The effectiveness of sound in corporate branding

Graduate School of Communication, University of Amsterdam

Master Corporate Communication (MSc)

Svea Laura Benad

Student ID: 11103329

Supervisor: dhr. dr. T.B. Araujo

Date: 24. June 2016

Abstract

This study follows the concepts of “sonic branding”, the inclusion of sound for branding pur-poses and “corporate auditory identity”, which can be understood as the audio counterpart of a corporate visual identity. The influence of consistency in branding strategies and the usage of visual, audio and audio-visual elements on desirable branding objectives for new brands, such as brand interest, emotional brand attachment and consumer engagement were exam-ined. An online experiment was conducted, where participants were randomly assigned to either consistent audio, consistent visual, consistent audio-visual, inconsistent audio, incon-sistent visual or inconincon-sistent audio-visual stimuli, in the form of social media advertisements. Analyses of covariance showed the following three main findings: First, consistent branding strategies have a positive impact on brand interest, emotional brand attachment and consumer engagement. Second, audio-visual branding strategies have higher impact on the establish-ment of an emotional brand attachestablish-ment than audio or visual branding. However, sonic brand-ing, that only appeals to the sense of hearbrand-ing, leads to higher social media engagement than visual or audio-visual branding. The third finding refers to the interplay of consistency and sensory elements. Contrary to the expectations, it was found that a consistent audio branding strategy without any visual branding elements has the highest influence on emotional brand attachment and social media engagement. These findings highlight the strength of the audio sense and support the power of sonic branding as well as the importance of a consistent cor-porate auditory identity for new brand launches.

usage, but also the way in which corporate communication and corporate branding is being applied. Brand related interactions and marketing campaigns increasingly take place on social media (Hutter, Hautz, Dennhardt & Füller, 2013). An average person is exposed to roughly 2,000 advertising messages a day but only one-tenth can be recalled (Lusensky, 2010). In this hypercompetitive environment, only outstanding advertisements attract attention and

especially for new brands, it becomes a challenge to stand out. By communicating a unique identity, a brand can be recognized and differentiated from others (Kilian, 2010). Corporate identity implies that all corporate communication elements have to be integrated and transport a consistent and congruent message (Bick, Jacobsen & Abratt, 2003). However, most

corporations focus on the visual dimension by communicating their corporate identity such as corporate title, logo and colors. One way to stand out from the crowd is to include additional senses such as sound. Non-visual senses can play a vital role regarding the communication of a corporate identity (Balmer, 2001). The aural sense connects directly to our emotions and sounds can become as familiar as a visual brand logo (Fraedrich & King, 1998). Sound and music influence emotions on a subconscious level, while visual information needs to be processed and interpreted before meaning is created (Siteur, 2016). The inclusion of sound for branding purposes is a relatively new field, called “Sonic Branding”. A wide range of

organizations already make use of sound for their branding strategy, such as Absolut Vodka, Coca-Cola, Heineken, Mitsubishi or Nike (Gustafsson, 2015), which indicates the relevance of the audio dimension for the day-to-day work of marketing, corporate communication and brand management. Especially for the introduction of a new brand, it becomes important to be recognized next to the big players. Sonic branding can be a beneficial tool to stand out and

arouse interest in a brand. Once brand interest is created, it becomes beneficial to build relationships with customers (Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003). Researchers in the field of consumer behavior highlight the importance of senses, such as hearing and seeing in the process of building an emotional bond with a brand (Lee, Heere, & Chung, 2013). Hence, sonic branding can be beneficial to establishing an emotional attachment between consumers and a brand. Recent research showed that social media in particular, allows organizations to establish strong relationships with their consumers (Mangold & Faulds, 2009). When

consumers have a strong emotional relationship, they might be motivated to engage with the brand. Nowadays, such consumer engagement on social media platforms can be considered a desirable objective for many organizations. There is widespread agreement that consumer engagement is the critical online process by which brand equity is increased (Passikoff, Keys & Schultz, 2007).

The current state of research shows that music in the marketing context has already been widely researched. Various empirical studies demonstrated beneficial effects of music for marketing and advertising purposes (Bruner, 1990). Music has been identified as one of the most effective environmental stimuli to which a consumer can be exposed (Milliman, 1986). Research showed that sonic branding is a beneficial tool for brands, which can for instance influence consumers in terms of brand loyalty (Fulberg, 2003) or purchase intention (Krishnan & Kellaris, 2012). Studies in the field of sonic branding analyzed the existence of sound versus no sound or different genres or types of music (e.g. fast versus slow, musical fit versus no musical fit). However, no research has yet been conducted concerning the

consistency of sonic branding. Since many companies make use of different music and sound for advertising purposes, it becomes worth knowing whether a consistent sonic branding strategy is even more effective. The idea of consistency in communication comes from the concept of corporate identity. While most research on corporate identity focuses on the visual component, this study provides new insights into the effectiveness of a corporate auditory

the concepts of sonic branding and corporate auditory identity have not yet been analyzed in a social media setting, which can be considered of crucial importance for contemporary

marketing, corporate communication and branding.

This study aims at filling the research gap by investigating corporate visual identity, corporate auditory identity and the interplay of both dimensions, corporate audio-visual identity in a social media context. The effectiveness of these three concepts will be measured by their impact on desirable branding outcomes, such as brand interest, consumers’ emotional connection to a brand, consumers’ motivation to spread the “good word” about a brand and their intention to engage with a brand on social media. Especially for the introduction of a new brand, these outcomes can be considered of main interest for marketers and corporate communication officers. An experimental design aims to provide answers to the following research question: To what extent can consistent branding strategies and the usage of audio,

visual and audio-visual elements influence brand interest, emotional brand attachment and

consumer engagement for new brands?

