NORTH-WEST UNIVERSITY
(POTCHEFSTROOM CAMPUS)
in co-operation with
Greenwich School of Theology UK
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE
CONCEPT OF PURITY/IMPURITY IN
THE NEW TESTAMENT GOSPELS
AND THE LETTERS OF PAUL
by
RAGNHILD SCHANKE, Cand.Philol., M.Phil
for the Philosophiae Doctor Degree in New Testament of North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus)
Promoter: Prof Dr Stephen W Need
Co-Promoter: Prof Dr Francois P Viljoen
Potchefstroom
2007
ABSTRACT
This work is a comparative study of the usage of the purity language by Jesus and Paul. A simple reading of the Gospels and the Pauline corpus shows that the concept of purity and impurity is used in different contexts by Jesus and Paul, a fact that is due, I suppose, to their different cultural settings: Palestinian Judaism versus Roman culture.
In order to trace the meaning of impurity the concept was analysed as it is employed in the Hebrew Bible and Second Temple sources. It was found that Biblical Judaism placed strong emphasis on ritual and moral impurity, including the diet regulations of Leviticus. Ritual impurity was usually due to natural conditions of the body that were not unwanted, such as menstruation blood, semen, sex and birth, a few specific deceases and contact with dead bodies. Ritual impurity was contagious by contact. Moral impurity was not, but it was a defiling power due to grave sins, such as sexual immorality, bloodshed and idolatry, which polluted the sinner, the sanctuary and the land, even from a distance. The food regulations are interpreted as pedagogical means to remind the people of the importance of worshipping one God only. Since the impure animals were typically hybrids, we argue that the mixture of worshipping YHWH and BAAL was an hybrid cult that created moral impurity.
Second Temple literature interprets priestly purity rules to include all Jews, giving rise to the doctrine of generational impurity that, in turn, served the purpose of maintaining a strict border between Jews and Gentiles. In the Qumran milieu we find a developed ontological dualism, the cosmology of which included the teaching of the two spirits, each representing two opposing kingdoms. The gestalt of Satan developed from being a member of God's court to an independent personage with his own host of demons. Roman culture is a complex concept. The philosophers had a world view quite different from that of the uneducated masses. The Stoics referred to uncontrolled sex as impure, since passions as such were seen as unwanted. Roman religion, as found in the cult of the Vestal Virgins, defined the loss of virginity as the ultimate impurity, which put the entire Fatherland at risk. In popular culture there was a vivid conceptualisation of demons and spirits and a full-blown art of astrology and magic. The aetiology of sickness as demonic attacks was commonplace.
When our inquiry of the two cultural contexts is over, all the relevant scriptures of the Gospels and the Pauline letters are analysed. There proved to be a significant difference between the Synoptics and John. Exorcisms and impure spirits are found in the three first gospels only. John operates with the idea of Satan in the context of moral impurity, but he presents no narratives that include demons. The Synoptics present the teaching and practice of Jesus with a strong focus on demons as impure spirits with the ability to speak and to harass people. They are empowered by Satan and they represent the evil opposition of the kingdom of God. Jesus nullifies ritual impurity altogether and even modifies moral impurity, reserving the terminology for evil intentions coming from man's heart.
In the Pauline corpus, we find the terminology employed differently. Evil powers are not denoted as impure spirits and there are no narratives or any teaching of exorcism. Paul uses the term much like the Stoic philosophers, to denote sexual immorality.
Our inquiry concludes by stating that Jesus uses the term impure to denote ontological impurity as experienced in mental, spiritual and physical destruction, due to demonic presence. Paul uses impurity, mainly as an ethical category denoting individuals who have succombed to temptations of the human nature, sarx.
The common denominator between Jesus and Paul is the belief that the holiness of God is stronger than any demonic presence. According to Judaism, impurity was dangerous because it drove away the presence of God from the Temple and the people. Jesus is exercising the power of God and is never prohibited by the presence of impurity. Paul believes that the powers of impurity were conquered at the cross, and therefore not worth mentioning after the death and resurrection of Jesus. While Jesus exorcised demons, Paul encourages his readers to stand firm in the Christian virtues, so that the Devil would flee from them. If the Church did not do this, it became polluted. Paul perpetuates the idea of moral impurity as a defiling force which prevents the presence of God. In the Church, this is manifested as lack of love and consideration for the poor, a situation which prevents the protection of God. As in the Temple, the remedy was sacrifice; in this case, the blood of Jesus, which was remembered and honoured during eucharist. And as in Judaism, it required repentence and a will to do better.
PREFACE
This thesis has been accomplished thanks to the wonderful possibilities available in computer science. In my case, it has been crucial that the study could be undertaken from my home, at times in between other responsibilities to church and family.
My seventh grandchild was bora just four weeks ago and, amazed by seeing the infant so perfect yet so helpless, I have asked again as I often have done before: What is a human being? How can it be understood that some children, at least during the course of history, have been regarded impure and others pure? What is the rationale for this categorisation? Did the concept have a real meaning or was it just a rhetoric symbol, employed according to the different cultures' flexibility to differences?
Is impurity a concept which should be included in Christian thinking? If so how? Is there something in cosmos which is impure and should therefore be avoided? Or does the concept just express the danger of life and the worry every grandmother feels, seeing our own little girls becoming mothers to new generations.
The comforting result of this study has been to discover the basic Christian thought, that the holiness of God can no more be threatened by the impurity of weak and perishable humanity. Whatever the nature of cosmic impurity is, God is always there, as God.
