What is the purpose of this representation?

the enemy. This ‘us versus them’ worldview reinforces and polarizes the differences between the West and the IS.

5.3.5 Conclusion

What can be concluded from the speeches is that the IS leadership creates a negative and homogenous image of the West in its speeches. One way in which the IS leadership tries to create this image of the West is by invoking the historical Crusader narrative to attribute the same negative characteristics to the West as were attributed to the Christians of the Crusader period. Consequently, al-Baghdadi creates a reality in which the West is partaking in a new Crusader campaign in the Middle East to terrorize Muslims and impose Western systems and beliefs on their lands. According to al-Baghdadi, the leader of this campaign is the United States. Secondly, the IS leadership often argues that the West should be viewed as a master over regimes in the Middle East. Al-Baghdadi argues that the West is too afraid to fight the IS directly on the ground and therefore, they use “slaves” or “agents” in the region who fight the IS for the West. Third, the IS leadership attributes a variety of other negative and homogenous characteristics to the West. These characteristics often relate to the unbelieving (kufr) character of the West, the Christian character of the West, and the active negative behavior of the West. Al-Baghdadi for example argues that the Western powers are in decline, weak, powerless, hypocritical, stubborn, and arrogant. Moreover, he often discusses in his speeches how the West is actively targeting Muslims to keep them from their religion. As a result, al-Baghdadi defines the West as sinful and actively sinning. Moreover, the IS leadership reclaims concepts that are often used to define the IS, to, in turn, define the West. An example is the concept of terrorism that is used by al-Baghdadi to explain the behavior of the West. These conclusions show that the IS leadership uses dichotomous labels to categorize the world into an in- and out-group which emphasizes the differences between the IS and its enemies, including the West. The process of othering is thus again an important element for the representation of the Western characteristics in the speeches by the IS leadership. The negative and homogenous labels strengthen the idea of the West as the enemy.

5.4.2 Constructing the self-image

The first purpose of the Occidentalist representation of the West in the speeches by the IS leadership is that that organization is able to construct the self-image. Bauman (2004, pp. 19-21) argues that there are three different ways of ‘selfing and othering’ that can be found in societies and cultures. One of these three ways of ‘selfing and othering’ is the grammar of Orientalizing, which entails that an actor

‘selfs’ one’s own and ‘others’ the alien. An example is that in Orientalism the Orient is presented as backward and the Occident presents itself as modern. However, Baumann argues that the grammar of Orientalizing can also be used as a way of implicating self-critique. For example, the Orient is presented as mystical and the Occident presents itself as materialistic. The characteristics of the

“other” are thus mirrored in the construction of the “self”. This is what Baumann calls

“mirror-imaging”. He argues that “selfing” and “othering” condition each other in that both negative and positive characteristics are mirroring each other in reverse. In the speeches, the IS also uses this

“mirror-imaging” to construct the self-image. However, the leaders of the organization do not use the identity of the West to implicate self-critique. In the speeches, the leaders mainly emphasize the negative character of the West to construct the positive character of the “self”. In other words, by determining the identity of the West, the organization is able to mirror this identity for the construction of its own identity. An example is that the West is often characterized by its unbelieving character:

“O Muslims, it is upon you to realize that since its establishment ten years ago and to this day, the Islamic State has been the spearhead in the conflict between the camp of faith and the camp of disbelief.” (Al-Baghdadi, 2015b)

In this speech, al-Baghdadi argues that the world is divided into the camp of faith and the camp of disbelief. According to him, the West is part of the camp of disbelief. However, he characterizes the IS as the spearhead of the camp of faith. This clearly shows that the IS leadership negatively represents the West and its allies by highlighting their unbelieving character, and in turn mirrors this image for the construction of the self-identity by arguing that the IS is the vanguard of faith.

Another example that shows how the IS leadership is able to construct its self-image in opposition to the identity of the West is:

“This is because the battle is one between the allies of the Merciful and the allies of Satan…”

(Al-Baghdadi, 2015a)

This example once again shows how, by creating a dualistic worldview, the IS can create an image of

“the self” in opposition to the Western characteristics. The West is characterized as being an ally of Satan and the IS is characterized as the ally of the Merciful. In doing so, the IS leadership characterizes the ‘self’ as the truthful and right actor in the conflict.

Another example demonstrating this mirror-imaging is:

“We call upon you so that you leave the life of humiliation, disgrace, degradation, subordination, loss, emptiness, and poverty, to a life of honor, respect, leadership, richness, and another matter that you love – victory from Allah and an imminent conquest.”