Theoretical Framework Corporate Auditory Identity

This study builds on the concepts of corporate auditory identity and sonic branding. A corporate identity can be defined as “the set of meanings by which a company allows itself to be known and through which it allows people to describe, remember and relate to it”

(Melewar, 2003, p. 195). Most organizations focus on the visual dimension by

reflect the companies’ values and culture and generate physical recognition of the organization (Simoes, Dibb & Fisk, 2005). Balmer (2001) argues that there is a visual dominance in the way in which corporate communication is applied, which takes over the importance of other senses. He points out that “non-visual senses can be just as powerful in communicating the identity” (Balmer, 2001, p. 267). For instance, the two elements name and slogan can also come in an acoustic form as the corporate auditory identity, which and can be understood as analogous to the construct of corporate visual identity. Fraedrich and King (1998, p. 134) emphasize that “sounds can become as familiar and representative to an audience as their visual brand logo counterpart”. Qualitative findings indicate that the usage of a corporate auditory identity can provide beneficial consequences similar to the

consequences assigned to the corporate visual identity (Bartholmé & Melewar, 2014). These are for instance, gaining differentiation and competitive advantage, improving positioning, corporate image and corporate reputation, increasing the effectiveness of corporate

communication and supporting communication consistency (Bartholmé & Melewar, 2014).

Sonic Branding

Branding literature refers to the audio dimension as “sonic branding” (Fulberg, 2003; Jackson, 2003; Lindstrom, 2005; Treasure, 2007), which is defined as “the creation of brand expression in sound and the consistent, strategic usage of these properties across touchpoints” (Jackson, 2003, p. 9). During this creative process, an acoustic equivalent to the traditional visual identity is developed. Jackson (2003) argues that sonic branding is potentially the most powerful weapon for branding purposes and that the majority of brands are not realizing the potential that a coherent sonic branding strategy could deliver. In his definition, Jackson already mentions an important aspect, the consistent and strategic usage across touchpoints, which can be understood as a consistent application of sonic branding strategies across different communication channels.

“whole” collective entity united into one body (Christensen & Cornelissen, 2011). The idea of consistency is a key component of the Integrated Communication Paradigm, which states that all corporate communication elements should be integrated and transport consistent and congruent messages to all stakeholders (Bick et al., 2003). Accordingly, a consistent branding strategy implies that a brand uses a consistent style in its communication across different media channels. Integrated communication implies the vision of wholeness and aims to project an unambiguous image of what the organization is and stands for (Christensen & Cornelissen, 2011). By aligning symbols, communications, and behaviors, organizations hope to be perceived as a coherent, unified entity across different media catering for different audiences (e.g., Duncan, 1993; Schultz, Tannenbaum & Lauterborn, 1994). Consistency in all forms of communication, marketing and advertising is widely believed to aid in the public’s learning about the company. It is integral to forming a positive corporate image (Westcott Alessandri, 2001) and to develop competitive advantage over time (Buzzell & Gale, 1987). In contrast, organizations are concerned that without consistency, their messages can be

misunderstood and their audiences perceive conflicting meanings, which may cause confusion or distrust in what the organization stands for (Christensen & Cornelissen, 2011). Hence, an inconsistent branding strategy could lead to substantial disadvantages. Due to the discussed benefits of consistent communication, it can be assumed that consistent branding strategies will have a greater impact on favorable branding outcomes than inconsistent branding strategies.

Brand Interest

When new brands are being introduced into the market, it becomes of crucial importance to awake interest in the brand. Brand interest can be considered a meaningful advertising objective and is defined as “the level of interest or intrigue the consumer has in the brand and the level or curiosity s/he has to inquire or learn more about the brand”

(Machleit, Madden & Allen, 1990, p. 223). Brand interest is conceived as having behavioral intentions. For instance, a high level of brand interest may lead the consumer to search for more brand-related information or to experience the brand (Machleit, Madden & Allen, 1990). Generating a sufficient level of brand interest through advertising and corporate communication, so as to entice new custom for a brand can be considered the primary objective for brand managers. Therefore, brand interest can be seen as a prerequisite for further proactive behavior such as searching for a brand online or engaging with a brand on social media.

Emotional Brand Attachment

Another marketing objective for new brands is to build relationships with their customers (Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003). The construct of emotional brand attachment has its roots in psychology, where attachment is defined as an emotional bond between a person and a specific object (Bowlby, 1980). Pioneering studies on emotional attachment stated that an individual's desire to form strong attachment to particular others is a basic human need (Bowlby, 1980). Research supports the application of attachment theory in marketing (Thomson & Johnson, 2006). People can also have emotionally charged relationships with brands (Belk, 1988; Fournier, 1998). Emotional brand attachment is a critical construct in the marketing literature as it describes the strength of the bond consumers have with a brand. This bond subsequently affects their behavior and in turn fosters firm profitability (Thomson, MacInnis & Park, 2005). Research demonstrated positive effects of creating an emotional

can have beneficial outcomes for the brand.

In order to establish brand interest and emotional brand attachment, consumers need information about a brand, which can be obtained from brand communication, for instance in the form of advertising. When a new brand communicates its identity in a coherent manner across different media channels, a person will be exposed to a similar appearance of a brand, which increases the probability to establish interest in the unfamiliar brand. In contrast, inconsistent brand communication can lead to perceived uncertainty or even discrepancies about the brand. Furthermore, when a brand strategy is consistent across media channels, the audience will repeatedly be exposed to similar messages in different channels, which

increases the probability of establishing an emotional connection to a brand in comparison to inconsistent branding strategies that communicate different messages. Subsequently, the following hypothesis is proposed: H1. Consumers exposed to a consistent branding strategy will have higher degrees of a) brand interest and b) emotional brand attachment than consumers exposed to an inconsistent branding strategy.

Media Richness Theory

Corporate communication and advertisement can vary in the way which senses are addressed. For instance, a billboard advertisement appeals only to the sense of sight, while a radio commercial addresses hearing and a TV spot appeals to both senses at the same time. Also in a social media environment, communication technologies can address different senses. The most frequently targeted senses here are sight and hearing: for instance, a visual

Instagram advertisement, an audio advertisement on Spotify or a video on Facebook that addresses both senses at the same time. Several theories of computer-mediated

communication argue that online media that engages more senses, facilitates more satisfying interactions, which increases their effectiveness. These technologically-based theoretical perspectives are based on the Media Richness Theory (Nowak, Watt & Walther, 2005), which states that all communication media vary in their ability to enable users to communicate and gain understanding (Dennis & Vallacich, 1999). The degree of this ability is referred to as a medium's "richness". The theory is based on the fact that people use their senses to

communicate with others. The more senses are addressed, the richer the communication and the higher the level of interactivity (Koolstra & Bos, 2009). As a result, some online media allow for more interactivity since they address more senses. For instance, video with sound engages more senses and provides a richer experience than pictures or text (Marlow & Dabbish, 2014).