Even though the practical arrangements have been optimal, the theses would not have been written without important help. The comments from Prof Dr Stephen W Need and Prof Dr Francois P Viljoen have always been very helpful. I have had total academic freedom to explore the subject as I wanted; still I have been guided forward at every junction.
My personal problem is that I work fast without seeing details, as one should when undertaking a study of this character. So my constant admiration and gratitude has gone to Peg for her incredible skills of observing details, and working with so much piety on every chapter.
Vinterbro 9th September 2007
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE CONCEPT OF
PURITY/IMPURITY IN THE NEW TESTAMENT GOSPELS AND
THE LETTERS OF PAUL
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
*
2.0 PURITY AND IMPURITY IN FIRST CENTURY 4 2.1 Introduction
2.2 Ritual Impurity 6
2.2.1 Introduction 6 2.2.2 The Impurity of Procreation 7
2.2.3 The Impurity of Sexual deviance 15 2.2.3 The Impurity of Sickness and Death 20
2.2.4 Summary 23
2.3 Moral Impurity 24
2.3.1 Introduction 24 2.3.2 The Biblical Narratives 25
2.3.3 Symbol or Reality 26 2.3.4 Impurity, Sin and Evil 27 2.3.5 The Defiled Sinner 28 2.3.6 The Defiled Temple 31 2.3.7 The Defiled Land 32
2.3.8 Summary 35
2.4 Impurity in Diets 35
2.4.1 Introduction 35 2.4.2 Traditional Theories 36
2.4.3 Comparative Theories 38 2.4.4 Diets in First Century Judaism 39
2.4.5 The Blood Taboo 42
2.4.6 Summary 43
2.5 Impurity and Dualism 43
2.5.1 Introduction 43 2.5.2 The Serpent 45 2.5.3 Satan 47 2.5.4 Impurity and Idolatry 48
2.5.5 Impurity and Occultism 49 2.5.6 Monotheism or Dualism 51 2.5.7 Cosmology and Impure Spirits 52
2.5.8 Summary 55
2.6 Chapter Conclusion 56
3.0 PURITY AND IMPURITY IN THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD
3.1 Introduction 60 3.2 Pollution Taboos in Greco /Roman Culture 62
3.2.1 Disease as Internal Imbalance 63 3.2.2 Disease as a Demonic Attack 64
3.2.3 Impure Sexuality 65 3.2.4. Summary 67
3.3 The Purity of the Vestal Virgins as a Social Necessity 68
3.3.1 The Cult of Vestal Virgins 68 3.3.2. Purity as a Social Symbol 70 3.3.3 Purity, Blood and Fire 72
3.3.4. Summary 73
3.4 Purity and Impurity In Stoicism 73
3.4.1 The Nature of the Stoic Gods 74
3.4.2 Daemons 76 3.4.3 Ethics 77 3.4.4. Summary 83
3.5. Purity and Impurity in Philo 83
3.5.1 Stoicism in the LXX and Philo 84 3.5.2 Purity in Allegorical Interpretation 86
3.5.3 Purity in The Special Laws 89
3.5.4 Summary 94
3.6 Chapter Conclusion 95
4.0 PURITY AND IMPURITY IN JESUS AND THE GOSPELS 98
4.1 Introduction 98
4.2 Reinterpreting Impurity 101
4.2.1 Introduction 101 4.2.2 Redefining Impurity 102
4.2.3 Ritual Impurity and Danger 107 4.2.4 Skin Conditions and Flux 110 4.2.5 Death and Corpse Impurity 111 4.2.6 Gentiles and Heretics 113
4.2.7 Summary 114
4.3 Impurity and Holiness 115
4.3.1 Introduction 115 4.3.2 Holiness as Morality 116
4.3.3 Holiness as the Numinous 121 4.3.4 Holiness in the House of the Lord 122
4.3.5 Summary 125
4.4 Exorcism and Dualism 126
4.4.1 Introduction 126 4.4.2 Demons as Impure Spirits 127
4.4.3 Impure Spirits and Sickness 130
4.4.4 The Two Kingdoms 133
4.4.5 Summary 135 iii
4.5 Chapter Conclusion 136
5.0 PURITY AND IMPURITY IN THE LETTERS OF PAUL 140
5.1 Introduction 140
5.2 Impurity as a Matter of Individual Conscience 140
5.2.1. Introduction 140 5.2.2 Moral Impurity and Conscience 142
5.2.3 Individual Conscience and Concern for the Community 145
5.2.4 A Conceptual History 146 5.2.5 A New Boundary Marker 148
5.2.6 Summary 150
5.3 Impurity as a Hereditary State 150
5.3.1 Introduction 150 5.3.2 Genealogical Impurity in the Jewish Bible 152
5.3.3 Moral impurity in the Gentiles 153 5.3.4 Genealogical impurity in Gentiles 155 5.3.5 Genealogical Impurity in Second Temple Sources 157
5.3.6 Genealogical Impurity in Paul 160
5.3.7 Summary 163
5.4 Impurity as Ontology 164
5.4.1 Introduction 164 5.4.2 Impurity and Exorcism 166
5.4.3 Demons, Defilement and Ritual Meals 171 5.4.4 Impurity, Exorcism and Baptism 174
5.4.5 Summary 178
5.5 Impurity as Sexual Immorality 179
5.5.1 Introduction 179 5.5.2 Sanctification, Purity and Ethics 180
5.5.3 Impurity and Sexual Promiscuity 182 5.5.4 Impurity and Same-sex Promiscuity 184
5.5.5 Summary 190 5.5.6 Chapter conclusion 191
6.0 CONCLUSION 196
BIBLIOGRAPHY 205