(Al-Baghdadi, 2015a)

Here the IS leadership argues that citizens living in the West can only live a life of humiliation and emptiness. Whereas, the caliphate of the IS is characterized by a life of honor and respect. Because of the process of ‘othering’ and ‘mirroring’, the IS can construct a clear divide between the in-group and out-group. In other words, the West is wrong and the IS is right.

5.4.3 Mobilize support

The second purpose of this negative representation of the West in the speeches is to mobilize support for the IS. In the speeches, al-Baghdadi often discusses how the West poses a danger to the Muslim Ummah. An example is:

“Indeed, every Muslim is intended by this war. And he is obliged to defend the religion of Allah and His Sharī‟ah and to support the oppressed men, women, and children, for this war is every Muslim’s war.” (Al-Baghdadi, 2015b)

This speech directly serves the mobilization strategy of the IS. In this speech, al-Baghdadi first discussed the Crusader campaign. He later goes on to argue that the conflict between the IS and the Crusader coalition is a war of every Muslim. The enemies are described as oppressors, whereas the IS is described as the actor trying to fight the oppression by the West and defending Islam. Al-Baghdadi presents a dualistic worldview in this speech. On the one hand, there is the camp of the unbelievers, which includes the West and its allies. On the other hand, there is the camp of faith, which includes the IS. In this way, a dichotomous mindset is created in which you are either part of the camp of the enemies or part of the camp of the truth. In doing so, the IS aims to persuade people to support the ideas of the organization because otherwise, one supports the unbelieving enemies. Moreover, the IS leadership depicts the IS as the only vanguard against the enemies. Al-Baghdadi often stresses the idea that the West actively targets Muslims and aims to impose Western ideas on the Middle East.

According to him, the only way to counter this Western expansionism is by supporting the IS. He for example states:

“After Allah, you have nothing but the Islamic State to protect your religion, safeguard your authority, and bolster your strength, a state wherein you can either live with glory or die with dignity…” (Al-Baghdadi, 2016)

This example shows that the IS presents itself as the only actor capable of fighting the enemies of Allah, which includes the West. The mirroring-imaging, as described by Baumann (2004, pp. 19-21) is thus again evident in the speeches by the IS leadership, as the enemies of the IS are ascribed a negative and sinful character, and the IS is presented as the only force capable to fight this tyranny.

5.4.4 Legitimize violence

The third purpose of this negative representation of the West is to legitimize the violence and hatred directed toward the West and its allies. In the speeches, the IS leadership often highlights how the Muslims are being targeted by the West and its allies. According to al-Baghdadi, the only way to overcome this danger is to return to the true Islam and wage war against the enemies of Allah.

Al-Baghdadi for example states:

“... our honor and religion cannot be protected except with the spilling of blood and with hearts that yearn for the Hereafter.” (Al-Baghdadi, 2018)

This example shows that al-Baghdadi presents the use of violence as the only option to stop the conflict between the IS and the international coalition. The crimes that are committed by the West and its allies are a legitimization for the use of violence by the IS. Al-Baghdadi argues that it is a moral obligation for all Muslims to fight the enemies of Allah. In arguing this, the IS leadership invokes religious texts to argue that the performance of jihad is obligatory for every Muslim. An example by al-Baghdadi is:

“O Muslims, indeed engaging oneself in this war is obligatory on every Muslim, and no one is excused concerning it.” (Al-Baghdadi, 2015b)

In this speech, al-Baghdadi first talks about the war between the enemies of Allah and the IS. He then goes on to argue that every Muslim who is capable to perform jihad should do so. He uses the sinful character of the West and its allies to stimulate and legitimize retaliation actions in response to the crimes that were and are still being committed by the West and its allies in the Middle East and beyond.

5.4.5 Conclusion

What can be concluded is that the IS leadership uses Occidentalist discourse to create a negative and homogenous identity of the West in its speeches. This representation not only has an impact on how the West is perceived but also has a direct impact on the organization itself. First, the IS leadership can construct its self-identity in opposition to the negative identity and characteristics of the West. An example is that the West is part of the camp of kufr and the IS is part of the camp of faith. Second, the IS is able to mobilize support for the organization. By presenting a dualistic worldview, in which the West is assigned negative characteristics, the IS leadership aims to attract potential supporters. Third,

the IS leadership aims to legitimize its violence and hatred directed toward the West and its allies by highlighting the sinful character of the international coalition and the West in particular. According to the IS leadership, the only way to defend Islam is by using violence against the enemies of Allah.

6. Conclusion and discussion