Information and Communication Technologies Succession Theory

Building on the media richness theory, the Information and Communication Technologies Succession Theory (Stephens et al., 2007) suggests that by using different information and communication technologies (ICTs) simultaneously, a higher degree of media richness is achieved. Through the parallel usage of different ICTs, communicators increase the likelihood of reaching their audience and influencing message receivers. The theory is based on the idea that the usage of two different information forms (e.g. one that relies on visuals and another one that relies on audio) are more persuasive than using only one information form. Another study by Stephens et al. (2007) showed that people exposed to information, that appeals to different senses exhibited higher evaluations of message effectiveness and increased behavioral intentions (Stephens & Rains, 2010).

Izard (1977) found that enjoyment serves as an antecedent of curiosity and interest. So it can be argued, that branding that addresses a wider range of senses and therefore has a higher influence on the emotions, is more likely to evoke enjoyment than audio or visual branding only, which could in turn reinforce brand interest.

Furthermore, a neurological experiment about emotion recognition, carried out with different kinds of stimuli (audio, visual, and audio-visual) showed that these stimuli evoke emotions (Liu, Sourina & Nguyen, 2011). According to the MRT, it can be assumed that an ad that consists of visual and audio elements appeals more to the emotions than visual or audio elements only, which can strengthen the emotional connection to a brand. Therefore branding with a combination of audio and visual elements is expected to evoke stronger emotions. Based on these assumptions, it can be argued that an emotional attachment towards a brand can best be achieved through audio-visual ad exposure. Accordingly, a second

hypothesis can be proposed: H2. Consumers exposed to audio-visual elements will have higher degrees of a) brand interest and b) emotional brand attachment than consumers exposed to audio or visual elements only.

When combining both aspects, the utility of consistency and the reinforcing effect of audio-visual elements, a third hypothesis can be proposed: H3. Consumers exposed to a consistent audio-visual branding strategy will have higher degrees of a) brand interest and b) emotional brand attachment than consumers exposed to a consistent audio or visual branding strategy or an inconsistent audio, visual or audio-visual branding strategy.

Figure 1. Model for hypotheses 1-3.

Consumer Engagement

When brand interest and an emotional connection to a brand are established, further objectives can be achieved. An important objective, from which marketers consider to gain a competitive advantage, is consumer engagement. It refers to behavioral activities in brand interactions (Hollebeek, 2011) and describes the intensity of an individual's participation and connection with the organization's offerings and activities (Vivek, Beatty & Morgan, 2012). A study showed that ninety percent of the companies think that online customer engagement is either “essential” or “important” to their organizations (EConsultancy, 2008). Since consumer engagement can be practiced both offline and online, this study focuses on two concepts, positive “word-of-mouth” and “social media engagement”.

Positive word-of-mouth (WOM) is defined as “the degree to which the consumer praises the brand to others” (Carroll & Ahuvia, 2006, p. 82). Consumers, who like a brand are expected to be more committed to spread “the good word” about the brand and recommend it to others. WOM was found to influence consumers’ decision making and plays an essential role in changing consumers’ attitudes and behavior towards products and services (Chu & Kim, 2011). Since WOM is established by a more trustworthy source of information about products and brands than company-generated persuasive messages, consumers often rely on it when it comes to purchase decisions (Chu & Kim, 2011).

commenting on a brand’s social media account can be understood as social media engagement. There is widespread practitioner acceptance that engagement is the critical online process by which brand equity is increased (Passikoff et al., 2007).

So far, no research has been conducted about the impact of a consistent audio-visual branding strategy on positive word-of-mouth or social media engagement. It can be argued that a consistent branding strategy that conveys coherent messages in a similar appearance, as proposed in the construct of consistency, might stimulate their intention to engage on a higher level than inconsistent brand communication. Consistent branding conveys a clear image, while inconsistent branding can lead to perceived discrepancies. Subsequently, a fourth hypothesis can be derived: H4. Consumers exposed to a consistent branding strategy will have higher degrees of a) word-of-mouth and b) social media engagement than consumers exposed to an inconsistent branding strategy.

According to the media richness theory and the ICT theory it can be argued that through the combination of visual and audio elements in branding strategies, a higher degree of media richness is achieved, which evolves to higher degrees of persuasion and message effectiveness than audio or visual elements only. Therefore, audio-visual branding is expected to have higher impact on a consumer’s intention to engage in positive behavior with the brand than audio or visual branding only, which leads to the fifth hypothesis: H5. Consumers

exposed to audio-visual elements will have higher degrees of a) word-of-mouth and b) social media engagement than consumers exposed to audio or visual elements only.

When combining the benefits of consistent communication with the advantages of rich media, it can be assumed that a consistent branding strategy that addresses audio and visual

senses will increase behavioral intentions to engage with a brand. Therefore, a sixth

hypothesis can be proposed: H6. Consumers exposed to a consistent audio-visual branding strategy will have higher degrees of a) word-of-mouth and b) social media engagement than consumers exposed to a consistent audio or visual branding strategy or an inconsistent audio, visual or audio-visual branding strategy.

Figure 2. Model for hypotheses 4-6.

When it comes to proactive behavior of consumers in the form of engagement with the brand, it can be assumed that essential prerequisites that motivate this behavior already have to exist. It can be assumed that in order to engage with a brand, consumers have to be

interested in the brand and an emotional connection needs to have been created beforehand. In contrast, when a person is not interested in a brand and has no emotional attachment towards it, he or she might not be motivated to engage with the brand. It seems obvious that brand interest and emotional brand attachment influence consumer engagement. Or, put another way, brand interest and emotional brand attachment mediate the relationship between

different types of branding strategies and consumer engagement. Since consumer engagement is divided into two distinct concepts, two hypotheses for moderation effects are proposed.

