a brand (Currás-Pérez et al., 2009; Horsch, 2013; Migge, 2013). However, there might also be a direct effect of PVB on purchase intention.
This direct relation between PVB and purchase intention has not been researched yet within the existing literature. However, Migge’s (2013) explorative analyses showed a possible relation between PVB and purchase intention. This finding, of the direct effect between a consumer’s perception of a brand’s visionariness and purchase intention, suggests that there is more to visionariness than its effect via CBI (Migge, 2013). If this were the case it would imply that consumers prefer a visionary brand to a non-visionary brand, although the values the brand represents do not appeal to their identity on a personal and social level. In this theoretical chapter the positive influences of a brand vision on CBI, within the context of the increasing importance of the symbolic brand function, have been discussed. Although the ideals that visionary brands communicate have a symbolic nature they might also have an influence on a more functional level. PVB could for instance result in consumers associating the brand with trust, credibility or perceived expertise (Migge, 2013). Further, research by Horsch (2013) has shown that PVB has a positive influence on perceived brand
32 quality, which in turn leads to an increased purchase intention (Roberts & Dowling, 2002; Shapiro, 1982; Yoo et al., 2000; Zeithaml, 1988). Due to visionary brands strongly communicating a brand ideal and core values it could be that consumers perceive these brands as functioning better and having a higher quality than their non-visionary equivalents. This would imply that visionariness not only has an effect on a symbolic level resulting in CBI, but also on a functional level leading consumers to perceive the quality as superior to a non-visionary brand.
In conclusion, the success of visionary brands compared to non-visionary brands might not only be substantiated by visionariness resulting in purchase intention via CBI alone. Furthermore, the possibility exists that visionary brands do not only have identification to thank for their success, but that other processes are also accountable for an increase in purchase intention. Therefore, the current research will investigate the direct relation between PVB and purchase intention based on the explorative findings by Migge (2013), stating the following hypothesis:
H3: The perceived visionariness of a brand has a direct positive influence on the purchase intention of the consumer.
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3. The conceptual framework
The stated hypotheses lead to the following conceptual model, which will be used to test the hypotheses as proposed in the theoretical chapter (see Image 1).
Image 1. The proposed hypotheses, which will be tested in this research
H1a: The perceived visionariness of a brand has a positive influence on consumer-brand identification.
H1b: Consumer-brand identification has a positive influence on purchase intention. H2: Purchase situation moderates the relation between consumer-brand identification and purchase intention, such that in the publicly oriented purchase situation the moderation effect is stronger than in the privately oriented purchase situation.
H3: The perceived visionariness of a brand has a direct positive influence on the purchase intention of the consumer.
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4. Methodology
The main objective of this study was to investigate in which ways the perceived visionariness of a brand (PVB) influences purchase intention. A deductive approach has been used in which hypotheses were formulated based on theories from existing literature, which were tested afterwards. The established hypotheses stated a mediating effect of consumer-brand identification (CBI) in the relation between PVB and purchase intention. Further, the hypotheses stated that the effect of CBI on purchase intention would be stronger when brands were bought in a publicly oriented purchase situation compared to a privately oriented purchase situation. Besides, a direct effect between PVB and purchase intention was expected. Additionally, the effect of self-congruity has been integrated for an explorative purpose.
Structure
The method chapter will describe by what means the study was conducted. It will start with explaining the research design, which is required before starting with the actual testing. Second, the pre-test will be discussed. After which the measurement of variables, the set-up of the survey and the population and procedure will be set forth. Finally, the sample of the survey and the reliability of the scales that were used in this research will be elaborated on.
Research design
In this section the design of the current research will be explained. The research is explanatory because it aims at confirming causal relationships. The data has been gathered at one point in time and therefore it is cross-sectional. The independent variable in this research is the perceived visionariness of a brand (PVB), purchase intention is the dependent variable, consumer-brand identification (CBI) is the mediator and the purchase situation functions as
35 moderator. The variable integrated for explorative purposes is self-congruence, which entails a brand’s congruence with the actual- and the ideal self-concept.
In this study PVB is operationalized as a categorical variable by using different brands that were considered as visionary and non-visionary. Purchase situation is categorical as well, since it is divided into a privately and publicly oriented purchase situation. CBI and purchase intention are measured on continuous scales. These scales will be discussed in the measurement of variables section. The variables in this design will be analysed by a multiple regression analysis.
The manipulation of both the level of visionariness and the purchase situation resulted in a 2 x 2 research design. Due to the two categorical variables that both have two levels a total of four groups was created, which were compared with each other. Therefore, the method used for conducting this study was a 2 (perceived visionariness: high versus low) x 2 (purchase situation: public versus private) experimental between- subject’s design.
This study did not focus on one specific product type, but will research different product categories in order to extend the application of the results across more product categories. The two product categories that are used for this research are laptops and bottles of sparkling water. These categories differ on for instance the level of involvement a consumer has when purchasing the product and product complexity. Water bottles have a relatively low cost price and are frequently purchased. When purchasing a laptop consumers are more involved because this is not a frequent purchase and multiple attributes play an important role in the purchasing process, such as price style and quality.
A total of eight conditions were created as the four conditions were investigated in two different product categories (i.e. four laptop and four water bottle) and each respondent was randomly assigned to two of these. It was ensured that each respondent would get one laptop condition and one water bottle condition to assure that they had to evaluate two different
36 product types. Thus, each respondent had to answer questions in two of the eight conditions that are visualized in Table 1.