When a person is interested in a brand and has established an emotional connection to it, he or she might be motivated to talk about the brand in a positive way and recommend it to others. Caroll & Ahuvia (2006) confirm that consumers with a strong emotional attachment towards a brand are more likely to spread “the good word” about it to others. Especially for

attachment are the mediating factors responsible for generating a positive WOM effect given any type of a sensory branding strategy1. Hence, the following hypothesis about a mediating effect can be proposed: H7. Brand interest and emotional brand attachment mediate the relationship between a sensory branding strategy and word-of-mouth.

Figure 3. Model for hypothesis 7.

Machleit et al. (1990) state that contact intention is a plausible consequence of brand interest. Hence, contact intention in form of social media engagement, such as searching for a brand on social media or liking a brand page on social media, could be a plausible

consequence of brand interest. Given the conceptualization of brand interest as a construct representing curiosity about a brand, it can be suggested that a person is motivated to look for further information about the brand on social media platforms. Thomson et al. (2005) stated, that an emotional bond between a person and a brand subsequently affects a person’s

behavior. Consumers with a strong emotional attachment are more likely to be committed to a brand and to stay in a long-term relationship (Thomson et al., 2005). In order to stay in a

1

The term „sensory branding strategy“ includes both factors, branding strategy with the conditions consistent and inconsistent; and sensory elements with the conditions audio, visual and audio-visual. For more information about the factorial design, see Figure 5 on page 15.

relationship with a brand and to show commitment, engaging with a brand on social media would be conceivable. Hence, the emotional connection between a person and a brand could motivate to engage with the brand on social media. Summing up, it can be assumed that brand interest and emotional attachment are the mediating factors, which might motivate a person to engage with a brand on social media. This leads to the proposition of the final hypothesis: H8.

Brand interest and emotional brand attachment mediate the relationship between a sensory branding strategy and social media engagement.

Figure 4. Model for hypotheses 8.

Method

Research Design

An online experiment with advertisements as stimuli in combination with a survey has been performed. The experimental design is a 2x3 factorial design with the factor “branding strategy” with two levels, namely: consistent and inconsistent; and the factor “sensory

elements” with three levels, namely: visual, audio and audio-visual (see Figure 5). Hence, six experimental groups with a minimum of 30 participants were assigned to either the consistent visual, consistent audio, consistent audio-visual, inconsistent visual, inconsistent audio or inconsistent audio-visual stimuli.

Figure 5. Research Design. Stimuli

In order to eliminate the risk that participants have pre-existing knowledge or

experience with familiar brands, novel brands were created. The personal interest in a product segment may vary from participant to participant.Therefore, two fictitious brands from different segments with distinct appearances were created in order to increase the chance that at least one of them appears to a participant. It was decided to create a sports clothing brand, namely “Vividual” and a headphones brand, called “Beatroot”. Since it is not the aim of the study to measure differences between the two brands, it was fundamental to ask for

participant’s interest in the segments and their attitude toward the ad and then control for both in the analysis. A corporate visual identity as well as a corporate auditory identity were created for both brands, which consists of a name, logo, slogan, font, style, images and sound. Visual, audio and audio-visual advertisements have been created (see appendix A, p. 37-52). The visual advertisements consisted of a background picture showing the product with a logo and a slogan, combined with information about a store opening and a link to their website. In total 14 realistic-looking advertisements were designed by the researcher. The advertisements were placed in a typical social media surrounding to create scenarios, which appeared as if the participant holds a smartphone in his/her hand or surfs with his/her laptop on a social media

platform. In the visual condition, the first advertisement was manipulated as if it would appear as a post on Instagram; the second advertisement was implemented as if the participant scrolls down the news feed on Facebook and sees an advertisement here; the third advertisement was set up as a Snapchat commercial and the fourth advertisement showed an advertisement placed on Spotify (Figures 6-9 show exemplary advertisements for the brand “Beatroot”).

Figure 6. Consistent versus Inconsistent Advertisement on Instagram for the Headphones Brand “Beatroot”.

Figure 8. Consistent versus Inconsistent Advertisement on Snapchat for the Headphones Brand “Beatroot”.

Figure 9. Consistent versus Inconsistent Advertisement on Spotify for the Headphones Brand “Beatroot”.

The advertisements where combined in a slideshow with the following announcements that started as follows: “Please imagine the following scenarios. You are surfing with your smart phone on Instagram and you see this advertisement.” For the audio condition, professional sound logos and voice recording were created in cooperation with the Amsterdam-based sound design agency “Audentity”. In total 14 sound logos were created and 8 voice-overs were recorded (for the text of the audio advertisements see appendix A, p. 37-52). In order to create the two conditions for a consistent and an inconsistent branding strategy, the visual and the audio advertisements were changed for the inconsistent condition with a variance of different logos, different slogans, different styles, in terms of fonts and images and also distinct sound logos. Therefore the four advertisements for the inconsistent condition had a different appearance and sound in each social media platform (see appendix A, p. 37-52).

Pretest

In order to guarantee that participants perceive the stimuli as being consistent versus inconsistent, a pretest with 32 participants was conducted. The audio and visual stimuli for both brands were tested. Participants were exposed to four conditions: consistent audio, consistent visual, inconsistent audio and inconsistent visual. The audio-visual conditions were not tested since they are a combination of the audio and visual stimuli. A 5-point Likert scale was created that ranges from “very similar” to “very dissimilar” in order to measure the perceived similarity vs. dissimilarity of the advertisements. The scale included items about the slogan, style, logo, sound, font, music general appearance and the manner of presenting. T-tests confirmed that the means of the inconsistent condition were statistically significantly2 lower than the consistent condition (p < .05). Cronbach’s alpha was measured to analyze internal consistency of the applied scale. The reliability of the scale could be confirmed by α = .71 for the audio condition and α = .79 for the visual condition. Principal components analysis (PCA) confirmed that the items for the audio scale form a single unidimensional scale. However, the items for the visual scale load on two components. Although one item loads stronger on a second component, the scale was kept as intended and also used for the main experiment since the Cronbach’s Alpha can be considered as being high (see appendix B, p. 54).

Experiment

The online experiment started with an informed consent form, followed by socio-economic questions, a short sound check and questions about general segment interest, which was measured as a covariate. Then, participants were randomly assigned to one of the six conditions. After seeing, hearing or seeing and hearing the four advertisements in a consistent or inconsistent manner, the following dependent variables were obtained:

7-point scale ranged from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. The authors refined the scale to a 4-item construct for a study about familiar brands. Since this study is about new brands, it was decided to use the original 11-item scale. The scale for brand interest showed high level of internal consistency, as determined by α = .92. However, PCA showed that the items load on two components. Since this was also the case for past usage and the Cronbach’s alpha can be considered as high, further analysis with the scale will be continued (see

appendix C, p. 55).

Emotional brand attachment was measured according to a scale by Thomson et al. (2005). The 10-item scale reflects three interrelated first-order factors, namely “affection”, “passion” and “connection” that map onto the second-order emotional attachment construct. The 7-point rating scale ranging from “not at all” to “very well” was used to rate “the extent to which the following words describe your feelings toward the brand”. The first factor, labeled “affection” reflects the warm-feelings a consumer has toward a brand. The second factor, “passion” reflects intense and aroused positive feelings toward a brand. And the third factor “connection” describes a consumer’s feelings of being joined with the brand (Thomson et al., 2005). The scale showed high level of internal consistency, as determined by α = .96 and PCA showed that all items load on one factor.

The variable consumer engagement consists of the two components “word-of-mouth” and “social media engagement” and was therefore measured with two distinct scales: Word-of-mouth was measured according to a 4-item, 5-point Likert scale by Carroll and Ahuvia (2006) with questions about recommending or talking about the brand to others. The scale showed a high level of internal consistency (α = .95) and PCA confirmed that all items load

on one factor. In order to measure social media engagement, a new 6-item, 5-point Likert scale was established, which included questions on whether a participant would search for or follow this brand on social media and like, share or comment on the brand’s social media profile. The scale showed high level of internal consistency (α = .92) and PCA confirmed a single unidimensional scale (see appendix C, p. 56).

Additionally the following covariates were measured: “Attitude toward the ad” and “segment interest”. The 5-item, 7-point Likert scale “Attitude toward the ad” was created by Biehal, Stephens and Curio (1992) and consist of bipolar items such as “good/bad”,

“like/dislike” or “interesting/boring”. It was important to add this covariate, since a person’s first evaluation of a brand is mostly based on the advertisements they perceive. In order to measure segment interest, a 5-item scale was established. The interest in sports clothes, consumer electronics and other segments was measured with a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from “not interested at all” to “extremely interested”. This covariate was important since it was assumed that all dependent variables (a person’s interest in a brand, the emotional attachment and consumer engagement) depend on whether a person is interested in the

product segment or not. Both scales showed high levels of internal consistency (α > .90) and PCA confirmed that the items load on one factor (see appendix C, p. 56).

In order to check the manipulations for branding strategy (consistent vs. inconsistent), the scale that was created in the pretest was also used for the main experiment. Three different versions were used to measure perceived similarity for the visual, audio and audio-visual stimuli. All three scales showed high levels of internal consistency (α > .90) and PCA showed that all items load on one factor (see appendix D, p. 57). An analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that all means of the inconsistent groups (audio, visual and audio-visual) were

significantly lower than the means of the consistent groups (p < .05). These significant effects on the perceived similarity versus dissimilarity of the advertisements show that the

people participated in the online experiment. After data cleansing for dropouts and outliers, 196 valid cases were included for the data analysis. Random assignment of the participants to one of the six groups led to the following numbers: consistent visual n = 32, inconsistent visual n = 32, consistent audio n = 32, inconsistent audio n = 34, consistent audio-visual n = 34 and inconsistent audio-visual n = 32. Approximately 55% of the participants are female, the majority (48%) is between 18 and 24 years and approximately 40% are between 25-34. The majority (approx. 78%) is from Germany, more than half (approx. 57%) of the

participants are students and about one third are employed full time. The sample is highly educated with approx. 46% having a bachelor degree and approx. 25% having a master’s degree (see appendix E, p. 57-58).

In order to check whether random assignment to the conditions was successful, ANOVA’s with the six conditions as independent variables and age, nationality, education and profession as dependent variables were conducted. Furthermore, a chi-square test for gender was conducted. The results show that there are no significant differences concerning the age, gender and education of subjects in the different groups. Although nationality and profession showed significantly different results between groups, it was decided to keep the group compositions for further analysis (see appendix F, p. 58).

Results

In order to get a first overview about the relationships between the variables, different Pearson’s correlations were generated (see Figure 10). The correlations can be obtained from Table 1 and 2 (for further information see appendix G, p. 59).

Figure 10. Main Relationships of the Proposed Model.

Table 1

Pearson Correlations for Branding Strategy and Sensory Elements. Brand Interest Emotional Brand

Attachment

Word-of-Mouth

Social Media Engagement Branding Strategy (cons., incons.) .212** .138* .125* .119*

Sensory Elements (audio) -.163** -.086 -.080 .001

Sensory Elements (visual) -.008 -.070 .001 -.046

Sensory Elements (audio-visual) .171** .155** .080 .045

Note. * = statistically significant at p < .05 level, ** = statistically significant at p < .001 level (2-tailed).

Table 2

Pearson correlations for Brand Interest and Emotional Brand Attachment.

Word-of-Mouth Social Media Engagement

Brand Interest .715** .664**

Emotional Brand Attachment . 696** .650**

Note. * = statistically significant at p < .05 level, ** = statistically significant at p < .01 level (2-tailed).

Analyses of Covariance

In order to obtain a better insight into the relationships of the model, four of analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) were performed.3 The first ANCOVA was run to determine the effect of a branding strategy and sensory elements on brand interest (BI) after controlling for

3

All results are based on stacked data from both brands while controlling for segment interest and attitude toward the ad.