Table 1. The conditions in the 2 x 2 between-subjects design for laptop and water brands Product type Brand’s visionariness Purchase situation
Laptops Visionary Private
Public
Non-visionary Private
Public
Water bottles Visionary Private
Public
Non- visionary Private
Public
Pre-test
A pre-test was conducted by online distribution, whereupon the survey has been developed. The aim of the pre-test was to determine which brands would be able to represent the proposed levels of visionariness (visionary and non-visionary). To determine which brands had to be included in the pre-test qualitative research has been done within the product categories of water bottles and laptops. By reviewing various brands, via internet forums, on their characteristics and values, the way these were communicated and consumer’s opinions towards the specific brands a selection was made.
Participants in the pre-test were randomly assigned to one of the two product categories and had to evaluate the visionariness of the five brands that were presented to them. To measure the perceived visionariness of a brand (PVB), the Visionary-brand scale by Thissen (2013) was used. This scale will be further specified in the measurement of variables section.
37 The pre-test was open for participation from the 9th until the 13th of June. Forty respondents started the pre-test and a total of 32 completed it, of whom 44% were male (14 respondents) and 56% were female (18 respondents). The age of these respondents ranged between 21 and 34, with an average age of 25. Seven respondents did not complete the pre-test and were deleted from the sample. One respondent was not familiar with two of the presented brands and therefore was excluded from the dataset.
The results of the pre-test were used to determine which brands were perceived as visionary and non-visionary, within each product category. Based on the criteria of a mean score of 3.4 for a brand to be considered as visionary (Horsch, 2013), a selection of brands was made to represent visionary and non-visionary brands for the actual study. Based on the outcomes of the pre-test, as summarized in Table 2 and Table 3, the following brands were used in the survey: Apple as a visionary brand, Toshiba as a non-visionary brand, Earth Water as a visionary brand and Bar-le-Duc as a non-visionary brand.
Table 2. The results of the pre-test for the product category of laptops Brands presented in the product
category laptops
Mean Standard deviation Integrated in to the survey
Apple (V) 4.27 0.36 Yes
Toshiba (NV) 1.98 0.58 Yes
Acer (NV) 2.56 0.82 No
Asus (NV) 2.76 0.94 No
HP (NV) 3.20 0.55 No
Note. V = Visionary, NV = Non-visionary
Table 3. The results of the pre-test for the product category of water bottles Brands presented in the product
category laptops
Mean Standard deviation Integrated in to the survey
Earth Water (V) 4.70, 0.32 Yes
Bar-le-Duc (NV) 1.24, 0.32 Yes
Chaud Fontaine (V) 3.53 0.64 No
Sourcy (NV) 2.65 0.48 No
Euroshopper water (NV) 1.24 0.30 No
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Measurement of variables
This section will discuss the measurement of the variables that built up this research. More specifically, why they have been measured and with which scale they have been measured.
The independent variable: perceived visionariness of a brand
The aim of measuring the perceived visionariness of a brand (PVB) was to find out how visionary the presented brands were as perceived by the respondent. Thissen (2013) developed a scale based on the vision scale of Griffin (2010) and Conger and Kanungo (1987), to test the perceived level of visionariness, which was integrated into the pre-test and the survey as manipulation check. The scale contains the following three items (1) the brand has a clear understanding of where it is heading in the future (2) the brand communicates in an exciting way and (3) the brand shows vision; brings up new ideas for the future. These items are tested on a 5-point Likert scale anchored by 1 (strongly disagree) and 5 (strongly agree). Together the average of these items form one variable.
Horsch (2013) used Thissen’s (2013) scale, but based the visionariness of a brand on the mean-score of the Visionary-brand scale. Moreover, when a brand scores above the cut-off point of 3.4 it is perceived as visionary and when it scores below it is perceived as non-visionary. The current research follows this method because it is more precise regarding the overall score (Horsch, 2013). The detailed scale can be found in Appendix 1.
The dependent variable: purchase intention
Purchase intention has been measured in order to study a consumer’s intention to purchase a
specific brand. Purchase intention was included in the survey by using the three-item scale by Xia and Bechwati (2008) measured on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = totally agree - 7 = totally disagree). Together the average of these items form one variable. The detailed scale can be found in Appendix 2.
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The mediator: consumer-brand identification
Consumer-brand identification (CBI) is the mediating variable in this paper and has been measured to find out to what extent a consumer identifies with a specific brand. CBI is measured by with a Venn Diagram by Ahearne et al., (2005) (Appendix 3), which shows the overlap between the respondents’ identity and the brand’s identity, as perceived by the respondent. The level of overlap between the identities was indicated on an 8-point scale (A = no overlap between identities and H = complete overlap between identities).
The moderator: the publicly and privately oriented purchase situation
The specific purchase situations have been integrated into the current research to investigate a possible difference in the effect that the privately compared to the publicly oriented purchase situation has on the relation between consumer-brand identification (CBI) and purchase intention. The aim of the privately oriented purchase situation is to show the effect of a consumer’s personal identification on his or her purchase intention, as the usage of the brand will not be visible towards other consumers. The aim of the publicly oriented purchase situation is to show the additional effect of a consumer’s social identification on his or her purchase intention, as the brand usage will be visible towards other consumers. This situation variable is manipulated in the survey by describing a situation in which it is clear for the respondent if the brand would be purchased for public or private consumption. For a detailed description see Appendix 4.
Explorative variable: the ideal-self versus the actual-self
The aim of measuring the congruence between the brands’ vision and a consumer’s actual and ideal self is to find out to what extend a consumer perceives an overlap between his or her ideal and actual self and the presented brand. It has been measured on a two item 9-point