3.85, SE = .06). Furthermore, BI increased from the visual condition (M = 3.95, SE = .07), to the audio condition (M = 4.01, SE = .07) to the audio-visual condition (M = 4.14, SE = .07). When looking at the interplay of branding strategy and sensory elements, the consistent audio-visual group showed the highest means of BI (M = 4.40, SE = .09). There was a

significant difference in BI between the consistent and inconsistent groups, F(1, 384) = 22.99, p < .001, partial η2 = .06. Post hoc analysis with Bonferroni adjustment indicated that BI was significantly greater in the consistent group compared to inconsistent group (Mdifference = 0.37, p < .001), which confirms H1a. However, there were no significant differences in BI between

the different sensory conditions F(2, 384) = 2.16, p = .117, partial η2 = .01. Therefore H2a and H3a could not be confirmed (see appendix H, p. 60).

A second ANCOVA was performed to determine the effect of branding strategy and sensory elements on emotional brand attachment (EBA) after controlling for SI and Aad. There was homogeneity of variances, as assessed by Levene's test, F (5, 386) = 1.94 p = .087.5EBA was significantly greater in the consistent group (M = 3.74, SE = .07) compared to the inconsistent group (M = 3.48, SE = .07) and EBA increased from the visual condition (M = 3.38, SE = .08), to audio (M = 3.70, SE = .08) to the audio-visual condition (M = 3.75, SE = .08).When considering branding strategy and sensory elements together, the consistent audio group showed the highest means of EBA (M = 3.90, SE = .12). There was a significant difference in EBA between the consistent and inconsistent groups, F(1, 381) = 6.657, p = .005, partial η2 = .02 and between the different sensory conditions F(2, 381) = 6.442, p =

4

There was a violation due to a non-normal distribution for one of the five groups (see appendix H, p. 60).

5

All assumptions were met, unless otherwise stated. There was a violation for homogeneity of regression slopes and a violation due to a non-normal distribution for one of the five groups (see appendix H, p. 61).

.002, partial η2 = .03.Post hoc analysis with Bonferroni adjustment indicated significant differences of EBA between the consistent and the inconsistent group (Mdifference = 0.262, p =

.005), which confirms H1b. Furthermore, post hoc analysis indicated significant differences between the audio and the visual group (Mdifference = 0.325, p = .015) and the audio-visual and

the visual group (Mdifference = 0.375, p = .003), which confirms H2b. Therefore, post hoc

analysis confirmed the highest means of EBA of the consistent audio group, which means that H3b has to be refused (see appendix H, p. 61)

The third ANCOVA was conducted to determine the effect of branding strategy and sensory elements on word-of-mouth (WOM) after controlling for SI and Aad. There was homogeneity of variances, as assessed by Levene's test, F (5, 386) = 1.44 p = .210.6WOM was greater in the consistent group (M = 2.55, SE = .05) compared to the inconsistent group (M = 2.38, SE = .05). Furthermore, WOM increased from the visual condition (M = 2.40, SE = .07), to the audio-visual (M = 2.44, SE = .07) to the audio condition (M = 2.55, SE = .07). When considering branding strategy and sensory elements together, the consistent audio group showed the highest means of WOM (M = 2.68, SE = .09). There was a significant difference in WOM between the consistent and inconsistent groups, F(1, 384) = 4.600, p = .033, partial η2 = .01. However there were no significant differences in WOM between the different sensory conditions, F(2, 384) = 1.178, p = .309, partial η2 = .01. Post hoc analysis with Bonferroni adjustment confirmed significant differences in WOM between the consistent and inconsistent groups (Mdifference = 0.163, p = .033), supporting H4a. However, the

differences in WOM between the different sensory conditions were not significant, which does not support H5a and H6a. Contrary to the expectations for H6a, it was found that the consistent audio group that had the highest means of word-of-mouth in comparison to the other five groups(see appendix H, p. 62)

6

All assumptions were met, unless otherwise stated. There was a violation due to a non-normal distribution for one of the five groups (see appendix H, p. 62).

2.11, SE = .05) and increased from the visual condition (M = 2.08, SE = .06), to the audio-visual condition (M = 2.14, SE = .06), to the audio condition (M = 2.31, SE = .06). The consistent audio condition had the highest means of SME (M = 2.45, SE = .08). There were significant differences in SME between the consistent and inconsistent groups, F(1, 384) = 4.886, p = .028, partial η2 = .01 as well as significant differences in SME between the different sensory conditions F(2, 384) = 4.112, p = .017, partial η2 = .02. Post hoc analysis with Bonferroni adjustment confirmed significant differences in SME between the consistent and inconsistent groups (Mdifference = 0.136, p = .05), which supports H4b. Post hoc analysis confirmed significant differences in SME between the visual and the audio groups (Mdifference

= 0.234, p = .02), which leads to the fact that H5b has to be refused. Contrary to the expectations, it was confirmed that the audio group showed the highest means of SME. Therefore also H6b has to be refused (see appendix H, p. 62). According to H3b and H6b it has to be noted that it was expected that the consistent audio-visual group showed the highest means of EBA and SME. However, it has to be highlighted, that the consistent audio group showed the highest means of EBA and SME in comparison to the other five groups (see appendix H, p. 62)

Mediating Effects

In order to analyze the mediations proposed in H7 andH8, the total, direct and indirect effects of X on Y through a mediator M had to be investigated. Separate hierarchical multiple

7

All assumptions were met, unless otherwise stated. There was no homogeneity of regression slopes for one of the groups as the interaction term of the groups based on consistency with SI was significant. There was a violation due to a non-normal distribution for one of the five groups (see appendix H, p. X).

regressions were performed to analyze the mediating effects of BI and EBA on WOM and SME with the covariates SI and Aad, Hierarchical multiple regressions allow a dependent variable prediction to be made based on multiple independent variables, while controlling for the effects of covariates (Leard Statistics, 2015). For each of the mediation models, all assumptions were met, unless otherwise stated (see appendix I, p. 63-66). Hierarchical multiple regressions were run for the following four mediation models:

Figure 11. Proposed Mediation Models.

For mediation model 1, hierarchical multiple regressions were run between all conditions, branding strategy (consistent, inconsistent) and sensory elements (audio, visual, audio-visual) and BI (relationship a), between BI and WOM (relationship b) and between the grouping variable and WOM (relationship c). Furthermore, it was determined whether the addition of the covariates SI and Aad improved the prediction of the dependent variables. Relationship a was significant, R2 = .540, F(5, 386) = 90.593, p < .001, adjusted R2 = .534 and the inclusion of SI and Aad in the model led to a significantly increase of R2 by 46%.

Relationship b was also significant, R2 = .552, F(2, 388) = 159.129, p < .001, adjusted R2 = .548 and the inclusion of the covariates in the model led to a significant increase of R2 by 4,1%. Also relationship c was significant, R2 = .433, F(5, 386) = 58.992, p < .001, adjusted R2 = .426 and the inclusion of the covariates in the model led to a significant increase of R2 by

relationships a, b and c (p < .001). The inclusion of the covariates also led to significant increases of R2 for all relationships. However, the Sobel test showed that none of the models is significant p > .05, which leads to the conclusion that hypotheses H7 and H8 could not be confirmed (for more information about R2, F and the Sobel test see appendix I, p. 63-66). Table 3

Overview Supported and Not Supported Hypotheses.

Hypothesis Results

H1. Consumers exposed to a consistent branding strategy will have higher degrees of a) brand interest and b) emotional brand attachment than consumers exposed to an inconsistent branding strategy.

a) supported b) supported

H2. Consumers exposed to audio-visual elements will have higher degrees of a) brand interest and b) emotional brand attachment than consumers exposed to audio or visual elements only.

a) not supported b) supported

H3. Consumers exposed to a consistent audio-visual branding strategy will have higher degrees of a) brand interest and b) emotional brand attachment than consumers exposed to a consistent audio or visual branding strategy or an inconsistent audio, visual or audio-visual branding strategy.

a) not supported b) refused

H4. Consumers exposed to a consistent branding strategy will have higher degrees of a) word-of-mouth and b) social media engagement than consumers exposed to an

inconsistent branding strategy.

a) supported b) supported

H5. Consumers exposed to audio-visual elements will have higher degrees of a) word-of-mouth and b) social media engagement than consumers exposed to audio or visual elements only.

a) not supported b) refused

H6. Consumers exposed to a consistent audio-visual branding strategy will have higher degrees of a) word-of-mouth and b) social media engagement than consumers exposed to a consistent audio or visual branding strategy or an inconsistent audio, visual or audio-visual branding strategy.

a) not supported b) refused

H7. Brand interest and emotional brand attachment mediate the relationship between a sensory branding strategy and word-of-mouth.

not supported

H8. Brand interest and emotional brand attachment mediate the relationship between a sensory branding strategy and social media engagement.

Discussion

The proposed research question “To what extent can consistent branding strategies and the usage of audio, visual and audio-visual elements influence brand interest, emotional

brand attachment and consumer engagement for new brands?” can be answered with three

main finings. Firstly, this study confirmed that branding strategies with a consistent message and consistent appearance have a higher impact on brand interest and emotional brand attachment. When a new brand communicates its identity in a coherent manner across different media channels, a person will perceive the brand as a unified entity and therefore will be more likely to develop curiosity about the unfamiliar brand. Moreover, a brand that is perceived as communicating a similar manner across different media channels positively influences the strength of the bond between a brand and its consumers. The benefits of consistent brand strategies also have a positive influence on consumer engagement, precisely, on the creation of word-of-mouth and engagement on social media. Through consistency in branding strategies, consumers show higher levels of the intention to spread the good word about a brand or engage with a brand on social media platforms, than through branding

strategies that vary in their messages and appearances. These finding can be traced back to the integrated communication paradigm, which states that all corporate communication elements should be integrated and transport consistent messages across different media channels (Bick et al., 2003). According to Westcott Alessandri (2001), it can be argued that through a

consistent branding strategy, a brand will be perceived as a unified entity, which contributes to the creation of brand interest, emotional brand attachment and consumer engagement.

The second main finding refers to the inclusion of senses for branding strategies. This study confirmed that branding strategies that appeal to the senses of hearing and seeing at the same time have higher impact on the establishment of an emotional brand attachment than audio or visual branding itself. It can be argued that audio-visual elements address consumers’ emotion on a higher level than audio or visual elements only, which leads to the establishment

the constructs corporate auditory identity and corporate visual identity. However, when it comes to social media engagement, an interesting finding comes into play. Contrary to the expectations it was found that a branding that focuses only on hearing leads to higher social media engagement than visual or audio-visual branding. Therefore it can be assumed, when aiming to motivate consumers to engage with a brand on social media, a sonic branding strategy that focuses only on hearing is most effective. This underlines the power of the auditory sense for branding purposes, which is often underestimated by organizations; and highlights the necessity of a corporate auditory identity for a new brand. It can be concluded that the multisensory interplay of sound and sight is beneficial to create an emotional

connection, but sonic branding itself is more powerful when it comes to more proactive behavior, such as motivating consumers to engage with a brand on social media.

The third main finding is based on the interplay of consistency and sensory elements. Contrary to the expectations, it was found that not a consistent audio-visual but a consistent audio branding strategy without any visual branding elements has the highest influence on emotional brand attachment and social media engagement. This finding shows that sonic branding can be more effective than visual or audio-visual branding and it emphasizes the importance of consistency for sonic branding. This result can be traced back to the fact that visual elements require cognitive processing, while audio elements influence humans on a subconscious level (Siteur, 2016).

The mediation of brand interest and emotional brand attachment on word-of-mouth and social media engagement could not be confirmed. However, significant relationships between all three variables of the proposed mediation models support that interest in the brand

as well as an emotional attachment to the brand influence the creation of positive word-of-mouth and the intention to engage with the brand on social media. Since a moderation could not be confirmed, it seems that further variables influence consumer engagement.

Nevertheless, the findings confirm the strength of the audio sense and support the power of sonic branding as well as the importance of a corporate auditory identity for new brands. With these findings, the study contributes to research on the effectiveness of advertisement for new brand launches on social media. It expands current research about sonic branding by analyzing the impact of consistent versus inconsistent sonic branding strategies on desirable branding outcomes such as brand interest, emotional brand attachment, intention to spread word-of-mouth about a brand and to engage with a brand on social media.

This study also adds knowledge about the construct of corporate identity by comparing the effects of a corporate auditory identity, a corporate visual identity and a corporate audio-visual identity on the mentioned branding outcomes.

Managerial Implications

Implications for brand marketers and corporate communication officers could be derived from the results. The first aspect is the necessity of consistency: branding strategies should communicate a consistent message in a uniform appearance across all communication channels in order to increase beneficial objectives. Consistency is key to the perception of a brand as a unified entity which increases levels of brand interest, emotional brand connection and consumer engagement. Furthermore, the creation of a corporate auditory identity should be of equal importance to the creation of a corporate visual identity, since sounds can become as familiar as visual brand logos. Both dimensions support each other and therefore should communicate similar messages to the audience.

The following recommendations can be given to the application of a consistent

consumer engagement. In order to motivate consumers to engage in positive word-of-mouth and in activities of the brand on social media, it is recommended to focus on sonic branding that communicates a consistent image and coherent messages. Since this study showed that audio advertisements are more engaging than audio-visual and visual ads, the sonic aspect in branding should be highlighted in order to motivate consumers to engage with the brand. What can be given as a conclusion is that the sonic dimension of branding, marketing and corporate communication should not be underrated. In the initial phase of a brand launch, when an image and a visual logo will be created, the audio counterpart should receive the same attention. In further stages of brand development, sonic branding becomes even more important and serves as a powerful tool to promote consumer engagement. The final appeals of this study can be concluded:

Be consistent in what you’re saying and how you’re appearing! Dare to stand out of the crowd and focus on your auditory identity!

Limitations

This research is subject to certain limitations. The first limitation can be traced back to the sample of this study. The sample was generated through the personal network of the researcher and therefore the majority of the participants were relatively young and highly educated, which can lead to a potential bias of the findings. Furthermore, the majority of the participants were German. Since the study was only available in English, linguistic errors might have occurred. A bigger and more heterogeneous sample would contribute to the external validity of the findings. The second limitation concerns the independence of

observations, which results from the fact that two different brands were used in the

experiment. It was necessary to include at least two brands from different segments in order to increase the possibility of personal interest in at least one of the brands. Since it was not the aim to examine differences between both brands for different segments, but to analyze the effects of different branding strategies being valid for various segments, the data was stacked and it was controlled for segment interest and attitude toward the ad. However, both brands differed in their appearance and in their sound. When stacking the data, these differences were minimized, which led to a reduction of their explanatory power and to the limitation of

independence of observation. Additionally, a learning effect from the first brand to the second brand has to be noted. The session of advertisements and the following questions were

repeated in the same manner for the second brand.

Future Research

Additional empirical work would be valuable in elaborating the significance of the findings for established brands. The intention to engage might be higher for mature brands, to which participants already established a relationship through experience with the brand. Since this study was based on audio and images, further research could examine the impact of audio-visual videos. It is conceivable that videos would be more involving and therefore also more engaging than still images with sound. Longitudinal effects from the introduction of a new brand through the development of a brand to a well-known mature brand would contribute to the findings. Last but not least, it would be interesting to measure how consumers react to a rebranding of a brand. Since this would result in a complete loss of consistency and therefore speak against the integrated communication paradigm, it becomes questionable whether brand interest, emotional attachment and consumer engagement increase or decrease.

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1. Instagram

“You are surfing with your smart phone on Instagram and you see/hear this advertisement:” [Sound Logo_Vividual_Consistent 1]

„Vividual. Release the Vividual in you! For sports clothes and more visit our online store, launching on the first of June at www.vividual.com.“

2. Facebook

“You are surfing with your laptop on Facebook and you see this advertisement:” [Sound Logo_Vividual_Consistent 2]

„Vividual. Release the Vividual in you! For sports clothes and more visit our online store, launching on the first of June at www.vividual.com.“

4. Spotify

“You are surfing with your laptop on Spotify and you see/hear this advertisement:” [Sound Logo_Vividual_Consistent 4]

„Vividual. Release the Vividual in you! For sports clothes and more visit our online store, launching on the first of June at www.vividual.com.“

„Beatroot. How do you hear your beats? For headphones and more visit our online store, launching on the first of June at www.beatroot.com.“

2. Facebook

“You are surfing with your laptop on Facebook and you see this advertisement:” [Sound Logo_Beatroot_Consistent 2]

„Beatroot. How do you hear your beats? For headphones and more visit our online store, launching on the first of June at www.beatroot.com.“

4. Spotify

“You are surfing with your laptop on Spotify and you see/hear this advertisement:” [Sound Logo_Beatroot_Consistent 4]

„Beatroot. How do you hear your beats? For headphones and more visit our online store, launching on the first of June at www.beatroot.com.“

„Vividual. Release the Vividual in you! For sports clothes and more visit our online store, launching on the first of June at www.vividual.com.“

2. Facebook

“You are surfing with your laptop on Facebook and you see this advertisement:” [Sound Logo_Vividual_Inconsistent 2]

„Vividual. Make the most of yourself! For sports clothes and more visit our online store, launching on the first of June at www.vividual.com.“

4. Spotify

“You are surfing with your laptop on Spotify and you see/hear this advertisement:” [Sound Logo_Vividual_Inconsistent 4]

„Vividual. Be the best version of you! For sports clothes and more visit our online store, launching on the first of June at www.vividual.com.“

„Beatroot. How do you hear your beats? For headphones and more visit our online store, launching on the first of June at www.beatroot.com.“

2. Facebook

“You are surfing with your laptop on Facebook and you see this advertisement:” [Sound Logo_Beatroot_Inconsistent 2]

„Beatroot. What is the spirit of your beat? For headphones and more visit our online store, launching on the first of June at www.beatroot.com.“